France

Situated on the western fringes of continental Europe, France has three coastlines—on the English Channel and North Sea, on the Atlantic, and on the Mediterranean—and has continental borders, stretching from north to south, with Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. France also has borders with Spain and the Principality of Andorra in the southwest and is linked to the United Kingdom by the Channel Tunnel in the northeast. With a total surface area of 549,000 square kilometers (211,914 square miles), metropolitan France is the largest country in the European Union (EU). In addition, France has a number of overseas departments and territories—vestiges of the former French colonial empire created after the discovery of the Americas.

In 2005 France had 60.7 million inhabitants, which represents an increase of 44 percent since 1940. The origins of the French population are very diverse. The strong influence of the Gallo-Romans and Francs has been accompanied by that of the Bretons in the west, Germanics in the east, and Catalans, Basques, and Provencals in the south. In addition, during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries France witnessed the arrival of Italian and Polish immigrants and political refugees from central Europe and, more recently, influxes of migrants from former French colonies in North Africa and those from other EU member states.

brief history

France is one of the oldest nation-states . The state is older than the nation, the nation having been affirmed by the French Revolution of 1789. A distinction often is drawn between the period before the Revolution, known as the Ancien Régime, and modern France. The latter has had a troubled political history, with a succession of unstable political regimes . It can be said definitively that over a period of two centuries France has tried every possible form of government. These forms include absolute monarchies, constitutional monarchies under the Empires (of which there were two), and as many as five republics , both parliamentary and presidential, all this without taking into account the Vichy Régime and the provisionary regimes that were established in anticipation or in the absence of a constitution. Wars, coups d'etat, and revolutions can be identified as the direct causes of this instability, with each new constitution establishing the opposite kind of regime to its predecessor. The French have had no fewer than sixteen constitutions since the adoption of their first constitution on June, 20, 1789. However, it was not until 1877 that republicanism was established as the undisputed constitutional basis of government in France.

major political leaders since 1945

Since 1945 the French political landscape has been dominated by the figure of General Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970), and today politicians from all parties lay claim to his legacy. As the hero and leader of France during World War II (1939–1945), de Gaulle returned to power in 1958 at the height of the Franco–Algerian War when he founded and became the first president of the Fifth Republic.

Pierre Mendès-France (1907–1982), who acted as a guardian of republican values under the Fourth Republic and brought an end to the war in Indochina, has also had a considerable influence on the French political life.

The Nobel Prize winner and former French foreign minister under the Fourth Republic, Robert Schuman (1886–1963), was, along with the economist Jean Monnet (1888–1969), one of the founding fathers of the EU and a strong advocate of European integration.

François Mitterrand (1916–1996), despite having been an ardent critic of the Fifth Republic Constitution and General de Gaulle during the establishment and consolidation of the regime in the late 1950s and early 1960s, adapted well to the office of president of the Republic after his election in 1981 and re-election in 1988. He is recognized as France's longest-serving head of state since 1789.

As successor to General de Gaulle in 1969, Georges Pompidou (1911–1974) presided over the rejuvenation and modernization of postwar France. Valéry Giscard d'Estaing (b. 1926) was the first of France's presidents to espouse a more liberal economic outlook and, along with Mitterrand, was instrumental in strengthening Franco–German relations, which in turn were to act as a powerful motor toward further European integration.

socioeconomic conditions

The French economy is the second largest in Western Europe and the fourth largest in the world after the United States, Japan, and Germany. Agricultural and farm products, together with the services industry and French culture, make up the bulk of French exports. A considerable part of France's economic clout is derived from French-based multinationals that make up some of the world's largest commercial companies: L'Oréal, Airbus, France Télécom, Carrefour, Danone, Total Fina Elf, and Matra are among the best known examples. France's gross domestic product (GDP) reached 1,463.7 billion euros in

2001, and with a GDP per capita of 24,220 euros, France is one of the richest countries in the world.

In 2001, France's budget amounted to 266 billion euros, with a public deficit of 3 percent of the GDP. In spite of policies aimed at curbing inflation, unemployment in France stood at 9.4 percent of the workforce in 2004, and France devoted a quarter of its GDP to social security payments.

The economic strength of France cannot be detached from the country's membership in the EU, especially given that the single market has facilitated the development of French agriculture and free trade .

nature of the government

The political regime in France is the Fifth Republic, which was approved in a referendum by a large majority of the population and promulgated on October 4, 1958. The Fifth Republic is relatively young in constitutional terms compared to the American presidential regime or the British parliamentary model. Yet given France's chaotic institutional history, the Fifth Republic has been something of a haven of stability.

The Fifth Republic was born out of the exceptional circumstances of the Algerian War and an exceptional man, General de Gaulle. It was the successor to the Fourth Republic, which, although having made a significant contribution to postwar reconstruction in France and to the inception of the European project from 1950 onward, remains one of the least-loved French regimes because of the political and governmental instability it engendered and the wars of decolonization that dominated its short tenancy. The Fourth Republic was a parliamentary regime but, given the dominance of the legislature over the executive, commonly is referred to as the Assembly Regime and was even dubbed the "Parties' Regime" by General de Gaulle. The Fifth Republic hence was the inverse of the Fourth: It strengthened executive power at the expense of the legislature.

Basis for the Government. The Fifth Republic Constitution consists of a preamble and eighty-nine articles. The regime is democratic, based on popular sovereignty and the principle of representation. The Preamble reaffirms the nation's attachment to the Declaration of the Rights of Man of 1789 as confirmed and complemented by the economic and social rights of the Preamble of the Fourth Republic Constitution of 1946. This is complemented by the various articles relating to political freedom, freedom of conscience, and the freedom of individuals. Furthermore, these freedoms are guaranteed by a new judicial institution, the Constitutional Council, which rules on the constitutionality of laws.

The organization of powers under the Fifth Republic is dominated by the principle of separation. This is seen in the separation of legislative and executive powers, the incompatibility of concurrent governmental and parliamentary office, and the distinction between specific areas of legislation passed by parliament and all other lawmaking, which is left to the discretion of the government.

The French executive is bicephalic , with a president elected by direct universal suffrage for five years and a prime minister appointed by the president but responsible to the National Assembly. The National Assembly is the lower house of the bicameral French parliament, in which representatives are elected by direct universal suffrage; the president of the Republic has the power to dissolve the parliament. The upper house of the parliament, the Senate, is elected by indirect universal suffrage.

The Constitution of the Fifth Republic is short in length but ambiguous in character. The crucial ambiguity contained within the Constitution concerns the leadership of the executive. The text includes elements that are typical of both presidential and parliamentary regimes. In practice, if not in theory, the regime leans more toward presidentialism. The Constitution was drafted to put an end to the perceived excesses of parliamentarism of previous regimes, and the legislative procedures laid out in the text enable the government to remain master of the legislative game. The Fifth Republic often is referred to as a "mixed" or "hybrid" regime and, more formally, as a semipresidential, presidentialist, or rationalized parliamentary regime.

Government in Legal Principle. The Fifth Republic does not correspond to the norms of classical constitutional law. On reading the constitution, it is possible to distinguish certain similarities with the British parliamentary system as well as with the American presidential system.

The prime minister and government are responsible before parliament, and the executive has the power to dissolve the National Assembly. However, the dual nature of the executive means that although the prime minister directs the operation of the government, which determines and conducts national policy, it is the president—who is not responsible before parliament—who has the power to dissolve the National Assembly.

The regime also displays characteristics in common with presidential systems: The president is elected by direct universal suffrage and is invested with

significant presidential prerogatives, such as the power to submit any government bill to referendum, and emergency powers under Article 16 of the Constitution. The president thus can be considered a "republican monarch," and the presidency, the cornerstone of the Fifth Republic institutions.

Government in Practice. In areas that fall under what is commonly termed the "reserved domain," namely, defense and foreign affairs, the president is able to make policy decisions even if these policy-making powers are not expressly stated in the text of the constitution. The 1962 constitutional reform, which provided for the direct election of the president by all French citizens, provided for the president a democratic legitimacy that exceeded that of all other political mandates in France. Thus the president has considerable influence over the political system. Only in periods when the parliamentary majority is politically opposed to the president's political base is the government's dependence on the head of state called into question. During such times, commonly referred to as "cohabitation," the prime minister, with a mandate derived from and supported by a parliamentary majority, implements the government's political program and the president is relegated to a principally ceremonial role, more akin to that of the queen of England than that of the president of the United States. Yet during such periods the president continues to have considerable influence. In 2000 a constitutional amendment sought to put an end to the difficulties experienced during the three periods of opposition parliamentary control by reducing the presidential mandate from seven years to five and consequently making it coincide with the legislative term of the National Assembly.

Thus it is possible to put forward contradictory interpretations of the Fifth Republic regime depending on whether it is the text of the constitution or the actual practice of the constitution that is being examined. In short, France under the Fifth Republic has two constitutions in one.

division of powers: the role of legislator

In France, as in many other countries, the role of the parliament has been weakened, and the 577 deputies and 322 senators have seen many of their powers and prerogatives reduced. Europeanization, globalization, decentralization , the increased powers of the judiciary and the media, and the power of the executive are among the principal causes of the legislature's diminished power and influence. Nonetheless, parliament remains a critical forum for democratic debate and the legitimization of power in France.

The French parliament has three functions: to represent the democratically expressed wishes of the electorate, to make decisions, and to act as a check on the executive. Under the Fifth Republic the parliament's activities in relation to all three functions have been controlled strictly. The government has at its disposal a whole range of measures that enable it to restrain the parliament.

The power to legislate is divided between the legislature and the executive. Parliament can legislate only in the specific areas defined in Article 34 of the Constitution because Article 37 states that all other areas are considered to fall within the government's prerogative. Yet arguably the most powerful weapon in the government's armory is the its ability to make parliament vote on a bill that has not been subjected to any debate in either the National Assembly or the Senate. According to Article 49.3 of the Constitution, unless a motion of censure is carried by the National Assembly, thus precipitating the resignation of the government, the bill is considered to have been adopted.

role of the judiciary and other institutions

The constitutional tradition in France has been to have judicial authorities rather than a judicial power, and the constitution does not deviate from this rule. The history of the French judicial system is one of frequent conflict—first between monarchs and parliaments composed of judges and then between revolutionaries and Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821). The authoritarian nature of Napoleon I's conception of power meant that he also wanted to avoid being controlled by ordinary judges. Hence, he established an administrative justice system that was designed to pass judgment on conflicts arising from the relationship between the public and the state.

There is a single judicial system, although it enjoys multiple jurisdictions and essentially is made up of two branches: a civil and criminal branch with the Cour de cassation as the highest ordinary court and an administrative branch with the Council of State as the highest administrative court. One major innovation of the Fifth Republic was the creation of the Constitutional Council, which fulfils the essential role of ruling on the constitutionality of legislation. The French judicial system professes to be independent, although its independence is guaranteed by the Conseil supérieure de la magistrature, which in turn is presided over by the president of the republic.

political parties and interest groups

French political parties generally align themselves on a left–right dimension. Although the origins of the left–right divide in France can be traced back to the revolution, political parties in France emerged later than in many other democracies, and contemporary parties are comparatively recent political groupings. The first modern political parties were founded on the left, including the Radical Party in 1901, the Socialist Party in 1905, and the Communist Party in 1920. It was only after the liberation of France from Germany's occupation in 1944 that the right began to organize itself along the lines of structured political parties.

Officially recognized by the constitution and an essential element of democratic life, French political parties are great in number, are generally top-down in their organizational structure, and have a tendency to change their names frequently. Parties in contemporary France tend to have relatively few members and are more accurately described as white-collar rather than mass parties. From 2002 through 2004 the center-right Union for a Popular Movement was in government and the center-left Socialist Party was the largest opposition party. Aside from the Union for a Popular Movement and the Socialist Party, French political life is animated by a multitude of parties ranging from the National Front on the extreme right to the Communist Revolutionary League and Workers' Struggle on the extreme left. A number of parties that started life as single-issue groupings, such as the conservative Hunting, Fishing, Nature Traditions and the progressive Green Party, have secured political representation in France at a local, national, and European level.

The electoral system together with the presidentialization of the Fifth Republic helped engender a two-bloc presidential party system, which pits

a coalition of the left, principally the Socialist and Communist Parties, against a coalition of the Gaullist right with other center-right parties for power. However, the French party system fragmented somewhat in the 1980s after the formation of new political parties, such as the National Front and the Greens, and the decline of the Communist Party. The 2002 presidential and parliamentary election results demonstrated the extent to which the so-called "parties of government" have lost favor with the electorate while smaller opposition or extremist parties have become more appealing.

As with political parties, French trade unions are officially recognized by the state and are weak and multiple in number. Decline in the trade union movement has been as pronounced in France as elsewhere in Western Europe. Although 25 percent of workers were unionized in the 1950s, in the early 2000s less than 8 percent of French workers belonged to a union, and the union movement as a whole has been highly divided. Yet although the representativeness of trade unions is clearly open to question, they have retained considerable influence over French public life.

elections, voting, and citizen participation

There are no fewer than six different kinds of direct elections in France. Two national elections (the presidential and legislative) are held every five years (except when the National Assembly has been dissolved or the presidency has been unexpectedly vacated), using a two-round majoritarian electoral system. Other direct elections are held on regional, departmental, municipal (since 1986), and European (since 1979) levels. In European elections voters elect French representatives to the European Parliament, using a system of proportional representation .

In addition, French voters are called on to vote in referendums, a key element of French political life. Since 1958 there have been eight referendums on issues ranging from the adoption of the Fifth Republic Constitution in October 1958 to the reduction of the presidential mandate from seven to five years in September 2000.

Active citizen participation in political life has not been limited to elections and referendums; the French also frequently resort to more spontaneous and less organized forms of public expression such as marching and demonstrating.

At the beginning of the twenty-first century it was possible to distinguish a shift in the relationship between the French public and the political elite. The increasing volatility of the electorate and the considerable rise in the rate of abstention are symptoms of the French public's dissatisfaction with and disinterest in the political class.

See also: European Parliament; European Union; Political Parties; Presidential Systems.

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Arnauld Miguet