Turkmens

PRONUNCIATION: TUHRK-mens
LOCATION: Turkmenistan; northern Iran; northern Iraq; northwestern Afghanistan
POPULATION: 7.7 million
LANGUAGES: Turkmen; Russian; Persian
RELIGION: Islam (Sunni Muslim)

INTRODUCTION

The ethnic origins of the Turkmens are generally traced to the Oghuz, a loose polity of Turkic tribes that coalesced in and around present-day Mongolia in the 7th and 8th centuries ad. By the 9th century, the Oghuz had migrated west and inhabited steppe areas extending north and west from Central Asia's Aral Sea and Syr Darya river. The term Turkmen first appears in the 10th century, and it is believed that it was initially used to designate those Oghuz who adopted Islam and migrated southwest with the leader Seljuk into present-day Turkmeni-stan and beyond. While the first element of the term (Turk) is clear, the original meaning of the second element (-men) is unknown. (It has nothing to do with the English word men, however.)

By the 12th century, Oghuz and Turkmen tribes had migrated into what are now Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkey, and other parts of the Middle East. In these places, they established dynasties and played an important role in political life. In the case of Turkey and Azerbaijan, Turkmen tribes came to form the ethnic base of the populations. In Turkmenistan, the Turk-mens never united into one political force and, until the early 20th century, most of the tribes were at least nominally under the control of the Central Asian khanates Khiva and Bukhara or, in some cases, under Persian suzerainty. The Turkmens gained a reputation as excellent fighters and horsemen whose chief occupation was raiding sedentary peoples for slaves and property. In the 1880s, after bitter fighting, Russia conquered the region and, in 1924, the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the 15 republics of the USSR. Under Soviet rule, the Turkmens endured many drastic changes. Property was collectivized, traditional leaders and (Islamic) religious figures were brutally eliminated, traditional social and political structures were attacked, and the nomadic way of life ceased to exist. Only with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and independence in the early 1990s did the government of Turkmenistan cautiously permit some of the prior traditions. Because most of the political leadership and social and economic institutions are Soviet holdovers, however, genuine and significant change has been slow to materialize.

Between 1990 and 2006, Turkmenistan was governed by Saparmurat Niyazov. Niyazov was known as Turkmenbashy, which means "Leader of the Turkmens." Turkmens living under the rule of Turkmenbashy lacked basic freedoms and were subjected to the watchful eye of the country's secret police force. Most Turkmens lived in poverty, as the government of Turkmenistan spent the profits of state industries on presidential palaces and other massive construction projects. Although Niyazov was replaced by Gurbanguly Berdimuhammedow in 2006, it is unlikely that Turkmenistan will reform its political and economic institutions.

Turkmens maintain a theory of common origin from a mythical ancestor, Oghuz Khan, from whom are supposed to have emerged 22 or 24 original Oghuz tribes—the core of the early Turkmens. Only some of these tribal names are current today, and researchers believe that the present-day Turkmen tribal structure consists of old Oghuz and pre-Oghuz tribes, newer Turkic tribes, and elements of Iranian groups who inhabited the lands taken over by the Turkmens. There are more than two dozen tribal groupings among the Turkmens today, the largest of which are Teke, Yomut, and Ersari. Tribal identity is important among the Turkmens and continues to play a significant role in social relations and politics.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

The majority of Turkmens live in Turkmenistan (an estimated 4.4 million) and some 3 million more live in northern Iran, northern Iraq, and northwestern Afghanistan. Because of various ethnic processes that have occurred among the Turkmens, the Turkmens of today may have Indo-European (Iranian) or Mongol-like physical features.

Turkmenistan consists of 488,100 square kilometers (188,450 square miles) and, except for the Balkan and Kopet Dag mountains in the south, the Caspian Sea in the west, and the Amu Darya river in the east, Turkmenistan is a vast arid desert. In fact, Central Asia's two largest deserts—the Garagum (central Turkmenistan) and the Gyzylgum (eastern Turkmenistan into Uzbekistan)—make up from 80–90% of Turkmenistan's territory. The average yearly rainfall in these desert zones does not exceed 150 millimeters (6 inches), and daytime summer temperatures often reach 45°c (113°f). Cold winds from the north bring temperatures well below freezing in the winter, especially in northern Turkmenistan. In spite of the harsh desert environment, the Turkmens have long been known as desert nomads who fully adapted to the environment in their economic pursuits, including sheep, camel, goat, and horse breeding and limited agriculture. They also used the desert to their advantage as an almost impenetrable refuge in time of war and strife.

Because of high rates of poverty and unemployment, thousands of Turkmens have left Turkmenistan to find work. Russia, Kazakhstan and Turkey are the main destinations for Turkmen labor migrants. Thousands of Turkmens have fled Iraq since the 2003 invasion of the country by the United States and its allies.

LANGUAGE

Turkmen is part of the Oghuz group of Turkic languages. Linguistically, it is close to Azeri (Azerbaijani), Turkish, and Uzbek. Aside from the Turkic words in its vocabulary, there are numerous Persian and Arabic elements as well. The Turkmen language in Turkmenistan borrows many words from Russian. While virtually every Turkmen tribe has its own dialect, all are mutually intelligible. Turkmens also speak the languages of their neighbors. For example, many urban Turkmens in Turkmenistan speak excellent Russian due to decades of Soviet rule, while Turkmens in Iran commonly speak Persian. Prior to Soviet rule, all Turkmens wrote their language in the Arabic script. In Turkmenistan, that script was changed to Latin and then Cyrillic prior to World War II. In 1993, Turkmenbashy decreed that the Latin alphabet be used in place of the Cyrillic.

FOLKLORE

A popular legend among the Turkmen people says that when God made the world, the Turkmens were the first to get a land filled with sunshine, but the last to get any water. Like other Central Asian peoples, the Turkmens have a rich folklore tradition consisting of epic stories, tales, lyric poems, and other genres usually transmitted and performed orally with or without musical accompaniment. Aside from entertaining, the folklore tradition has served to record Turkmen history and genealogy as well as to teach and reinforce Turkmen values, norms, and culture. This oral folklore is replete with heroic deeds performed for the sake of either romantic love or the community or tribe. Each Turkmen tribe and clan has its own series of legends and tales that define tribal genesis and trace genealogy. This folklore continues to play a crucial role in providing the Turkmens with their sense of identity and history and has longed served as a basis for the Turkmen written literary tradition as well.

The folklore tradition also includes various "superstitions" that dictate a wide range of social and familial activity. Knowledge of and belief in amulets, charms, lucky and unlucky omens, lucky and unlucky days of the week, as well as spirits and the evil eye are common to almost every Turkmen. In the traditional setting, virtually every act or type of behavior, no matter how mundane, is governed by a certain set of prescribed rules so that it will not bring on misfortune or bad luck. When activity concerns young children, birth, pregnant women, or other "vulnerable" individuals and critical events, such beliefs are especially apparent. Although outsiders often dismiss this aspect of folklore as mere superstition, many of the beliefs are actually grounded in practical knowledge of the human body, nature, and the environment.

RELIGION

Nearly all Turkmen are Sunni Muslim, and almost every tribe or clan has a legend or account of how it became Muslim. Although Islam has been present in Turkmenistan since the 8th century, a great deal of Islamization took place after the Mongol invasion of the 13th century. Islam in Turkmenistan includes nomadic traditions and shamanist elements. Many Turkmens observe the rituals of Islam, such as daily prayer, pilgrimage to Mecca, and fasting during the month of Ramadan. In addition, the moment or event of conversion to Islam is often the defining element in a tribe's or clan's history, and thus perhaps the most crucial identifying factor for Turkmen society. Each tribe or clan also has its own cemetery and saint's shrine to which members may conduct pilgrimage when the need arises. At the shrine, a pilgrim may appeal to the saint for good fortune, prosperity, the safety of a loved one, a cure for an illness, or the birth of a child. Hundreds of such shrines dot the Turkmen landscape and are important places where Turkmen religious practice is conducted. Years of Soviet rule have lessened the level of religious observance amongst Turkmens, as is evidenced by the popularity of alcohol consumption in Turkmenistan.

In Turkmenistan, the state plays a significant role in religious life. Since the late 1990s, the government has shut down many mosques operating without state approval. The government has also closed foreign-supported madrasas— or religious schools—because it fears the spread of Islamic fundamentalism.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

The most important religious holidays are celebrated according to the lunar calendar and include the Gurban bairamy (Sacrifice Holiday), which commemorates God's trial of Abraham in his willingness to sacrifice his son, and the Oraz bairamy (Holiday of the Fast), celebrated at the end of the month of fasting (Ramadan). Nowruz (New Year's Day) is an ancient holiday celebrated on March 21 (the vernal equinox) and marks the beginning of spring and agriculture. All of these holidays are marked with feasts, family gatherings, and entertainment. National holidays include Independence Day (October 27) and a series of memorial days to commemorate the end of World War II, veterans, and victims of the 1948 earthquake in the capital city, Ashgabat. Turkmenistan also celebrates Neutrality Day on December 12, a reminder of Turkmenistan's "neutrality" in foreign policy.

RITES OF PASSAGE

As Muslims, all Turkmen males are circumcised (usually between the ages of 3 and 7). The ceremony is accompanied by a great deal of celebration and fanfare as it marks a boy's becoming a member of male community. After circumcision, a boy no longer sleeps with his mother, but rather spends more time with adult males, who school him in proper male behavior, etiquette, and so on. Although there is no one analogous ceremony for girls, they too make a conscious (albeit less publicized) passage into womanhood by wearing head scarves, having their ears pierced, and spending more time with women. Wed-dings too are celebrated with a great deal of festivity and lavish expenditure. From an early age, girls prepare for married life by sewing and crafting a great deal of clothing and household items that are saved until the wedding. Although funerals are also important events, most mourning takes place long after the actual death of an individual. On the third, seventh, and fortieth day after a loved one's death, there are large gatherings dedicated to the deceased's memory. These often continue on a yearly basis as well.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Much of Turkmen behavior, conduct, etiquette, and other social norms come out of Adat (Turkmen customary law), Sherigat (Islamic law), and Edep (rules of proper etiquette and behavior). Although some aspects of these traditions may have been lost in the Soviet period, their essence (often referred to as turkmenchilik, meaning "Turkmenness") provides the Turk-mens with a well-grounded corpus of rules and norms that continue to mold social behavior on a daily basis. Some of the more significant aspects of these traditions include elaborate and exact ways of greeting based on age and gender, a heightened sense of hospitality toward guests, a great deal of deference and respect toward elders, and a clear sense of tribal/clan identity.

Turkmenistan's Soviet legacy has left Turkmen society divided. Upper-class Turkmen send their children to Russian schools and live in cities such as Ashgabat. Poorer Turkmen tend to live in rural areas and earn a living from agriculture. Many Russians inhabit the urban working class.

LIVING CONDITIONS

The traditional Turkmen dwelling is the felt tent called a gara oy (black house), which is often called a "yurt" in western literature. The felt covering is attached onto a wooden frame, and the dwelling may be assembled or disassembled within an hour. It is usually carried by camel. While some Turkmens in Afghanistan and Iran may still live in the gara oy year-round, in Turkmenistan it is no longer a primary residence. Instead it is used in summer pasture areas or constructed for recreation or holidays. In rural Turkmenistan, most people live in one-story homes made from clay and straw. Many times these homes are located within a walled courtyard that also contains a family's agricultural plot and livestock holdings. In the cities of Turkmenistan, high-rise apartment dwellings are also common. Although apartments may have modern plumbing and natural gas capabilities, many Turkmens prefer the courtyard residence as it affords more privacy, and a yard, and it is much cooler in the summer.

Under Soviet rule, living conditions in Turkmenistan were "modernized" in a distinctly Soviet way. Technology and industry were introduced and urban areas developed. Today, Turkmenistan is left with an outdated infrastructure in dire need of technical revamping, and there is a severe shortage of trained personnel and replacement parts. Although modern conveniences (telephones, plumbing, sewers, etc.) do exist in the cities, they usually work only sporadically. Cars, buses, and trains have replaced the horse and camel as the main modes of transportation in Turkmenistan, but the cost of new replacement vehicles and a lack of spare parts make travel difficult and expensive. Neglect of infrastructure has also led to shortages of clean water and the breakdown of irrigation systems for agriculture.

Since Turkmenistan became independent, the health care system has fallen into disrepair. In 2001 President Niyazov ordered the closing of all hospitals outside Ashgabat. He also replaced 15,000 Turkmen healthcare workers with military conscripts. The rise to power of a new president and high natural gas prices (a boon for Turkmenistan) may lead to improvements in health, education, and infrastructure in Turkmenistan.

FAMILY LIFE

As in interpersonal relations, Turkmen custom (turkmenchilik) dictates a host of rules and provisions for family life. Most Turkmen families are extended, and elders live with their adult children. Nursing homes are extremely rare in Turkmenistan. The youngest son bears the primary responsibility for his parents' welfare and usually lives with his wife and children in the home of his parents, but other siblings can also share in such duties. Turkmen families are usually large, and families with six or more children are the norm in rural areas. Turkmenchilik also requires that siblings and close relatives assist each other in times of need. It is incumbent on family and clan members to render each other assistance when building homes, organizing weddings and other functions, entering college, getting jobs, and so on.

Many marriages are arranged, and virtually all must be blessed by the parents. Western-style dating is rare. The motivating factor in arranged marriages is finding a suitable match. Such a match will be based on age, social status, education level, tribal affiliation, and other expectations. The young man should be 20–25 years old and have finished his military service. The woman should be 18–22 years old. One common element in the process is the paying of the galyng (bride price), which consists of a transfer of either money or goods to the bride's family. In most cases, a couple knows each other and has met at least several times. After the wedding, the bride usually goes to live with the groom in the home of his parents and must work as a member of the household. Because of the poverty of many Turkmen, the practice of "bride kidnapping" has become more common. Grooms who are unable to pay dowries may kidnap their perspective brides, and then try to convince the women to marry them. Often, elopements between a consenting woman and a consenting man are carried out using the tradition of bride kidnapping.

CLOTHING

The most prominent feature of traditional Turkmen male clothing is the telpek, a high sheepskin hat. Other Central Asian peoples wear sheepskin hats, but only the Turkmen have the large and wide telpek, which may be brown, black, or white and is typically very shaggy. Men who wear the telpek usually wear a skullcap beneath it and shave their heads. Long, deep-red robes with extended sleeves are also common among men in more traditional settings. In the cities especially, the clothing of the Turkmen male differs little from that of men in the West: no hat, a suit jacket (without a tie), and pants are the norm.

Turkmen women, both urban and rural, typically wear more traditional clothing than men. The main features are a long dress (often made from ketine, a silk fabric), a long head scarf, and a cloak-type red robe called a kurte, which is worn on top of the head and hangs down off the shoulders. Dresses and skirts above the ankle, sleeveless tops, and other Western-style clothing are considered too immodest by most Turkmen women. Turkmen women also sew a distinct type of embroidery called keshde, which adorns the collars and fringes of their clothing.

FOOD

Although the Turkmen have adopted some foods from the West, on the whole, Turkmen food is fairly unique and retains its traditional quality. Milk products from camels, cows, goats, and sheep are made into a variety of butters, creams, and yogurts. The meat of these animals is used to make the bulk of Turkmen dishes, with sheep and camel being the most sought after. Most meat dishes are baked (in dough) or boiled and combined with a variety of vegetables and sometimes dough or noodles. Soups and meat pie-type dishes make up the bulk of the dinner fare.

One favorite Turkmen dish is dograma, a soup thick with diced bread, lamb, onions, tomatoes, and spices. Hot green tea is part of every meal, even on the hottest days. Round flatbread is a staple throughout Central Asia. It is baked in a tamdyr—a round clay oven fired by coals that lie at its bottom. The dough is splashed with water and sticks to the oven's sides. The top of the Turkmen-style tamdyr has a large hole, which is covered during baking.

When relatives or guests visit, Turkmen hospitality dictates an all-out feast. The food is spread out on plates and dishes on a large cloth on the floor, and it is around this cloth covered with food (called a sachak) that the guests and family members sit and have their meal. A typical Turkmen sachak will include a variety of fruits, vegetables, nuts, sweets, tea and other beverages, bread, as well as butters and creams—all this before the main meal!

In Turkmen cities, Russian food is found in many restaurants. Popular Russian dishes include cabbage soup, grilled meat balls, and dumplings.

EDUCATION

The government of Turkmenistan reports its literacy rate to be 99%. All children must attend school and receive at least a high school education. Institutes, trade schools, colleges, and a university train those wishing and able to continue training. The economic crisis since Turkmenistan's independence has led to many problems in education. Low teacher pay, meager subsidies, and run-down facilities have resulted in serious problems, especially in rural areas. Children miss many days of school due to a lack of teachers and school space. In some cotton-growing areas, children and teachers are required to work in the fields during school hours for a substantial part of the school year. In addition, the government of Turkmenistan has weakened the national curriculum. The late President Niyazov replaced study of the arts and sciences with the study of a book entitled The Ruhnama. The book, written by Niyazov himself, is a mixture of history and pseudo-Islamic theology.

Aside from formal education, Turkmen youth receive a great deal of "practical" schooling at home. Young girls are expected to help out with the household chores, watch over younger children, and learn to cook, sew, and so on. Young boys often take care of livestock and learn basic agricultural and mechanical skills from older males.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

The most prominent figure in Turkmen cultural history is the 18th century poet, Magtymguly. The subjects of his poetry include historical events, romantic love, Islam, and a call for Turkmen tribal unity. It is this latter theme especially that is utilized by the government in its nation-building process. Magtymguly's life and works continue to receive much public and scholarly attention, and virtually all Turkmens know his poetry and biography by heart. Numerous pre-20th-century Turkmen poets achieved success by following in the footsteps of Magtymguly. The Turkmens also have a unique musical culture that is tied into the oral tradition (see section on "Folklore"). Turkmen music is characterized by the two-stringed dutar and the gyjak (a violin-like instrument) accompanied by singing.

Traditional Turkmen cultural traditions were heavily influenced by Soviet cultural policies. Religious and national themes were suppressed, the use of Turkmen language was inhibited, and traditional personal and communal expressions were replaced with propagandistic socialist ideals. Today, in spite of a revival of traditional Turkmen culture, the legacy of the Soviet period is evident, and state control of artistic expression remains tight. For example, the Pushkin Theater in Ashgabat once staged Russian language plays from the Czarist and Soviet era, but now stages productions based on the Ruhnama.

WORK

In rural areas of Turkmenistan, virtually all work is centered around agricultural and livestock production. As in the Soviet period, the state owns almost all the land and administers all the farms. Because of Turkmenistan's arid climate, irrigation is a critical industry. Pagta (cotton) is Turkmenistan's chief crop. It occupies the majority of the irrigated lands and is concentrated in the eastern areas. Fruits, vegetables, and grains are also grown throughout the country, and Turkmenistan's melons are considered some of sweetest in the world. Oil and gas deposits are concentrated along the Caspian coast and in southeastern areas. Turkmenistan is one of the major suppliers of natural gas to Europe, but revenues from natural gas have done little to create jobs in Turkmenistan. In 2007 the unemployment rate in Turkmenistan was estimated at 60%, one of the highest in the world. In some areas of Turkmenistan, there are almost no young men left, because they have all migrated abroad in search of work.

SPORTS

Turkmens enjoy numerous traditional and Western-style sports. Soccer is perhaps the most popular sport among young men and is called futball. Horse racing is also extremely popular and has become the most celebrated sport in Turkmenistan since independence. The horse has long symbolized the Turkmen spirit and occupies the most prominent spot on the state seal. Equine experts worldwide acknowledge Turkmen thor-oughbreds such as the Ahal-teke to be among the swiftest and strongest breeds in the world.

In 2004 Turkmenistan sent eight athletes to the Olympics. They competed in track and field, boxing, weight lifting, shooting, swimming, and Judo.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Socializing and visiting friends and relatives are favorite pastimes among Turkmens. Visits usually involve large meals, some sort of entertainment (such as music), and staying overnight. Gatherings are also connected with holidays and may include pilgrimages to local shrines or simple outings to recreation spots in mountain, lake, or stream areas. Many urban Turkmens own summer houses and gardens on the outskirts of town where they spend vacation time. Turkmens also enjoy Russian television, which is only accessible via satellite. In 2008 the government began to curb the use of private satellite dishes.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Often known as Bukharan carpets or "oriental" carpets, Turkmen carpets are prized as among the world's best by collectors and experts. Many Turkmen tribes have a distinct carpet ornamentation that identifies their carpets. Some carpets have up to 400,000 knots per square meter (37,000 per square foot). Another characteristic of Turkmen carpets is their deep red color. Almost all of the labor connected with carpet weaving and production is carried out by women. In an era of high inflation in Turkmenistan, Turkmens purchase carpets as an investment and hedge against inflation. Unfortunately, traditional carpet weaving is fading in Turkmenistan because of the rise of mechanized production facilities and the difficulties associated with exporting products from Turkmenistan. Aside from carpets, women also weave a variety of items connected with the nomadic life-style. Adornments for the felt tent, such as storage bags and door coverings, as well as items used for horses and camels, are the most common.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Severe economic problems since the dissolution of the Soviet Union coupled with the legacy of the negative aspects of Soviet rule have contributed to many social problems. High rates of inflation and economic depression has led to a sharp increase in poverty, crime, and unemployment. Corruption is ram-pant in all government and economic sectors. Another major problem has to do with the fact that some of the wealthiest individuals in Turkmenistan acquired their wealth through questionable or illegal speculation and trade practices. As a result, many people, especially youth, have abandoned attempts to acquire or use education and instead attempt to open small retail businesses. This emphasis on petty retail trade has exacerbated problems connected with Turkmenistan's low industrial and manufacturing production and has led to a high reliance on imported foodstuffs and consumer goods.

Substance abuse is a problem tied to poverty and economic depression. Turkmenistan lies along the transit route by which heroin from Afghanistan makes its way into Russia and Europe. The government of Turkmenistan estimates that 1 in 10 Turkmens is addicted to narcotics. However, the number of addicts is likely much higher. While addiction to alcohol, heroin, and marijuana has traditionally been confined to men, women are increasingly turning to drugs. Drug addiction and the drug trade lead to higher levels of crime, violence, and prostitution in Turkmenistan. Intravenous drug use also puts Turkmens at risk for HIV.

GENDER ISSUES

Gender relations in Turkmen society are influenced by Islam and Turkmenistan's Soviet and nomadic past. The veiling of women was never widespread amongst Turkmens, even though it was common amongst other peoples of Central Asia prior to the Russian conquest of the region. During the Soviet period, Turkmen women entered the workforce and gained high positions in the government bureaucracy and all of the major professions. Furthermore, laws in Turkmenistan grant men and women equal inheritance and legal rights.

Despite these areas of equality, Turkmen women do not always enjoy the same rights as Turkmen men. Bride kidnapping is still a common practice among Turkmens. In addition, women are expected to do housework and prepare food, while men are not. Finally, the government of Turkmenistan often carries out policies that discriminate against women. For example, in an attempt to combat sex work, the government of Turkmenistan has forbidden women under the age of 35 from flying to Turkey or the United Arab Emirates.

Homosexuality is illegal in Turkmenistan. The Islamic and Soviet influence on Turkmen society contributes to negative attitudes toward homosexual and transgender people. Sexual minorities are often sent to prison or "re-education" camps, which are designed for political dissidents. Even the gays and lesbians who avoid legal action face job discrimination. Turkmen families often force their homosexual relatives to marry individuals of the opposite sex.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Blackwell, Carole. Tradition and Society in Turkmenistan: Gender, Oral Culture and Song. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 2001.

Blank, Stephen. Turkmenistan and Central Asia after Niyazov.Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, 2007.

Burghart, Daniel L. and Theresa Sabonis-Helf, eds. In the Tracks of Tamerlane: Central Asia's Path to the 21st Century. Washington, D.C.: Center for Technology and National Security Policy, National Defense University, 2004.

Clark, Larry, Mike Thurman, and David Tyson. Turkmenistan: A Country Study. Lanham, MD: Federal Research Division, United States Library of Congress, 1997.

Edgar, Adrienne Lynn. Tribal Nation: The Making of Soviet Turkmenistan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.

O'Bannon, George. Vanishing Jewels: Central Asian Tribal Weavings. Rochester, NY: Rochester Museum and Science Center, 1990.

—revised by B. Lazarus