TURKISH–ITALIAN WAR (1911–1912)

War launched by Italy against Turkey for control of Libya.

The Turkish–Italian War (29 September 1911 to 8 October 1912) was initiated by Italy in Libya as a step toward acquiring a modern empire. The diplomatic ground for this move was prepared by reaching secret bilateral agreements with Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, all of which gave Italy a free hand in Libya in exchange for reciprocity elsewhere. This was in violation of the Congress and Treaty of Berlin (1878), in which the European powers guaranteed the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire.

Italy sent an ultimatum to the Ottoman government on 26 September 1911, declaring that it would occupy Libya within twenty-four hours unless the Ottoman Empire undertook immediate measures to protect the security of Italian citizens residing in Libya and also their property. Italy also said that Istanbul's dispatch of weapons to Libya was a provocation because these would be used against "peaceful" Italian colonists. When its demands were not met, Italy declared war against the Ottoman Empire (29 September), placed a blockade on the Libyan coast, and started landing in Tripoli (4 October). The conquest of the coastal towns was swift: Tripoli (12 October), Derna (18 October), Benghazi and Khoms (21 October), and the smaller towns soon after.

The Ottoman military force in Libya was small and much below standard. When war broke out, the Ottomans could not forward military support to Libya due to the Italian sea blockade and the decision of Britain and France to prevent the passage of military reinforcements to the belligerents through Egypt or Tunisia.

As a result of these conditions, the Ottoman authorities in Istanbul allowed volunteers to infiltrate into Libya. (Among them were Enver Paşa, who later became the minister of war, and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Turkish republic.) They left the actual direction of the war to the Ottoman military command in Libya, which decided to retreat from the coast—where the Italians had a clear military advantage owing to the size and quality of their forces. An Ottoman-Libyan force was established, composed of tribal soldiers, Ottoman professionals, and a mixed Ottoman-tribal command, which in Cyrenaica was connected with the Sanusi leadership and network of zawiyas (religious compounds).

The Italian invading forces were the first to make military use of airplanes (for reconnaissance and bombing). They made no meaningful gains after their initial conquests because they attempted to fight a trench war against the resistance, which engaged in guerrilla warfare and took advantage of the hilly or desert terrain and the support of the population. Failing to advance into the hinterland, the Italians widened the scope of the war to the eastern Mediterranean to put more pressure on the Ottomans. During April and May 1912, Italy occupied the Dodecanese islands, tried to enter forcibly the Dardanelles channel connecting Istanbul to the Aegean Sea, and bombarded some Ottoman ports, including Beirut. These operations caused the Ottomans heavy damage, aroused strong apprehension among the European powers, and provoked international efforts to solve the crisis.

In the Balkans, increasing unrest led to the outbreak of the first Balkan War on 8 October 1912. Unable to fight on two major fronts, and perceiving the Balkans as more important to the empire than Libya, the Ottoman government decided to end the war in Libya. The Treaty of Peace, concluded in October 1912, stipulated that Ottoman forces were to depart Libya, but that the Ottomans could send Muslim religious representatives there. The Ottoman withdrawal was to be followed by an Italian evacuation of the Dodecanese. The issue of sovereignty was not settled conclusively: Although Italy regarded Libya as part of the Italian homeland following its declaration on the extension of Italian law over Libya (5 November 1911, only one month after the war had started and before any peace treaty had been concluded), the Ottomans told the local population that they were being granted autonomy under Ottoman rule. Most Ottoman forces left Tripolitania, but many remained in Cyrenaica, and reinforcements also were sent later, especially during World War I. Until then, Italy managed to occupy most of Tripolitania and prevented the functioning of the Ottoman-chosen religious representation.

Bibliography

Childs, Timothy W. Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911–1912. New York; Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1990.

Simon, Rachel. Libya between Ottomanism and Nationalism: Ottoman Involvement in Libya during the War with Italy (1911–1919). Berlin: K. Schwarz, 1987.

rachel simon
updated by eric hooglund