Shetlanders

ETHNONYMS: Shetland, Zetland; older forms were Hetland, Hjaltland, Yealtland, Yetland

Orientation

Identification. The Shetland Islands constitute a "Special Island Area" of modern Scotland. Prior to the fifteenth Century the islands had a Norse population and culture. After 1469, large numbers of Scottish settlers began to arrive. Although English is spoken today, the inhabitants tend to identify with their Norwegian ancestors.

Location. The Shetlands are the northernmost area of Scotland. They consist of about 100 islands of which only 19 to 20 are inhabited. The main cluster of islands is 83 kilometers northeast of the Orkney Islands, 160 kilometers northeast of Scotland and approximately 356.4 kilometers from Bergen, Norway. The core island group extends from 59°48′ N to 60°52′ N and from 0°45′ to 1°45′ W. The main islands are Mainland (the largest island), Unst, Yell, Fetlar, Whalsay, Bersay, Papa Stour, Foula, and Fair Island. The total land mass is 1,407 square kilometers. Most of the islands are low, treeless, and have extensive boggy peat areas. The highest point, Ronas Hill, is 453 meters high. The coastline has many small indented bays (wicks ) and low indented fjords (voes ).

A subarctic oceanic climate and vegetation pattern exists. Because of the Gulf Stream and Atlantic waters, the climate is relatively humid and mild though severe winter gales occur. The summers are cool with long hours of daylight. About 52 to 116 centimeters of rainfall occur annually. At Lerwick, the average annual temperature is 7.1° C and the January mean is 3.4° C.

Demography. In 1988, the estimated population of the Shetlands was 22,364. The one large town is Lerwick. All other communities are very small. A significant percentage of the population lives on scattered farms or crofts. Since 1860, the population has continually declined.

linguistic Affiliation. The local dialect of English is derived from earlier forms of Scottish English. It contains many words of Norn, the dialect of Norwegian once spoken there.

History and Cultural Relations

The remains of Neolithic and Bronze- and Iron-Age settlements are present. These were followed by early Celtic and/or Pictish settlements. The Celtic/Pictish Christian period came to an abrupt end around a.d. 800 with the arrival of the Viking raiders and settlers. The new Viking-Norse culture continued until 1468-1469 when the Orkney and Shetland Islands were transferred to Scotland. This was done as a pledge in lieu of a dowry for the daughter of King Christian I of Denmark and Norway when she married King James III of Scotland. The pledge was never redeemed, and in 1472 Scotland formally annexed the islands. Before 1469, many Scots had moved to the islands; after 1469, their numbers continually increased. With this came a decline of the older Norse culture and language. During the late 1500s and early 1600s, the people became indentured laborers under the local Scottish lairds (lords). The inhabitants also became more isolated from Norway. They were increasingly influenced by Dutch and German fishermen and the Scottish clergy. By the nineteenth century, the people had been reduced to a serflike Status. In the mid-nineteenth century, they were freed from this and large numbers began to leave. The discovery of North Sea oil in the early 1970s has helped to stabilize life, reverse the population decline, and bring economic and social change to the islands.

Settlements

From the Neolithic period to the present day, the Shetlands have always been sparsely settled. Although clustered settlements were present from the early times, dispersed Homesteads were and remain the norm. Most farmsteads and settlements were and are on small bays or sheltered coastal sites. This has given the inhabitants easy access to both arable land and rich coastal fishing sites. The town of Lerwick was founded by the Norsemen. Its excellent sheltered harbor is still a major fishing and fish-processing port. Scalloway, the provincial capital in the early 1600s, is now a village. Shetland is famous for its prehistoric sites (e.g., Mousa Brock, Clickimin Brock [near Lerwick], and Jarlshoff, with its Neolithic, Bronze-Age, Iron-Age, and Viking settlement continuum).

Economy

Subsistence and Commercial Activities. The traditional economy was based on fishing as a commercial activity and subsistence agriculture for household needs. The rich local fishing banks were first exploited in the fourteenth century, and the dried cod and herring were marketed through the Hanseatic League. In later times, Lerwick became an increasingly important gathering place for North Sea fishermen. In the twentieth century, refrigeration, fish filleting, and large trawlers have contributed to the present serious depletion of many fishing grounds. The main fishing season for herring, cod, pollock, and halibut is from May through August; the season for haddock is October to March. Recently, lobster fishing has also become important.

The small family farm or croft is the basic rural unit. These average between two and four hectares in size and Usually include pasturage and peat-cutting (for fuel) rights on the common lands. The traditional crops were barley, cabbage or kale, black oats, turnips, rutabagas or swedes, and potatoes. A five-year cycle of crop rotation and fallowing was practiced. Spade cultivation was practiced until the late eighteenth century when simple scratch plows (ards ) became more common. In the past, small breeds of sheep and cattle, the Shetland pony, pigs, and geese were the main livestock. Sheep and wool production have increased in importance since 1870, whereas cattle have declined. Today, larger breeds of cattle and sheep have replaced the older breeds.

Industrial Arts. Because the islands are treeless and lack metallic ores, industrial growth is inhibited. Those crafts present include fishing-boat construction with timber from Norway, cooperage (fish barrels), and blacksmithing. Many fishing boats were built in Norway.

Trade. Trade in frozen and processed fish links Lerwick with the major Scottish, English, Dutch, German, and Scandinavian ports. Traditional shops (bakeries, printers, clothing stores, food markets, hardware shops, etc.) are concentrated in Lerwick, the only town of any importance.

Division of Labor. On the crofts, women tended the milk cows, pigs, and poultry; baited the lines of fishing hooks; cured the hay; helped cultivate the vegetable gardens; dried and transported peat; and knitted sweaters and stockings. Men fished, built boats, spaded the gardens, and plowed the fields. Neighborhood cooperative labor exchanges were important for house building, haying, peat cutting, harvesting, and fishing crews.

Land Tenure. A croft by both law and tradition cannot be subdivided. One child will be chosen to inherit it. However, the other siblings usually have access to the croft's produce, can work on the croft, and even build their houses on it.

Kinship

Kin Groups and Descent. An unfocused variety of cognatic descent is characteristic in the crofting townships. Within the local group, most people are related to each other. In a functional sense, precise kin ties are of little importance beyond that of first cousin. However, people will invoke the concepts of "lineage" or "kindred" to justify their associations with others in the community. Kinship is usually the basis for membership in fishing-boat crews. Strong patterns of local endogamy tend to reinforce feelings of local kin solidarity.

Kinship Terminology. Shetland kinship terms follow similar bifurcate-merging patterns in Scotland and the British Isles. Relationships to both sides of the family receive equal stress.

Marriage and Family

Marriage. Weddings are an important aspect of social life, especially in the rural areas. Local endogamy is common. Courtship usually occurs in the late fall and winter. Prior to the wedding, formal announcements and visits occur between the families of the bride and groom. In the past, processions of relatives walked from the home to the church and finally to the bride's parental home for the reception. Today, automobiles are used. Until this century, first-cousin marriages were not allowed. In the past, divorces were very rare.

Domestic Unit. The basic domestic unit is the nuclear family with neolocal residence. Today, many young couples reside with his or her parents for up to two years until they can find or build a house. Traditionally, individuals and their families pooled their resources to furnish the house and provide agricultural tools. Large families were once common; today, they are not.

Inheritance. By law, only one chosen child inherits the farm. The others receive goods, tools, furniture, etc., at the time of their marriages. Traditionally, names were also inherited: the oldest son was named after the father's father, the oldest daughter for the mother's mother, the second son after the mother's father, and the second daughter after the Father's mother.

Socialization. The care and training of children was done by the mother, older siblings, and grandmothers. Local schools are important. Those seeking upper-level schooling were sent to board at Lerwick.

Sociopolitical Organization

Social Organization. Until 1872, a rigid, serflike class System prevailed. The local laird-merchants totally controlled the lives of the crofter-fishermen. All fish had to be marketed through specific merchants, emigration was forbidden, and goods at high prices (truck system) could only be purchased from shops controlled by the lairds who also controlled the lands. After 1872, this system was abolished, and the crofters and others gained their personal freedom. Today, Shetland society is characterized by having a high degree of egalitarianism.

Political Organization. Between 1973 and 1975, the old county was abolished and Shetland became one of three "Special Island Areas" of Scotland. In this way, they were allowed to retain a high degree of local authority. The Island Area operates through the Scottish Office in Edinburgh. Police and fire services are provided through the Highland Region of northern Scotland. The Shetland Island Council has special linkages with London for petroleum and energy Development. Other services are provided through various Scottish development agencies.

Social Control. On the local level, Norse ethnic pride and insular isolation are the primary means of social control. On a formal level, the Scottish court system prevails. Drunkenness and drunken brawling account for 80 percent of the court cases. The major source of local conflict is rooted in the Islanders' strong sense of Norse cultural identity. On several occasions, local officials have stated that they prefer union with England to union with Scotland. The county library and its adjacent museum serve as important centers for both education and local identity.

Religion and Expressive Culture

Religious Beliefs. Since the Reformation, Protestant denominations have been dominant. The Stuarts established episcopacy. Since the early eighteenth century, Presbyterianism has increasingly gained strength. Most Shetlanders are very open and tolerant toward all Christian denominations. Traditionally, religion has played an important role as a moral power. Today, religious indifference is common. Until Recently, many older folk beliefs in trows (fairies), selkies (seal people), ghosts, and witchcraft were present.

Religious Practitioners. Protestant ministers have been and still are respected leaders among Shetlanders. Today, this is even true for those who are indifferent to religion.

Ceremonies. The weekly Sunday services are still of importance to many people. In the yearly cycle, the following are most important: Christmas, New Year's Day, Candlemas (2 February), Good Friday, and Easter. The most important Secular ritual (at Lerwick) is Up-Helly-Aa in late January. This involves the yearlong building of a large "model" Viking ship and its procession to and burning in the harbor. The key male participants are dressed as Vikings.

Arts. The important local arts are knitting fine woolen sweaters and shawls, making sterling silver jewelry, and folk fiddling. The most popular tunes are reels.

Medicine. Medical beliefs and practices are basically the same as in the United Kingdom (i.e., socialized medicine, surgeons, modern clinics, and hospitals. These are centered in Lerwick).

Death and Afterlife. Death and funerals were a reminder of the unity of the kin group and all households in the local community. Wakes were once held in the home of the deceased. Neighbors visited and offered condolences. Then the coffin bearers and others formed a procession to the church for the service. Burial was in the churchyard. Unbaptized children were buried in a separate place. In the past, it was forbidden to utter the name of the deceased as that might bring the ghost back. The basic Protestant beliefs in heaven and hell prevail.

Bibliography

Button, John (1978). The Shetland Way of Oil: Reactions of a Small Community to Big Business. Sandwick, Shetland: Thuleprint.

Cohen, Anthony P. (1987). Whalsey: Symbol, Segement, and Boundary in a Shetland Island Community. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Fenton, Alexander. (1978). The Northern Isles: Orkney and Shetland. Edinburgh: John Donald.

Marwick, Ernest W. (1975). The Folklore of Orkney and Shetland. London: B. T. Batsford.

Nicolson, James R. (1978). Traditional Life in Shetland. London: Robert Hale.

Theodoratus, Robert J. (1979). "The Shetland Islands: A Bibliographic Survey of Printed Materials on Ethnography, Folk Life, Folklore, and Local History." Behavior Science Research 14:159-187.

ROBERT J. THEODORATUS