Older Sophists

views updated

Older Sophists

Distinguished Group . Among the thinkers of fifth century Athens were a group who have come to be called the “Older Sophists.” Whether they held any common ideological positions or not is somewhat questionable, as are the criteria by which scholars should decide whether to consider a given thinker a Sophist. The question is further complicated by the shifting meaning of the term. In the fifth century it seemed to be applied mainly to people who were known for their knowledge (for example, Socrates), and those who earned money by teaching advanced pupils (for example, Protagoras), and seemed to be a somewhat neutral term, although often used with pejorative overtones, but by the fourth century the term becomes more specialized, limited to those who taught rhetoric, specifically the ability to speak in assemblies or law-courts. Sophistic skills could promote injustice (such as demagoguery in assemblies or winning unjust lawsuits) or justice (persuading the city-state to act correctly or allowing the underprivileged to win justice for themselves). Conventionally, the term Older Sophist is restricted to a small number of figures known from the Platonic dialogues.

Gorgias of Leontini . A leading Sophist, Gorgias of Leontini lived around 485 to 376 b.c.e. and traveled on an embassy from his native Sicily to Athens, where he became famous for the brilliance of his oratorical style. Oratory was notable for importing many poetic features (alliteration, short balanced clauses, elaborate rhythmical devices, ornate language, and such) into prose. The English word gorgeous is apparently derived from his name. Two short display orations of his have survived, Defense of Palamedes and Praise of Helen, and summaries of a philosophical work, On Non-Being, which may be considered either a parody or a logical extension of Parmenides’s On Being. He is the central character in Plato’s Gorgias (circa 387 b.c.e.) and also discussed in Meno (circa 387-380 b.c.e.). In Gorgias he defends the notion that rhetoric is the most important and universally applicable of all skills. He argues that orators are more effective doctors than people trained in medicine, giving as an example that he himself would accompany his brother (a doctor) on his rounds and, by convincing people to take their medicines and undergo painful but effective procedures, actually contributed more to their healing than did his brother. In his Encomium of Helen, Gorgias offers multiple defenses of Helen’s actions, claiming that she could not be blamed for her actions because they can be explained as the result of forcible abduction, the will of the gods, the result of love which is so powerful that not even Zeus is immune to it, or persuasion by means of words which have an almost magical power. Although Gorgias was known for emphasizing the magical power of speech and its deceptive nature, his reputation for immorality is probably not deserved. Even Plato portrayed him as a rather conventionally upright and conservative moralist, despite arguing that the effects of his doctrines and teaching were pernicious.

Hippias of Elis . Known for the breadth of his learning, Hippias, who lived circa 485-415 b.c.e., is portrayed in two Platonic (or possibly pseudo-Platonic) dialogues, Hippias Major and Hippias Minor (both circa 387 b.c.e.). He claimed expertise in almost every area of wisdom, including mathematics, astronomy, oratory, poetry, grammar, and crafts. According to Plato, he even made his own clothes. He was active in civic life and, like many of the other Sophists, conducted embassies for his city. He is credited with significant original work in geometry as well as poems, orations, and histories (which are not extant).

Prodicus of Ceos . The Sophist Prodicus (mid to late fifth century) appears in Plato’s Protagoras (circa 387 b.c.e.) and is mentioned in other Platonic dialogues and Old Comedy. He charged substantial fees for instruction and was especially known for his expertise in making fine distinctions among the meanings of words. His most famous composition was The Choice of Heracles, in which the hero is offered the choice between a steep, rocky, and difficult route leading up to virtue or a pleasant, smooth, and level road leading down to vice.

Protagoras of Abdera . Probably the first Greek to earn money in higher education was Protagoras (born circa 485). His teaching included such general areas as public speaking, criticism of poetry, citizenship, and grammar. Only fragments quoted by later authors remain of his written works. His prose treatise about the gods began “Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not or of what sort they may be. Many things prevent knowledge, including the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life.” His best-known saying is “Man is the measure of all things; of the things that are, that they are, and of the things that are not that they are not.” He is associated with a radical skepticism and relativism about the possibility of knowledge, but, nonetheless, personally appears to have been a fairly traditional moralist. Like Prodicus, he was interested in the meanings and etymologies of words. He taught oratory and interpretation of poetry and claimed to impart virtue by means of these teachings, although, as a teacher of oratory, he also claimed to be able to make the worse (or perhaps weaker) case appear the better (or stronger). When the panhellenic colony of Thurii was founded in 444, Protagoras was appointed to draw up its law code. He is portrayed in Plato’s dialogues Protagoras and Theaetetus (circa 360-355 b.c.e.), and is also mentioned in Attic comedy.