Woolman, John

views updated

Woolman, John

October 19, 1720

October 7, 1772

York, England

Quaker minister and abolitionist

"But the general Disadvantage which these poor Africans lie under in an enlight'ned Christian Country, [has] often fill'd me with real Sadness. . . . "

John Woolman.

John Woolman was a Quaker minister who led a campaign against slavery. (See box for description of Quakers.) His efforts required considerable courage because there was no organized abolition movement (the group that wanted to outlaw slavery) during the early eighteenth century and there was much resistance to his beliefs at the time. By the late 1700s, after Woolman's death, however, Quakers had prohibited slave-holding within the Religious Society of Friends (the official name of their group). They then emerged as leaders in the abolition movement. Woolman was also an essayist who kept a detailed journal. Although he was relatively unknown outside the Quaker community during his lifetime, his Journal has since become an American literary classic.

Becomes Quaker minister

John Woolman was born on October 19, 1720, in Ancocas, New Jersey, the son of Samuel Woolman, a Quaker farmer. The name of his mother is not known. There is little information about Woolman's early life, although records show that he worked on his parents' farm until he was twenty-one. He then settled in the nearby town of Mount Holly, where he operated a shop (possibly a bakery) for about two years. In 1743, after his business became successful, he began working as a tailor and earned extra money by keeping an orchard. He lived in the simple manner of the Quakers, wearing undyed garments and buying only the basic necessities. In 1743 Woolman also set out on his first excursion as a Quaker minister, traveling—often on foot—from New England to the Carolinas to attend yearly Quaker meetings. During his lifetime he made nearly thirty of these trips, and he conducted his ministry without receiving any pay. By 1749 he was married to Sarah Ellis, with whom he had several children.

The Quakers

Quakers are members of the Religious Society of Friends (also called the Friends Church), a Christian group that was originally affiliated with the English Puritans (see box in John Winthrop entry). The Quaker movement arose in England during the mid-seventeenth century. At first "Quaker" was a term of ridicule, but eventually they adopted the name themselves. The founder of Quakerism was English religious leader George Fox, who stressed reliance on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth (Christ) as a guide to living one's life. Fox advocated abandoning all ritual and clergy, contending that church buildings, formal worship services, and ordained ministers were not necessary. Therefore the early Quakers gathered informally in small, plain meeting houses, with men and women seated on opposite sides of the room. They sat in silence, waiting for an "inner light," or word from God, to come to them. Any man or woman who felt inspired by God could stand and speak to the group. Over time, members who showed a special talent for speaking were recorded as ministers. As Quakerism spread rapidly throughout England, Scotland, and Ireland, the Friends were subjected to violent persecution because they were viewed as a threat to other established religions. Consequently they sought refuge on the continent of Europe, in the American colonies, and the West Indies.

Slaves held in all colonies

Soon after Woolman started his travels he became concerned about serious social issues of the day, particularly the mistreatment of slaves. By the mid-eighteenth century, African slaves had been held in the colonies for over 125 years, having been introduced into British settlements in Virginia in 1619. During the previous century Spanish and Portuguese plantation owners in the West Indies had found that Africans were better workers than Native Americans, who resisted enslavement. Soon African slaves were essential to the American plantation economy and the slave trade became a booming business. The slave-trade route formed a triangle: ships loaded with European-made goods departed from British ports and landed on the west coast of Africa, where the goods would be exchanged for slaves. Then the slaves were transported to the American colonies or the West Indies and traded for agricultural products (see Olaudah Equiano entry). Finally, completing the triangle, the ships took this cargo back to England.

At first Africans in North America were able to buy their freedom and own land, and owners made an effort to keep slave families together (see Anthony Johnson entry). But gradually Africans lost these rights and, as slaves were routinely bought and sold, families were broken apart. By the 1740s, when Woolman was making his journey through the colonies, the majority of African slaves remained in bondage throughout their lives. They worked mainly on plantations in southern colonies, but they also were being held as household servants and laborers in all of the colonies, in both the South and the North. Slaves were worth large sums of money, so harsh laws gave owners the right to demand the return of runaways, who were considered legal "property."

Protests slavery

Especially disturbing to Woolman was the fact that Africans were being held as slaves by Christians, and even by Quakers. In fact, in the 1720s, the Society of Friends had expelled at least one member who opposed the keeping of slaves. Woolman therefore resolved to mount a vigorous abolitionist campaign. When he traveled southward along the eastern seaboard, he carried his message to slave holders. In Rhode Island he tried to persuade shipowners not to transport slaves from Africa to North America. He refused to buy any products connected with the slave trade, and he would not accept hospitality from slave owners. Frequently he made payment for lodging directly to slaves themselves. Deciding to limit his abolitionist efforts within the Quaker community, he encountered continuing resistance. Yet Woolman was persistent, never wavering from his convictions.

from Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes

In 1743 John Woolman began making trips to yearly Quaker meetings in colonies from New England to the Carolinas. During his visits he became alarmed at the mistreatment of African slaves. Woolman then vowed to wage an abolitionist campaign, which involved writing essays as well as making personal contacts with slave owners and traders. One of his most famous essays is Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes (1754). In the excerpt below Woolman sets out the moral argument against the holding of slaves.

There are various Circumstances amongst them that keep Negroes, and different Ways by which they fall under their Care; and, I doubt not, there are many well disposed Persons amongst them who desire rather to manage wisely and justly in this difficult Matter, than to make Gain of it.
But the general Disadvantage which these poor Africans lie under in an enlight'ned Christian Country, having often fill'd me with real Sadness, and been like undigested Matter on my Mind, I now think it my Duty, through Divine Aid, to offer some Thoughts thereon to the Consideration of others.
When we remember that all Nations are of one Blood. . . . [a passage from the Old Testament of the Bible] that in this World we are but Sojourners [temporary residents], that we are subject to the like Afflictions [sufferings] and Infirmities [diseases] of Body, the like Disorders and Frailties [weaknesses] in Mind, the like Temptations, the same Death, and the same Judgement, and, that the Alwise Being is Judge and Lord over us all, it seems to raise an Idea of a general Brotherhood, and a Disposition easy to be touched with a Feeling of each others Afflictions: But when we forget those Things, and look chiefly at our outward Circumstances, in this and some Ages past, constantly retaining in our Minds the Distinction betwixt [between] us and them, with respect to our Knowledge and Improvement in Things divine, natural and artificial, our Breasts being apt to be filled with fond Notions of Superiority, there is Danger of erring [making mistakes] in our Conduct toward them.

Reprinted in: Gunn, Giles, ed. Early American Writing. New York: Penguin Books, 1994, p. 391.

Woolman protests Native American policies

As John Woolman traveled through the American colonies, he became alarmed at policies toward Native Americans. For instance, while visiting the Pennsylvania frontier he learned that settlers were getting Native Americans drunk on rum, then tricking them into signing treaties that gave up huge tracts of land. Woolman therefore pressed for prohibitions against selling rum to Native Americans and he supported better policies for acquiring land.

Writes on injustice

While trying to convince other Quakers to oppose slavery, Woolman wrote essays on social injustices. The essays were printed in publications for Quaker readers. In addition to addressing the evils of slave holding, Woolman extended his compassion to Native Americans, poor settlers, and even mistreated farm animals. He contended that political and social problems could be solved only through spiritual efforts. In accordance with his Quaker beliefs, he wrote that people must live simply and show concern for their fellow human beings. At the age of thirty-six Woolman began keeping a journal in which he examined the state of his own soul. He made regular entries in the journal until his death sixteen years later.

Succeeds in abolition efforts

Woolman's abolitionist activities eventually produced results. He persuaded Quaker communities to make public protests against slavery, and he convinced owners to free their slaves. He was joined by others who shared his views, and in 1760, Quakers in New England, New York, and Pennsylvania ceased the buying and selling of slaves. The Society of Friends was then at the forefront of the antislavery movement. In 1772 Woolman went to London, England, to attend the annual meeting of Quaker ministers and elders. At first the English Quakers thought he looked peculiar in his colorless clothes, but he soon formed friendships with his fellow Friends. After the conference he left London to visit communities in the outlying English counties. In late September, after reaching York, Woolman was stricken with smallpox (at that time a fatal epidemic disease). A little more than a week later he died at the home of Thomas Priestman.

Journal becomes classic

Woolman was relatively unknown outside Quaker circles during his lifetime. Upon the publication of The Journal ofJohn Woolman in 1775, however, he became an important social critic and literary figure. Over the next century the journal was reprinted at least ten times and some of his essays were translated into German and French. Prominent nineteenth-century American and British thinkers praised Woolman's work for its simple style as well its moving expression of the Quaker soul. Several American writers were directly influenced by his views. Modern scholars rank Woolman's Journal along with the Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (see entry) as one of the great classics of American personal narrative. Woolman is now known as the "Quaker saint," and his Journal remains in print today. Several selections from the work have been included in texts for high-school and college students.