Hoover, Herbert

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Herbert Hoover

Born August 10, 1874 (West Branch, Iowa)
Died October 20, 1964 (New York, New York)

U.S. president

"I have no fears for the future of our country. It is bright with hope."

Herbert Hoover began the Roaring Twenties as secretary of commerce under President Warren G. Harding (1865–1923; served 1921–23; see entry). By the end of the decade, he had himself been elected president. Although he was much admired by the public in the years leading up to the 1929 stock market crash, Hoover's reputation took a steep downturn as the Great Depression (the economic crisis that would last until approximately 1939) took hold of the nation. Despite the considerable achievements of his earlier career, Hoover was faulted for not doing more to ease the suffering experienced by so many during this period.

A determined young man

Herbert Clark Hoover was born into a Quaker family (a religious sect that is also known as the Society of Friends) in West Branch, Iowa, located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) from Iowa City. His father, a blacksmith named Jesse Hoover, died of a heart attack when Hoover was six. Three years later, his mother, Hulda Hoover, died of typhoid (a serious infectious disease). The couple's three children were sent to live with various relatives.

Hoover spent the rest of his childhood in the home of his uncle, Henry John Minthorn, who lived in the Quaker village of Newport, Oregon. He attended a school run by his uncle and worked as an office boy in a real-estate office his uncle had established. It was during this somewhat lonely time in his life that he developed a reserved, disciplined nature and a determination to make his own way in the world. He decided that more than anything, he wanted to be financially independent.

In 1891 Hoover became part of the first class to enroll at brand-new Stanford University (then called Leland Stanford Junior University), which was located just south of San Francisco in what would become the town of Palo Alto, California. A good but not outstanding student, he was active in student government and was elected student-body treasurer. At Stanford Hoover met his future wife, Lou Henry. An athletic young woman who was as outgoing as Hoover was shy, she was the school's first female engineering student.

Becoming a millionaire

After four years Hoover graduated with a degree in mining engineering. At this period in U.S. history, the mineral resources hidden in the vast expenses of the western states were just beginning to be tapped, so this must have seemed like a very promising field. Hoover got his first job in a Nevada City, California, gold mine, pushing gold ore carts for ten hours a day and making a daily wage of only two dollars. A year later he began working as a clerk in the office of the Louis Janin mining firm, and in 1897 he was made assistant manager of the company's mining operation in New Mexico. His work also took him to the states of Arizona, Nevada, and Wyoming.

When Hoover was twenty-three, he was hired by a British mining company called Bewick, Moering. He went to work in the firm's remote mining camp in Australia, traveling by horse and camel over miles of dusty land and enduring blistering heat and insects. The company sent him to China in 1898. The next year he married Lou Henry. She joined him in China, just in time for the beginning of a conflict called the Boxer Rebellion, an uprising by people dissatisfied with the country's troubles and convinced that foreigners were to blame. Hoover took part in the defense of Tientsin when the city was attacked, while his new wife helped tend to the wounded.

Hoover rose through the ranks at Bewick, Moering and was sent to numerous locations in Asia, Europe, and Africa, usually leading teams that opened or operated mines. Hoover had become a millionaire by the time he was forty years old. Beginning in 1901, the main residence for Hoover and his family, which eventually included sons Herbert Jr. and Allan, was a large country house near London, England, complete with servants and extensive grounds. Retired from mining, Hoover had begun to feel restless when, in 1914, World War I broke out in Europe. This conflict involved a group of nations called the Allies (Great Britain, France, and Italy) that fought against Germany in its bid to expand its territory.

Gaining a reputation for competence

In the opening days of the war, a large number of U.S. citizens, most of them tourists, found themselves stranded in England. The U.S. government called on Hoover to try to resolve the situation, and within six weeks he had helped 120,000 people return to the United States. His reputation for competence and action soon led to his appointment as head of the Committee for Relief in Belgium (that country had been occupied by Germany, and many refugees were streaming across its borders into other nations). By the end of the war, Hoover's group would provide food to eleven million Belgian and French refugees, and he would help to raise two hundred million dollars in donations to assist the cause.

In 1917 the United States entered the war, and President Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924; served 1913–21) made Hoover head of the U.S. Food Administration. In this position he coordinated the production and supply of two million bushels of wheat to the starving people of war-torn Europe, while also urging food conservation in the United States. When the war ended, Hoover took part in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, serving as an advisor to Wilson, among other roles. Two years later he directed a program to help ease suffering caused by a famine in the Soviet Union.

By this time Hoover had become a beloved figure to many Europeans, who sent cards and letters to thank him for the "Hoover lunches" they had received during the war. In Finland it became common to use the word "Hoover" to describe acts of kindness.

As the 1920 election approached, Hoover, who was a Republican, was seen as a possible candidate by both political parties. In the end, however, the Republican nomination went to Harding, who appointed Hoover secretary of commerce (the department that oversees trade and business concerns). He would remain in this position after Harding's unexpected death in 1923, when Vice President Calvin Coolidge (1872–1933; served 1923–29; see entry) became president.

One of the most active commerce secretaries ever

Hoover was a strong believer in individualism, equal opportunity, and self-reliance, values he explained in his 1922 book American Individualism. At the same time, he felt that business should be concerned not just with profit but also with public service and social responsibility. His vision of what he called "cooperative capitalism" tempered the laissez-faire approach (the belief that government should loosen its control of the economy and society in general) that dominated the 1920s with a concern for the less fortunate members of society.

Hoover poured all of his considerable energy and intellect into his job, becoming one of the most active commerce secretaries in the nation's history. Calling for cooperation instead of intense competition, he encouraged businesses and industries to voluntarily form trade associations; he also promoted the establishment of cooperative farm markets and sought to expand markets for U.S. products overseas. Under Hoover's direction, a new Division of Housing was set up and the Bureau of Standards was strengthened. He pushed for regulation of the fledgling radio and aviation industries and encouraged several states to cooperate in the construction of the huge, much-needed dam on the Colorado River that bears his name.

An outspoken advocate of efficiency in government, Hoover also made evident a genuine concern for others. During the devastating flood of the Mississippi River in 1927, 25,000 square miles (64,750 square kilometers) of land were underwater, and a million people were left homeless. Hoover took a very direct role in relief efforts, coordinating the provision of food, clothing, and housing and personally overseeing the construction of tent cities and rescue and evacuation boats. It was through actions like these that Hoover earned the nickname "the Great Humanitarian."

As the 1928 election approached, Coolidge surprised everyone by declining to run for reelection. The Republican Party soon put Hoover forward as a candidate, and he easily

From Hoover Lunches to Hoovervilles

Prior to his election to the presidency, Herbert Hoover earned the nickname of the Great Humanitarian for his efforts on behalf of people facing big crises. By the 1930s, however, his name was used to refer with scorn to poor, makeshift items.

As head of the U.S. Food Administration, Hoover spearheaded the effort to supply two million bushels of wheat to starving Europeans ravaged by World War I. Grateful Europeans referred positively to the food received from these efforts as "Hoover lunches." In 1917, as commerce secretary, he coordinated relief efforts after the Mississippi River flooded and left one million people homeless, ensuring that food, clothing, and housing were available to the flood's victims. But by the early 1930s Hoover's name no longer brought to mind charity and goodwill.

The United States was caught in the early years of the Great Depression, a long period of economic decline, rising unemployment, and hardship. Thousands of people found themselves out of work, unable to find new jobs, pay their bills, or buy food for their families. President Hoover believed that the nation's economy was best handled without government interference. At the same time, the general belief of the day was that people were responsible for their own success or failure. Aid for the unemployed, homeless, or hungry did not exist, and Hoover refused to grant government money to help those most affected by the Depression.

Unable to make a living or maintain their homes, tens of thousands of people were forced to live in shantytowns and scavenge for food. These shantytowns, made of scrap metal, wood, and whatever else could be fashioned into a shelter, came to be called "Hoovervilles," an insult to the president who was seen as doing little to help the U.S. people. Hoover's name was also attached in an uncomplimentary manner to other items. The homeless covered themselves with "Hoover blankets," which were old newspapers. Jackrabbits caught for food were called "Hoover hogs." Broken-down automobiles drawn by mules were "Hoover wagons."

Hoover's inability to meet the changing needs of the nation as it suffered through its worst economic crisis in its history changed his reputation and his popularity with the public. Despite his significant humanitarian efforts earlier in his career, he was unable to lead the nation through this dark time. Franklin D. Roosevelt succeeded Hoover to the presidency after the 1932 election. He was elected under the promise to use government funds to help put people to work and to provide assistance with food and housing for those in need.

won the nomination. After a campaign during which Hoover pledged to continue with the same policies as the Coolidge administration—lowering taxes, reducing the national debt, and maintaining an isolationist stance (staying out of other nations' problems) in foreign affairs—Hoover beat the Democratic candidate, New York governor Al Smith (1873–1944), by more than six million votes.

A presidency overshadowed by disaster

Clearly, voters had closely associated Hoover with the general prosperity that most of the nation had enjoyed throughout the Republican-dominated 1920s. Hoover forecast only good times for the nation in his March 1929 inaugural speech. As quoted in Erica Hanson's book The 1920s, he declared, "I have no fears for the future of our country. It is bright with hope."

For many years Hoover's presidency would be closely linked to the economic disaster that occurred before the end of its first year. Few now remember Hoover's significant accomplishments, especially in domestic affairs. A consistent advocate for conserving natural resources, he oversaw the expansion of national forests and parks. He boosted the budget for highway construction and promoted prison reform, improved child welfare, ensured better treatment for African Americans, and oversaw the growth of the aviation industry.

In foreign affairs Hoover advocated good relations with the Latin American nations and made a goodwill tour of that region early in his presidency. He tried to promote international peace through two disarmament conferences (meetings at which country representatives discussed reducing weapons), in London in 1930 and in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1932, but these were ultimately unsuccessful. When Japan invaded the Chinese region of Manchuria in 1931, Hoover directed Secretary of State Henry Stimson (1867–1950) to issue a condemnation of the action, but he did not impose economic sanctions (penalties) on Japan; some saw this as a mistake that allowed Japan to gain more power, leading to the outbreak of World War II (1939–45). In order to help the struggling European economies, Hoover arranged a one-year moratorium (temporary postponement) of debts owed to the United States from World War I.

Generally, though, Hoover's presidency was overshadowed by the events that began in October 1929. The 1920s had been dominated by a mood of optimism and prosperity, but as the end of the decade approached, some observers suggested that the economy could not continue to expand like this forever. Warning signs included a decline in construction and in consumer demand for some products, such as automobiles, coupled with a ballooning tendency for people to buy things on credit. Also very troubling was the tremendous rise in stock prices.

People who buy stocks in various companies are giving those businesses money with which to operate, in the hope of sharing in the profits when the company performs well. An increase in the price of a stock means that more people want to buy that stock, making it more valuable. When the price decreases, the stock loses value and investors may lose money. During the 1920s more U.S. citizens than ever before were investing in the stock market. Some were using their own savings, while others were borrowing money or buying stocks "on the margin" (with loans from stockbrokers that had to be repaid immediately if the stock lost value).

Many investors hoped to make a fortune on the stock market and believed that prices would continue to rise indefinitely. The New York Stock Exchange was trading six million to seven million shares (or stocks) per day by 1928, compared to a more normal rate of three million to four million. The high prices of stocks did not reflect their real value or the real earning capacity of companies. In the fall of 1929 stock market prices began dipping. Worried investors began selling off their stocks, which led to a general mood of panic. On October 24, a day known as Black Thursday, orders to sell stocks rose dramatically, while prices fell at the same steep rate. Public hysteria mounted, and five days later, on Black Tuesday, the crash was complete. Numerous banks were left with no cash to pay back loans, and many depositors lost their life savings.

Unable to ease the nation's woes

The nation was profoundly shaken by this financial collapse. In the days immediately following the crash, Hoover issued statements that were meant to comfort people and restore calm. But the situation only worsened. In response, Hoover followed his lifelong instincts, focusing on voluntary action rather than government intervention. He urged industry leaders not to cut jobs and wages, and he asked banks to join

together to help other banks in trouble. Hoover called on charity organizations and local governments to help those who were unemployed, homeless, or hungry.

It soon became clear that the nation was in a full-blown economic depression. Meanwhile, Hoover put most of the blame for the nation's weak economy on outside sources, especially the poor European economies. He signed the Hawley-Smoot Tariff, which raised the rates that other countries had to pay to import their goods into the United States. This, however, only caused resentment and led to a decline in exports leaving the United States, which some said made the depression worse.

By 1931 Hoover was forced to take more drastic steps. He established the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, which provided emergency loans to banks and businesses such as insurance companies. He supported legislation that would provide more loans for home construction. Yet he remained steadfastly opposed to the idea of starting big public works projects to give people jobs, as the Democrats were suggesting. Hoover feared that this would lead to a disastrous budget deficit (an excess in government spending). Further, he firmly believed that offering people such help from the federal government would chip away at the self-reliance and love of freedom that he valued so highly.

Meanwhile, people were suffering as the unemployment rate rose steadily, businesses closed their doors, and families could not make ends meet. The man who had always been called the Great Humanitarian now seemed uncaring. The final blow to Hoover's reputation came in the spring of 1932, when about seventeen thousand veterans of World War I marched to Washington, D.C., to demand immediate payment of the bonuses they had been promised for their military service. The Senate defeated their proposal and most returned to their homes, but some remained in the makeshift village of shacks that had been built for them. An attempt to make them leave resulted in the deaths of two veterans and two police officers. In response, Hoover called out federal troops to evict those who remained, a measure that many people saw as unnecessarily harsh.

As the 1932 election campaign got under way, 23 percent of U.S. workers were unemployed. The Democratic candidate was the dynamic Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882–1945; served 1933–45), who promised voters a program he called a "New Deal" to ease the nation's woes. Hoover warned that the changes Roosevelt was proposing were too radical, but he seemed to have lost the public's confidence. Roosevelt won the election by a landslide, gaining 22.8 million votes to Hoover's 15.7 million.

After leaving office, an embittered Hoover continued to criticize Roosevelt's policies, describing them in his 1934 book The Challenge to Liberty as threats to freedom and free enterprise. Tensions between Hoover and the Republican Party leadership made his quiet bids for the Republican nomination in 1936 and 1940 unsuccessful. Although he continued to write and lecture, Hoover was not again active in government until 1947, when President Harry S Truman (1884–1972; served 1945–53) appointed him to preside over the Committee on Reorganization of the Executive Branch, which researched ways to make government more streamlined and efficient. He served in the same position again under President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969; served 1953–61).

By the time of his death in 1964, Hoover had become something of an elder statesman, respected for his experience and recognized for his contributions.

For More Information

Books

Burner, David. Herbert Hoover: A Public Life. New York: Knopf, 1978.

Clinton, Susan. Herbert Hoover: Thirty-First President of the United States. Chicago, IL: Children's Press, 1988.

Fausold, Martin. The Presidency of Herbert C. Hoover. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1985.

Hanson, Erica. The 1920s. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books, 1999.

Hoff-Wilson, Joan. Herbert Hoover: A Public Life. Boston: Beacon, 1984.

Hoff-Wilson, Joan. Herbert Hoover, Forgotten Progressive. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975.

Nash, George H. The Life of Herbert Hoover, Vol. I. New York: Norton, 1983.

Nye, Frank T., Jr. Doors of Opportunity: The Life and Legacy of Herbert Hoover. West Branch, IA: The Herbert Hoover Presidential Library Association, 1988.

Polikoff, Barbara G. Herbert C. Hoover: 31st President of the United States. Ada, OK: Garrett Educational Corporation, 1990.