Old World fruit bats II

(All other genera)

Class Mammalia

Order Chiroptera

Suborder Megachiroptera

Family Pteropodidae

Thumbnail description
Small to the largest bats, dog-like or lemur-like faces, relatively small external ear with no tragus, no echolocation with one exception, visually oriented with color vision, claws on first and second digits, tail is short, vestigial or absent; includes fruit bats, flying foxes, blossom bats, rousette bats, and tube-nosed bats

Size
Head and body length, 2–15.7 in (5–40 cm); weight, 0.4–42.3 oz (12–1,200 g)

Number of genera, species
38–41 genera, approximately 106 species (excluding Pteropus)

Habitat
Forest, woodland, montane forests, savanna, scrub, swampy forests, and mangrove

Conservation status
Extinct: 3 species; Critically Endangered: 6 species; Endangered: 3 species; Vulnerable: 20 species; Lower Risk/Near Threatened: 15 species; Data Deficient: 3 species

Distribution
Tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World (i.e., the Paleotropics) ranging from Africa east to Australia and the Caroline and Cook Islands

Evolution and systematics

The evolution of bats is not well known. Because bat bones are fragile, their fossil record is very incomplete. The oldest fossil bats date back to 50 million years ago (mya) and were found at sites in Wyoming and Germany. These specimens are fully evolved bats. The oldest megachiropteran fossils date to around 35–25 mya in the Oligocene of Italy.

In the late 1980s Jack Pettigrew of the University of Queensland presented evidence that the megachiropterans were a convergence with the Microchiroptera (insectivorous bats). He pointed out that fruit bats and primates shared derived traits, in particular the neural pathway from the retina of the eye to the tectal (roof of the midbrain) portion of the brain. He concluded that the order Chiroptera was polyphyletic and that the megachiropterans were actually flying primates. This proposal stimulated discussion for several years. By 1994 Simmons presented molecular evidence from over 30 studies that supported the chiropteran monophyly. The two suborders, Microchiroptera and Megachiroptera, are much more closely related to each other than to primates. Nevertheless, the primates are close relatives, along with the colugos and tree shrews. These four mammal groups are often grouped together in the grandorder Archonta. It is interesting to note that Linnaeus, the founder of taxonomy, included all four of the archontan taxa in the order Primates.

Physical characteristics

Body size of fruit bats, flying foxes, rousettes, tube-nosed bats, and blossom bats ranges from small (around 0.4 oz/12 g) to large (42.3 oz/1,200 g). They have dog-like faces with long snouts, which is the reason that some species are called flying foxes. Fruit bats differ in a number of features from the small insectivorous bats of the order Microchiroptera. Fruit bats are primarily visually oriented and have large forward facing eyes that give them depth perception. The retina contains cones for color vision. These bats have good daytime and nocturnal vision, but they are inactive in complete darkness. Except for the rousette bat, fruit bats do not echolocate. Consequently, most have a simple and relatively small external ear without a tragus. The sense of smell is also well developed in fruit bats. All fruit bats have claws on the first digit (thumb) and, unlike microchiropterans, most have claws on the second digits of the wing skeleton. Wings tend to be broad. These bats do not fly as fast as microchiropterans nor

do they perform the aerobatics of their relatives. They do travel long distances and have good hovering ability; some are even able to fly backwards. The wing is mostly devoid of fur. The wing membrane of one genus extends to the vertebral column creating a naked back. The tail is short, vestigial, or absent altogether. The uropatagium, a segment of membrane between the legs that helps provide lift, is not present in those species with a reduced or absent tail. The legs are splayed to the side like a reptile rather than underneath the body like other mammals. The hind paws are completely clawed. They are used predominantly for hanging upside down and, in conjunction with the clawed thumb, are used for climbing in trees.

The number of teeth is variable and ranges from Rousettus with a dental formula of (I2/2 C1/1 P3/3 M2/3) × 2 = 34 teeth, to Nyctimene and Paranyctimene having a dental formula of (I1/0 C1/1 P3/3 M1/2) × 2 = 24 teeth. The teeth of other species are intermediate in number: 32, 30, or 28 teeth in total. The incisors are small, canines are always present, and the cheek teeth (premolars and molars) tend to be flat and wide, suitable for crushing soft fruit. Tongues are sometimes long and mobile, especially in the nectarivorous species. In fruit eating species the tongue is used to crush food against the transverse ridges of the palate (roof of the mouth). In some species, such as the hammer-headed fruit bat, these ridges are highly developed.

The most common pelage (fur coat) color is dark brown, but this is highly variable. The ventrum (the belly side) is often a lighter color, such as off white or yellow.

Sexual dimorphism is often present. The most common difference between males and females is body size, but males may also differ in pelage patterns, especially on the head. Other male characteristics are hair tufts on the shoulders (epaulettes) and large pharyngeal sacs in the thoracic region.

Distribution

The fruit bats are confined to the Old World, ranging from Africa to Southeast Asia to Australasia and the islands of the western Pacific.

Habitat

Most fruit bats live in humid forests of the tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World (Paleotropics).

Behavior

For the most part fruit bats are gregarious animals that form roosting colonies (often called camps) during the day of from 10 to over one million animals. Most roost in trees, but some occupy caves or human-built structures. Many species have grooming sessions just before they take flight. Some of the smaller species and a few of the nectarivorous species roost alone. In many cases when fruit bats take flight from the roost they forage alone.

Fruit bats are crepuscular, meaning they are most active at dawn and dusk. They are occasionally active during the day when moving from one location to another in a tree for thermoregulation.

Feeding ecology and diet

Fruit bats, as the name implies, are mainly frugivorous. However, some genera consume mainly nectar and pollen. Unlike the microchiropterans, there are no insectivorous fruit bats. Fruit bats obtain a piece of fruit and fly to a feeding tree.

There they hang upside down by one foot, press the fruit to their chest with the other foot, and bite off pieces. They ingest the fruit, crush it against the palate with the tongue, consume the juice, and spit out the pulp and seeds. Because of this feeding behavior they are important seed dispersers. Nectarivorous bats, such as the blossom bats, have a long narrow snout and a long protrusible tongue that enables them to reach nectar in flowers. Some are pollinators and have a brushlike tip on the tongue for collecting pollen. During feeding some of the pollen sticks to their noses and the fur on the snout. When they visit the next flower they leave some pollen from the first flower.

Reproductive biology

Most fruit bats have two breeding seasons a year, although the females of most species only conceive in one of the seasons. They tend to be polygamous with males attempting to mate with as many females as possible (although many do not mate at all) and females mating with two or more males. There is at least one species that is believed to be monogamous. Delayed

implantation occurs in some species. The ovum is fertilized, but the zygote goes into stasis rather than implanting in the uterine wall. When conditions are right the zygote is implanted and begins development. Births are usually synchronized to correspond with the period of greatest food availability. Single births are the norm. Gestation is between four and six months.

Conservation status

Old World fruit bats are threatened as a group. Three recent species have already become Extinct. Six are Critically Endangered, and three are Endangered. Twenty species are Vulnerable. Fifteen species have Near Threatened status. Thus, of the approximately 102 species of megachiropterans outside of the genus Pteropus, 46% are on the World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List of species of concern. The main threats to Old World fruit bats include habitat destruction, hunting and sale of bush meat, and extermination because they are perceived as agricultural pests.

Significance to humans

Old World fruit bats are often the major pollinators of a particular region. Removal of these bats can actually harm agriculture. At the same time fruit bats are viewed as pests that destroy crops. In at least one case this has been demonstrated not to be true; the bats were being blamed for damage caused mainly by monkeys. More study needs to be done on this issue. Old World fruit bats are exploited commercially as meat in some parts of their range.

Species accounts

List of Species

Egyptian rousette

Rousettus aegyptiacus

subfamily

Pteropodinae

taxonomy

Pteropus aegyptiacus (Geoffroy, 1810), Giza, Egypt.

other common names

English: Egyptian fruit bat, Arabian rousette, Cape rousette, West African rousette; German: Agyptischer Flughund.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 4.5–5 in (11.4–12.7 cm); forearm length 3.3–3.5 in (8.4–8.9 cm); wingspan, 23.6 in (60 cm); tail length, 0.4–0.9 in (1–2.2 cm); weight, 2.8–6 oz (80–170 g). Pelage is brownish gray. Ventrum is a lighter gray.

distribution

Southern, western, and eastern Africa, Egypt to Turkey, Cyprus, Arabian peninsula east to Pakistan.

habitat

Egyptian rousettes prefer slightly humid dark roosts. Most are found in caves, where they occupy the walls and ceilings close to the opening. Other roosting places are trees, rock crevices, human-built structures, including ancient ruins (the type specimen

was collected from the Great Pyramid), wells, and underground irrigation tunnels. They also have been observed in savannas.

behavior

Gregarious, size of camp varies. In Pakistan roosting colonies may be small, approximately 20–40 individuals. In South Africa large camps were observed having from 7,000 to 9,000 bats. Unlike the other megachiropterans, this fruit bat employs echolocation. Unlike microchiropterans, which echolocate by ultrasonic signals produced in the larynx and emitted through nostrils or the mouth, rousettes make an audible clicking sound with their tongues.

feeding ecology and diet

Food preference is very ripe fruit. Farmers often blame these bats for destruction of their crops, but they will not consume green fruit growing on a farm.

reproductive biology

Varies depending on environment. Most populations appear to have two breeding seasons. Gestation is about six months and one pup a year the norm. In some locations breeding seasons appear to correspond to the end of a rainy season. Thought to be polygamous.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Regarded as a pest over much of its range. In particular it is falsely perceived as a major threat to crops. Egyptian rousettes serve as pollinators.

Straw-colored fruit bat

Eidolon helvum

subfamily

Pteropodinae

taxonomy

Vespertilo vampyrus helvus (Kerr, 1792), Senegal.

other common names

English: Yellow fruit bat.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 5.5–7.9 in (14–20 cm); forearm length, 4.3–5.1 in (11–13 cm); tail length, 0.2–0.8 in (0.4–2 cm); weight, 8.1–12.3 oz (230–350 g). Pelage is brown, yellow, or reddish gray, yellowish ventrum, and a wide yellowish collar.

distribution

Africa south of the Sahara, north into Ethiopia and Egypt, southwestern Arabia.

habitat

Tropical forests, but also found in urban areas where human activity does not seem to disturb it. Savannas. Found up to 6,562 ft (2,000 m) altitude. Prefers tall trees for roosts.

behavior

Gregarious. There have been reports that mixed sex colonies may actually number from 100,000 to one million. Eisentraut reported 10,000, which is probably the more usual number. Camps break up from around June to September. Migrate seasonally in small groups, but return to same roosting sites year after year.

feeding ecology and diet

A variety of ripe fruit including domestic crops such as mango, bananas, and papaya. Appears to travel long distances when foraging.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Appears to have a single breeding season, but delayed implantation may occur during the dry season. Consequently, females all give birth at the same time during the rainy season. Actual gestation believed to last four months and a single pup is the norm.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Perceived as a threat to agriculture. Hunted as bushmeat. In some parts of Africa, local populations believe eating the meat of these bats increases women's fertility. A vector for rabies.

Golden-crowned flying fox

Acerodon jubatus

subfamily

Pteropodinae

taxonomy

Pteropus jubatus (Eschscholtz, 1831), Manila, Philippines.

other common names

English: Golden-capped fruit bat; Spanish: Zorro volador filipino.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 7–11.4 in (17.8–29 cm); forearm length, 4.9–7.9 in (12.5–20 cm); wingspan, 4.9–5.6 ft (1.5–1.7m); no tail; weight 1–2.6 lb (450–1,200 g). Pelage is variable, but ranges from brown to black. The crown of the head is comprised of golden-yellow fur as indicated by the common name.

distribution

Philippines.

habitat

Primary and secondary forest, montane forest, swamps, and mangroves. Has been observed at 3,609 ft (1,100 m) altitude.

behavior

Gregarious. In the past camps were reported to contain up to 150,000 animals, but recent reports estimate around 5,000 individuals in roosting colonies. Observed association with large flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus).

feeding ecology and diet

Mainly figs, occasional cultivated fruits. Appear to travel long distances when foraging. Small foraging units consist of from two to six animals.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Appear to have two breeding seasons, but females only become pregnant during one of them. Single births are the norm. Females reach sexual maturity in two years.

conservation status

Endangered.

significance to humans

Subsistence hunting, commercially exploited for meat.

Hammer-headed fruit bat

Hypsignathus monstrosus

subfamily

Pteropodinae

taxonomy

Hypsignathus monstrosus Allen, 1861, Gabon.

other common names

English: Horse-faced bat; German: Hammerkopf.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 7.9 in (20 cm); forearm length, 4.6–5.4 in (11.8–13.7 cm); wingspan, 35.4 in (90 cm). These bats exhibit the greatest sexual dimorphism of any member of the order Chiroptera. Males are twice the size of females. They weigh 14.8 oz (420 g), while females weigh 8.3 oz (234 g). This is the largest African fruit bat. Pelage is grayish brown with a lighter ventrum. Females have a fox-like face and resemble Epomophorus. Males have a very different appearance, probably as a result of a form of sexual selection called "female choice." The skull is elongated presenting a hammer-like appearance. The muzzle is inflated and widened at the front and covered by large cheek pouches, which serve as a resonating chamber. There is an enlarged larynx that fills much of the thoracic cavity and enables them to make a booming frog-like croaking. The large extensible lips form a "megaphone."

distribution

Western and central Africa.

habitat

Found primarily in tropical rainforest. Also located in swamps, mangroves, and gallery forest.

behavior

The most significant behavior was described by Bradbury in 1977. Hammer-headed bats are one of the few vertebrates that use arenas or leks for mating. Males aggregate twice a year in an area and fight for territories. The leks consist of from 25 to 130 males. When the females arrive the males display by making honking calls and flapping their wings. The females choose the males they wish to mate with. Seventy-nine percent of the matings are performed by only 6% of the males in any one breeding season.

feeding ecology and diet

Males eat figs, females and juveniles consume softer fruits. It has been suggested that males consume the more nutritious figs because they need the additional energy for displays.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Two breeding seasons, June-August and December-January. One offspring is the norm. Females mature within six months of birth, males within 18 months. See behavior above.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Consumed as bushmeat.

Singing fruit bat

Epomops franqueti

subfamily

Pteropodinae

taxonomy

Epomophorus franqueti (Tomes, 1860), Gabon.

other common names

English: Franquet's epauletted bat.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 5.3–7.1 in, (13.5–18 cm); forearm length, 2.8–3.9 in (7–10 cm); no tail; weight, 2–4 oz (56–115g). Pelage is pale brown to cream, the sides are dark brown with large white stomach spots. White or yellow shoulder epaulets are hidden in a pouch until skin muscles evert the tufts for display. Males have two large pharyngeal sacs and an enlarged larynx that enables them to make a high-pitched sound.

distribution

Western through central Africa.

habitat

Tropical rainforests, dry lowland forests, and woodland-savanna mosaics.

behavior

Solitary or in small groups of two or three. Males "sing" by making a high pitched sound that has the quality of a musical note. When netted, both males and females emit defensive squeaking noises.

feeding ecology and diet

Fruit. They obtain nourishment by placing their lips around fruit and sucking out juice and the soft parts of fruit.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. There appears to be two breeding seasons. Offspring are born at the beginning of each of the two rainy seasons. Gestation is five to six months. A single pup is the norm. Females are sexually mature at six months and can conceive at one year, males become sexually mature at 11 months.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Considered to be a great agricultural pest.

Wahlberg's epauletted fruit bat

Epomophorus wahlbergi

subfamily

Pteropodinae

taxonomy

Pteropus wahlbergi (Sundevall, 1846), vicinity of Durban, Natal, South Africa.

other common names

None known.

physical characteristics

Sexually dimorphic with males slightly larger than females. Head and body length, 5.5–9.8 in (14–25 cm); forearm length, males 2.8–3.7 in (7.2–9.5 cm), females 2.7–3.5 in (6.8–8.8 cm); wingspan, males 201–236 in (510–600 cm), females 179.5–212.5 in (456–540 cm); weight, males 2.1–4.4 oz (60–124 g), females 1.9–4.4 oz (54–125 g). Pelage is dark brown, in females the ventrum is lighter and the neck is white. Males have white tufts at the base of the pinna (the fleshy external ear), white shoulder epaulettes, and a small pharyngeal sac. The shoulder epaulets are hidden in a pouch until skin muscles evert the tufts for display. Both sexes have expandable pendulous lips.

distribution

Eastern and southeastern Africa.

habitat

Edges of forest, woodlands, and savanna.

behavior

Roosts in camps of 3–100 individuals. About 30 minutes before flight time there is intensive grooming. Little interaction is observed

among individuals outside the roosting time. Males hang on branches, evert their tufts, and make calls after leaving the day roost. This appears to have a territorial function to separate males. During the breeding season it probably serves to attract females.

feeding ecology and diet

Consume figs, guava, bananas, and nectar. Stomach contents of several individuals contained beetles suggesting some insectivory. These bats fly considerable distances from roosts to feeding areas.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Two breeding seasons a year. Gestation lasts 5–6 months. Single births are the norm.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Believed to cause some crop damage. Considered a pest because their calls keep people awake at night and their guano droppings fall on human-built structures.

Dwarf epauletted fruit bat

Micropteropus pusillus

subfamily

Pteropodinae

taxonomy

Epomorphorus pusillus (Peters, 1867), Yoruba, Nigeria.

other common names

English: Peters's dwarf epauletted fruit bat.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 2.6–3.7 in (6.7–9.5 cm); forearm length, 1.8–2.2 (4.6–5.6 cm); tail length variable, lacking in some individuals to 0.2 in (0.4 cm) in others; weight 0.8–1.2 oz (24–35g). Males larger than females. Pelage light brown with a lighter ventrum. Males have white tufts at the base of the pinna and white shoulder epaulettes. The shoulder epaulets are hidden in a pouch until skin muscles evert the tufts for display. Similar in morphology to Epomorphorus, but smaller in body size and a shorter muzzle.

distribution

Western, southwestern, and central Africa.

habitat

Savanna woodlands and forest edge.

behavior

Usually solitary or with one other conspecific. Sometimes found in groups up to 10. Males display with erect epaulets and croaking calls. Nomadic and does not return to regular sleeping or feeding trees. Cryptic species that is not easily disturbed or observed.

feeding ecology and diet

Consumes small fruits, nectar, and pollen. They obtain nourishment by placing their lips around fruit and sucking.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Two breeding seasons. Single young is the norm. Mating behavior is unknown, but it is presumed that males make displays.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Indian fruit bat

Cynopterus sphinx

subfamily

Pteropodinae

taxonomy

Vespertilio sphinx (Vahl, 1797), Tranquebar, Madras, India.

other common names

English: Short-nosed fruit bat, dog-faced fruit bat.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 2.8–5.1 in (7–13 cm); forearm length, 2.5–3.1 in (6.4–7.9 cm); wingspan, 12–18.9 in (30.5–48 cm); tail length, 2.4–5.9 in (6–15 cm); weight, 0.9–3.5 oz (25–100g). Pelage color ranges from rusty brown to olive. These bats have pronounced tubular nostrils (although they are not part of the tube-nosed fruit bat subfamily).

distribution

Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Islands of Southeast Asia to Borneo and Sulawesi.

habitat

Forests, farms, and city parks.

behavior

Variable. May be found singly; small roosting groups of three or four individuals are common, but camps of up to 25 have

been observed. Older males roost alone, younger males roost with females. In some locations one-male units (or harems) exists during breeding season. Males construct elaborate shelters called "stem tents" over a period of one to two months. One male attracts 2–20 females. The stem tent is used for roosting during the day and as a nursery for the pups. After the pups are weaned the males and females separate into unisex groups.

feeding ecology and diet

Ripe fruit such as figs, soursop, and mango, flowers, nectar, and pollen.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Two breeding seasons. Females produce one offspring per year. Gestation lasts about four months. Females reach sexual maturity at about five months, males at around 15 months.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Some Asian populations use these bats for medicinal purposes.

Dyak fruit bat

Dyacopterus spadiceus

subfamily

Pteropodinae

taxonomy

Cynopteropus spadiceus (Thomas, 1890), Baram, Sarawak, Malaysia.

other common names

None known.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 3.9-5.9 in (10–15 cm); forearm length, 3–3.5 in (7.6–9 cm); tail length, 0.5–0.7 in (1.3–1.8 cm); weight, 2.5–3.5 oz (70–100 g). Pelage brown back and flanks, off-white ventrum, light yellow shoulders.

distribution

Islands of Southeast Asia including the southern Philippines.

habitat

Lowland primary forest and montane forest. Has been observed in open areas.

behavior

Little known. May be monogamous.

feeding ecology and diet

Little known, but skull and dental morphology suggests fruit. One group was observed consuming figs.

reproductive biology

Little known. Some captured males had functional mammary glands and were lactating. This suggests that males may be involved in care of offspring. Thought to be polygamous.

conservation status

Lower Risk/Near Threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Harpy fruit bat

Harpyionycteris whiteheadi

subfamily

Harpyionycterinae

taxonomy

Harpyionycteris whiteheadi Thomas, 1896, Mindoro Island, Philippines.

other common names

German: Whitehead-Spitzzahn-Flughund.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 5.5–6 in (14–15.3 cm); forearm length, 3.2–3.6 in (8.2–9.2 cm); no tail; weight, 2.9–5 oz (83–142 g). Pelage is chocolate to dark brown, ventrum is lighter. Differs from all other fruit bats in its dental structure. The molars have 5–6 cusps, the lower canines have three cusps, and the incisors are directed forward.

distribution

Philippines, Sulawesi.

habitat

Undisturbed primary rainforest and lower montane forest up to 5,906 ft (1,800 m).

behavior

Nothing known.

feeding ecology and diet

Fruit. Observed consuming pandan fruit and figs. Forage in canopy.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Two breeding seasons. Females give birth to one pup twice a year. Gestation 4–5 months. Females appear to become sexually mature within the first year of life.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Dawn fruit bat

Eonycteris spelaea

subfamily

Macroglossinae

taxonomy

Macroglossus spelaeus (Dobson, 1873), Moulmein, Tenasserim, Myanmar.

other common names

English: Cave fruit bat, common nectar-feeding fruit bat, Dobson's long-tongued dawn bat.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 3.3–4.9 in (8.5–12.5 cm); forearm length, 2.6–3.1 in (6.6–7.8 cm); tail length, 0.5–1.3 in (1.2–3.3 cm). Sexual dimorphism in body weight, males weighing between 1.9–2.9 oz (55–82 g) and females weighing 1.2–2.8 oz (35–78 g). Brown pelage with gray mottled ventrum. Males have a frill of longer hairs on the sides of their necks. Has long protrusible tongue with brush at the end.

distribution

Southeast Asia from Myanmar through Indonesia to the Philippines and Sulawesi.

habitat

Primary forest and cultivated land.

behavior

Gregarious with roosting colonies in caves that number from a dozen to over 10,000, which are, in turn, divided into sexually segregated clusters. Roost in caves. Form associations with Leschenault's rousette (Rousettus leschenaulti). Some, perhaps most, of the individuals observed in roosting camps may be of this species.

feeding ecology and diet

Nectar and pollen from night flowering plants.

reproductive biology

Females appear to come into estrus twice a year, but it is not synchronized with other females or with any particular season. Gestation in the dawn fruit bat has been reported to be 3–4 months; however, other reports suggest gestation is slightly longer than six months. Females become sexually mature by six months, males by one year of age. Thought to be polygamous.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Pollinator of many important commercial plant species. Hunted for meat.

African long-tongued fruit bat

Megaloglossus woermanni

subfamily

Macroglossinae

taxonomy

Megaloglossus woermanni Pagenstecher, 1885, Sibange farm, Gabon.

other common names

English: Woermann's bat.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 2.8–3 in (7–7.5 cm); forearm length, 1.5–2 in (3.7–5 cm); wingspan, 9.8 in (25 cm); no tail; weight, 0.3–0.6 oz (8.4–15.6 g). Pelage is dark brown with cream ventrum; a dark dorsal crown stripe runs longitudinally to the nape of the neck.

distribution

Along the tropical belt from Guinea to Uganda in Africa.

habitat

Primary and secondary lowland forest.

behavior

Poorly known. Appears to be solitary, but will congregate in unisex or mixed-sex clusters at flowering trees.

feeding ecology and diet

Pollen and nectar.

reproductive biology

Poorly known. May not have a distinct breeding season or may have two breeding seasons. Thought to be polygamous.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Greater long-tongued fruit bat

Macroglossus sobrinus

subfamily

Macroglossinae

taxonomy

Macroglossus minimus sobrinus Andersen, 1911, Gunong Igari, Perak, Malaysia.

other common names

English: Hill long-tongued fruit bat, greater long-tongued nectar bat.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 2.4–3.3 in (6–8.5 cm); forearm length, 1.9–2 in (4.7–5.2 cm); wingspan, 9.8 in (25 cm); no tail; weight, 0.7–0.8 oz (18.5–23 g). Pelage reddish brown, buffy brown ventrum. Elongated muzzle, long tongue with brushlike structures at the end.

distribution

Northeast India to the islands of Southeast Asia to Java and Bali.

habitat

Lowland and montane forest up to 6,562 ft (2,000 m), villages with bamboo, cultivated fruit orchards.

behavior

Solitary, but can sometimes be found roosting in groups up to 10. Sometimes found rolled up in leaves.

feeding ecology and diet

Pollen, nectar, and some soft fruit.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Believed to breed throughout the year. Single young, but it has been reported that females appear to produce two pups per year.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Pollinator; may pollinate cultivated plants.

Southern blossom bat

Syconycteris australis

subfamily

Macroglossinae

taxonomy

Macroglossus minimus var. australis (Peters, 1867), Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia.

other common names

English: Queensland blossom bat, common blossom bat.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 2–3 in (5–7.5 cm); forearm length, 1.5–1.7 in (3.8–4.3 cm); very rudimentary tail; weight, 0.4–0.9 oz (11.5–25 g). Pelage is reddish brown with lighter ventrum. Elongated snout with long protrusible tongue tipped with a brush.

distribution

Moluccas through New Guinea to Bismarck Archipelago to eastern Australia.

habitat

Rainforest.

behavior

Solitary.

feeding ecology and diet

Pollen and nectar. May occasionally consume fruit.

reproductive biology

Poorly known, but it has been suggested that they breed throughout the year. One pup is the norm. Believed to be polygamous.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Pollinato; may pollinate cultivated plants.

Queensland tube-nosed bat

Nyctimene robinsoni

subfamily

Nyctimeninae

taxonomy

Nyctimene robinsoni var. australis Thomas, 1904, Cooktown, Queensland, Australia.

other common names

English: Eastern tube-nosed fruit bat.

physical characteristics

Head and body length, 3–5.1 in (7.5–13 cm); forearm length, 2.4–2.8 in (6–7 cm); tail length, 0.8–1 in (2–2.5 cm); weight, 1.1–1.8 oz (30–50 g). Pelage light brown with a dark dorsal stripe, lighter ventrum, brown wings with yellowish blotches and spots, believed to function as camouflage. Distinctive feature is tubed nostrils which protrude for up to 1 in (2.5 cm), the function of which is not known for certain.

distribution

Tropical and subtropical eastern Australia.

habitat

Tropical rainforest, subtropical rainforest remnants.

behavior

Solitary.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats fruit.

reproductive biology

Polygamous with one breeding season. One pup the norm. Gestation 4.5–5 months. Females sexually mature at seven months.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Resources

Books

Bates, P. J. J., and D. L. Harrison. Bats of the Indian Subcontinent. Sevenoaks, UK: Harrison Zoological Museum Publication, 1997.

Corbet, G. B., and J. E. Hill. A World List of Mammalian Species. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

Eisentraut, M. "The Old World Fruit Bats." In Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Vol. 11, edited by B. Grzimek. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1972.

Macdonald, D., ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File Publications, 1984.

Mickleburgh, S. P., A. M. Hutson, and P. A. Racey. Old World Fruit Bats: An Action Plan for their Conservation. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for the Conservation of Nature, 1992.

Nowak, R. M. Walker's Mammals of the World. 6th ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.

Qumsiyeh, M. B. The Bats of Egypt. Lubbock, TX: Texas University Press, 1985.

Periodicals

Acharya, L. "Epomophorus wahlbergi." Mammalian Species 394 (1992): 1–4.

Balasingh, J., S. Suthakar-Isaac, and R. Subbaraj. "Tent Roosting by the Frugivorous Bat Cynopterus sphinx in Southern India." Current Science 65 (1993): 418.

Bradbury, J. W. "Lek Mating Behavior in the Hammer-headed Bat." Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 45 (1977): 225–255.

Owen-Ashley, N. T., and D. E. Wilson. "Micropteropus pusillus." Mammalian Species 577 (1998): 1–5.

Simmons, N. B. "The Case for Chiropteran Monophyly." American Museum Novitiates 3103 (1994): 1–54.

Tuttle, M. D. "Fruit Bats Exonerated." Bats 1 (1984): 1–2.

Other

International Union for the Conservation of Nature. "Red List of Threatened Species." 2000 [June 11, 2003]. <http://www.redlist.org>.

Marcus Young Owl, PhD