Old World porcupines

(Hystricidae)

Class Mammalia

Order Rodentia

Suborder Hystricognathi

Family Hystricidae

Thumbnail description
Medium-sized to large rodents, with a heavyset body, a tail not more than half as long as the head and body, and short limbs; spines, quills, and bristles cover the back, sides, and parts of the tail

Size
Head and body length 13.8–36.6 in (35–93 cm), tail length 1–10.2 in (2.5–26 cm), weight 3.3–66.1 lb (1.5–30 kg)

Number of genera, species
3 genera; 11 species (extant)

Habitat
Adaptable to a variety of habitats and can be found in such areas as deserts, rocky areas, mountains, savannas, croplands, and forests

Conservation status
Vulnerable: 1 species; Lower Risk/Near Threatened: 2 species.

Distribution
Generally the warmer regions of Asia, Europe, Africa

Evolution and systematics

Old World porcupines evolved from Miocene (24 million to 5 million years ago [mya]) in Asia, from Pliocene (5 to 1.6 mya) in Europe, and from Pleistocene (1.6 mya to 10,000 years ago) in Africa.

Physical characteristics

Bodies range from a rather slender build, in the genus Trichys, to a clumsy and stocky build, in the genus Hystrix. The tail is very short in some species, but can reach around half the head-body length in others. Eyes and external ears are generally small, with a poor sense of sight but a sharp sense of hearing. Nostrils are usually S-shaped, with a sharp sense of smell. The upper lip is cleft, and the tip of the nose is stubbed and covered with velvety hairs. Large, chiselshaped lower and upper incisor teeth do not have longitudinal grooves and grow throughout life; molars are rooted and have irregular enamel folds that are rapidly worn down.

The skull is long and sometimes inflated with air chambers over the rostrum and top of head. The infraorbital foramen (lower orbital cavity in upper jawbone) is unusually enlarged, resulting in portions of masseter (chewing) muscle being penetrated through it, thus enabling muscles to adhere to the frontal side surface of the upper jawbone (called hystricomorphous). The lower jaw is hystricognathous. Features (generally called postorbital processes) possibly evolved to enlarge chewing volume and to allow animals to smell underground bulbs.

Both forelimbs and hind limbs are short and heavily built; as a result, Old World porcupines are excellent diggers and sometimes construct their own burrows. On the two forelimbs, each foot has four well-developed clawed digits and one thumb, which is regressed and externally visible only by nail and thumb pad; each of two hind feet has five functional digits. Claws are short and soles of feet are smooth, naked, and fitted with pads. When walking or running, the entire sole of the foot touches the ground. They are able to swim.

The most characteristic physical features are the quills, spines, and bristles. The head, body, and (in some species) tail are covered by barb-less spines, which are thick, stiff, sharp modified hairs, as much as 13.8 in (35 cm) in length. Spine coloration is brownish or blackish, often with conspicuous white bands around them. All spines lack the barbules that characterize spines of New World porcupines. Longest spines tend to be found on rump and shortest on cheeks. In genus Trichys, for example, spines are short, flattened, and not especially well developed. In genus Hystrix, in contrast, spines develop into hollow quills that reach 7.9 in (20 cm) in length.

Spines vary considerably among species but can be roughly classified into seven groups: (1) stiletto-like quills that are stiff, flattened, with sharp points and longitudinal grooves, which cover most of body; (2) spikes that are thick, inflexible, and

with sharp points; (3) bristle-like quills (also called tactile bristles) that are flexible toward the ends, with a round cross section and sharp points; (4) rattling cups that are hollow, capsule-like structures fastened on the end of tail by a thin stem; (5) platelet bristles that are hollow, flattened, yellowish-white at tail end, with shafts that enlarge at regular intervals; (6) brush-type bristles that are flattened, smooth bristles at tail end that look like narrow parchment strips; and (7) mane bristles that are tufts of hair on head and neck.

Normally, quills lie flat and point to the rear. When the animal is threatened or showing aggression, quills can be raised instantly. Hind feet are usually then stamped and quills shaken with a rattling sound (except for Trichys), which serves as a warning to potential predators. If threat continues, the porcupine may charge backwards or sideways into predator with attempt to strike intruder with quills. Quills are loosely attached but cannot be projected. They penetrate flesh and stick readily. No poison is carried; however, bacteria on quills can infect, and sometimes kill, the victim if the puncture wound is deep enough. The area with detached quills will grow back new quills. Some species possess coarse, flat spines that form an erectable crest on necks and tops of heads.

Distribution

Parts of southern Europe, all across southern Asia, on many islands of the East Indies, and throughout Africa.

Habitat

Old World porcupines are usually terrestrial and normally do not climb trees; need only shelter from the weather and for periodic nesting. They often use abandoned deep burrows of other animals; caves, rock crevices, decaying logs, hollow trees, and holes dug by other animals; or deep burrows that they have excavated themselves. Nests are constructed of plant material within the den. Burrows can be complex systems, where many may live in adjoining burrows and may be used for many years. A single burrow may hold up to 10 individuals.

Behavior

Old World porcupines, which are ground living (terrestrial) and slow moving, are called "Old World" in order to distinguish them from the arboreal (tree climbing) porcupines of the New World. Mainly nocturnal (hiding during the day) and terrestrial. These animals walk heavily on the sole of the foot with the heel touching the ground, and run with a shuffling gait or gallop clumsily when pursued. Except for genus Trichys, they rattle their spines when moving and may also stamp their feet when alarmed. Temperament (from observations

in captivity) ranges from shy and nervous to docile; some species are moderately gregarious. Chief predators are wild cats, birds of prey, hyenas, and pythons.

Feeding ecology and diet

The diet consists of mostly vegetation with many kinds of plant material and crops such as sweet potatoes, bananas, peanuts, pineapple, maize, sugarcane, onions, potatoes, cucumbers, beans, melons, grapes, and mangoes, but carrion feeding and bone gnawing also occurs. Gnawed bones often litter area around dens (may be chewed on for deficient minerals such as calcium). Old World porcupines often gnaw on branches, tree bark, and tree trunks to help teeth wear down properly.

Reproductive biology

An elaborate nighttime dance and courtship involves the male showering the female with urine. If the female is receptive, the male stands motionless in front of the female, then approaches and retreats numerous times while making sounds to her. (If female is not receptive, she will be aggressive toward the courting male.) When ready, the female will raise her rear and tail high with her chest on ground. Male will mount female by clasping her sides with his front paws and balancing on his hind feet. No male weight is transferred to the female. (Males have no external scrotum and the penis normally points backward.) Both males and females loudly whine, grunt, and squeal while mating.

The gestation period is usually 93–110 days, depending on species; breeding occurs usually once a year (sometimes twice), during March to December; usually one to two young, but up to four in a litter is possible. Young are precocial and have fur and the ability to locomote at birth. They weigh about 12 oz (340 g) at birth and nurse for about three to four months, able to feed almost immediately. Eyes are open when born or open within first few hours. Females have two to three pairs of mammae that are located on sides of chest cage, just behind shoulders. After a week or so, soft, short hair-like quills will harden and young may leave nest with mother. Sexual maturity is reached at nine to 18 months. The life span in captivity is at least 10 years, and in the wild, average life span is about 20 years.

Conservation status

The common porcupine (Hystrix brachyura) is considered Vulnerable. Both the thick-spined porcupine (Hystrix crassispinis)

and North African porcupine (Hystrix cristata) are ranked as Lower Risk/Near Threatened by the IUCN. Predation and human encroachment are the main threats, though many Hystricidae species are quite adaptable to changing habitat.

Significance to humans

Porcupines are hunted for meat (considered a delicacy in some societies) and to acquire quills as ornaments and talismans. The animals carry fleas and ticks and transmit a number of diseases, including rickettsiasis and bubonic plague. Because of their habit of gnawing bark off trees and eating agricultural crops, they are often regarded as pests.

Species accounts

List of Species

Indonesian porcupine

Hystrix pumila

subfamily

Hystricinae

taxonomy

Hystrix pumila (Günther, 1879), Palawan, Philippines.

other common names

English: Palawan porcupine.

physical characteristics

Body length is 1.4–3.0 ft (42–93 cm), tail length is 1.0–7.5 in (2.5–19 cm), and weight is 8.4–11.9 lb (3.8–5.4 kg). Short, rounded head; no head or neck mane; upper side is dark brown to black and partially speckled in light color; underside is brown to gray-white. Body is densely covered with flattened quills, each grooved longitudinally and increasing in rigidity near tip. Quills are smaller along tail and more flexible on underside. Coarse, bristle-like hairs cover feet. Nasal bones are small. Subgenus Thecurus resembles subgenus Hystrix in having a shorter tail and longer quills. It resembles subgenus Acanthion in that it lacks a well-defined crest and its quills have only one black band.

distribution

Palawan, Busuanga, and Balabac Islands (Philippines).

habitat

Lowland secondary and primary forests, abandoned and active plantations, and rugged areas.

behavior

Takes refuge in ground caves, rock crevasses, and under fallen trees; frequently two, seldom one or three animals per den; poor climber.

feeding ecology and diet

An assortment of vegetation (similar to family).

reproductive biology

Gestation period is 93–105 days. Mean life span is 9.5 years in captivity.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Hunted for meat. Eat farmers' crops.

Sumatran porcupine

Hystrix sumatrae

subfamily

Hystricinae

taxonomy

Thecurus sumatrae (Lyon, 1907), Sumatra, Indonesia.

other common names

English: Sumatran thick-spined porcupine, Sumatran short-tailed porcupine, Indonesian porcupine.

physical characteristics

Body length is 1.4–3.0 ft (42–93 cm) with mean of 1.8 ft (54 cm), tail length is 1.0–7.5 in (2.5–19 cm) with mean of 4 in (10 cm), and weight is 8.4–11.9 lb (3.8–5.4 kg). Short, rounded head (described as "cat's head"); no head or neck mane; upper side is dark brown to black and partly speckled in light color; underside is brown to gray-white. Body is covered with flattened spines; each grooved longitudinally and increasing in rigidity near tip; spines are interspersed with short hairs. Quills are smaller along tail and more flexible on underside. Specialized "rattling" quills on tail expand near tips, and are hollow so that quills can rattle when vibrated together to warn potential enemies. Coarse, bristle-like hairs cover feet. Nasal bones are small. Subgenus Thecurus resembles subgenus Hystrix in having shorter tail and longer quills. Resem bles subgenus Acanthion in that it lacks well-developed crest and its quills have only one black band.

distribution

Sumatra.

habitat

Takes refuge in ground caves, rock crevasses, and under fallen trees; generally forests, abandoned and active plantations, and in rugged rocky areas.

behavior

Frequently two per den (sometimes one or three). Poor climber.

feeding ecology and diet

An assortment of vegetation (similar to family).

reproductive biology

Gestation period, number of young at birth, weight at birth, weaning period, and sexual maturity are all similar to those of family.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Hunted for meat. Eat farmers' crops, and are thus perceived as pests.

Thick-spined porcupine

Hystrix crassispinis

subfamily

Hystricinae

taxonomy

Hystrix crassispinis (Günther, 1877), Sabah, Malaysia.

other common names

English: Borneo short-tailed porcupine.

physical characteristics

Body length is 1.4–3.0 ft (42–93 cm), tail length is 1.0–7.5 in (2.5–19 cm), and weight is 8.4–11.9 lb (3.8–5.4 kg). Short, rounded head; no head or neck mane; upper side is dark brown to black and partly speckled in light color; underside is brown to gray-white. Body is covered with flattened spines; each grooved longitudinally with increased rigidity near tip. Quills are smaller along tail and more flexible on underside. Coarse, bristle-like hairs cover feet. Nasal bones are small. Subgenus Thecurus resembles subgenus Hystrix in having shorter tail and longer quills. Resembles subgenus Acanthion in that it lacks well-developed crest and its quills have only one black band.

distribution

North Borneo, especially Kalimantan.

habitat

Forests and cultivated areas, from sea level to 3,900 ft (1,200 m).

behavior

Nocturnal; terrestrial.

feeding ecology and diet

Fallen fruits and other vegetable material.

reproductive biology

Gestation period, number of young at birth, weight at birth, weaning period, and sexual maturity are all similar to those of family.

conservation status

Generally, all populations are endangered. Listed by the IUCN as Lower Risk/Near Threatened.

significance to humans

Hunted for meat. Eat farmers' crops, and are thus perceived as pests.

Common porcupine

Hystrix brachyura

subfamily

Hystricinae

taxonomy

Hystrix brachyura Linnaeus, 1758, Malacca, Malaysia.

other common names

English: Common short-tailed porcupine, Malayan porcupine, Southeast Asian porcupine.

physical characteristics

Weight averages 17.6 lb (8 kg), head and body length is 17.9–28.9 in (45.5–73.5 cm), and the tail length is 2.4–5.1 in (6.0–13.0 cm). Spine arrangement and structure resemble sub-genus Thecurus. Front half of body covered with short, dark brown spines, while hindquarters have long, pointed, whitish spines, usually with one blackish ring. Short, whitish crest found on neck and upper back. Short tail has long, pointed spines and rattle quills. Females and males possess hollow quills on tail, which are shaken to scare predators.

distribution

Nepal to southeastern China and Malay Peninsula, Hainan, Sumatra, Kalimantan (in Borneo).

habitat

Forests, lowlands, hills, cultivated areas.

behavior

Nocturnal; terrestrial.

feeding ecology and diet

Fallen fruits including oil palm, roots, and stems.

reproductive biology

Gestation period, number of young at birth, weight at birth, weaning period, and sexual maturity are all similar to those of family.

conservation status

Vulnerable.

significance to humans

Hunted for meat. Eat farmers' crops, and are thus perceived as pests.

Javan short-tailed porcupine

Hystrix javanica

subfamily

Hystricinae

taxonomy

Acanthion javanicum (F. Cuvier, 1823), Java, Indonesia.

other common names

English: Sunda porcupine, Malaysian short-tailed porcupine.

physical characteristics

The weight averages about 17.6 lb (8 kg), head and body length is 17.9–28.9 in (45.5–73.5 cm), and the tail length is 2.4–5.1 in (6.0–13.0 cm). Quill arrangement and structure resemble subgenus Thecurus.

distribution

Java, Lombok, Madura, Sumbawa, Flores and nearby island of Tanah Djampa, Rintja, and southwestern Sulawesi (presumably only through human introduction).

habitat

Forests, lowlands, hills, cultivated areas.

behavior

Nocturnal; terrestrial.

feeding ecology and diet

Fallen fruits including oil palm, roots, and stems.

reproductive biology

Gestation period, number of young at birth, weight at birth, weaning period, and sexual maturity are all similar to those of family.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Hunted for meat. Eat farmers' crops, and are thus perceived as pests.

Indian crested porcupine

Hystrix indica

subfamily

Hystricinae

taxonomy

Hystrix indica Kerr, 1792, India.

other common names

English: Indian porcupine, long-tailed porcupine.

physical characteristics

Subgenus Hystrix is distinguished externally from other genera by relatively larger size, shorter tail and presence of rattle quills. Head and body length is 27.6–35.4 in (70–90 cm) in length and tail length 3.2–3.9 in (8–10 cm). Weight is 24.3–39.7 lb (11–18 kg). Short, high head has long, spiny head-neck mane whose length can be up to 16 in (40 cm). Hair is modified to form multiple layers of spines. Beneath longer, thinner spines lies layer of thicker and shorter ones. Each spine is colored black or brown, with alternating white bands. Spines vary in length, with shoulder and neck spines being the longest, measuring 5.9–11.8 in (15–30 cm). Sides and back half of body covered with cylindrical, stout spines up to 13.8 in (35 cm) long and generally marked with alternating dark and light bands. Others may be longer, and more slender and flexible, usually white. Tail is covered with shorter white spines. Among these, are longer, hollow, thin-walled rattling quills that are used to alarm enemies. Many quills vibrate together to produce hiss-like rattle. Rattle quills are better developed than with other subgenera. Hands and feet are broad, with four well-developed digits on fore feet, each with a thick, long claw used for burrowing, and five digits on hind feet. Eyes and external ears are small. Facial region of skull is inflated by pneumatic cavities, and nasal bones are enlarged.

distribution

Throughout southeast and central Asia and in parts of the Middle East, including such countries as India, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Iran.

habitat

Highly adaptable to multiple environments. Although favoring rocky hillsides, also found in temperate and tropical scrublands, grasslands, and forests. Also found throughout Himalayan mountains, reaching up to elevations of 7,875 ft (2,400 m). Shelter is usually in caves, rock crevices, or burrows usually dug by themselves or by other animals. Burrows with a long entrance tunnel often have several entrances and a large inner chamber, are sometimes used for many years, and can become extensive.

behavior

Generally, nocturnal (but avoids moonlight) and terrestrial. Does not usually climb trees but does swim well. Normal gait is a heavy walk in which it walks on soles of feet with heel touching ground. It often trots or gallops when alarmed. It tends to follow paths and may cover up to 9 mi (15 km) per night in search of food. May remain in dens through winter but does not hibernate. Small groups often share a burrow. Piping calls and pig-like grunts have been reported. There is considerable grunting and quill rattling as they forage by night. At the first encounter with another animal (such as when irritated or alarmed), they raise, fan, and rattle hollow quills, thereby more than doubling apparent size. If disturbance continues, may launch a backward attack and charge its rear against offending animal. Action can drive spines deep into enemy, often leading to injury or death. Short quills that are hidden beneath longer, thinner spines on tail and back do most damage. Quite often, these quills become dislodged and remain in victim. Injuries and fatalities of tigers, hyenas, leopards, and other animals have been recorded.

feeding ecology and diet

Generally herbivores consuming vegetable material of all kinds, including fruits, cultivated and natural grains, roots, tubers, bark, rhizomes, bulbs, and crops. Occasionally eat insects, small vertebrates, and carrion. Known to chew on bones, in search of minerals (such as calcium) that help spines grow and to sharpen incisor teeth. Generally forage alone except when parents accompany young.

reproductive biology

Gestation, on average, lasts 112 days. Litter size varies, ranging from one to four offspring per year (usually one to two), normally born in grass-lined chamber within burrow. Well-developed young are born with eyes open and short soft quills covering body. Birth weight is around 12 oz (340 g). Nursing lasts about 3.5 months. Usually monogamous, with both parents found in burrow with offspring throughout year.

conservation status

Not threatened. Throughout its range, it is common and does not face significant threat. Adaptability to wide range of habitats and food types helps ensure population sustainability.

significance to humans

Throughout its range, hunted as food source. Seeds and pollen are spread with its activities as herbivore. Eats crop plants extensively, thus leading to significant agricultural loss. Burrowing through or consuming plants and vegetation in gardens and landscaping often is destructive. Can cause medical problems as well as injuries to humans and pets from contact with quills.

North African porcupine

Hystrix cristata

subfamily

Hystricinae

taxonomy

Hystrix cristata Linnaeus, 1758, near Rome, Italy.

other common names

English: North African crested porcupine.

physical characteristics

Best known of porcupine species, with the longest quills. Stocky body; weight is 22.1–66.1 lb (10–30 kg). Head and body length is 23.6–36.6 in (60–93 cm) and tail length is 3.2–6.7 in (8–17 cm). Head, neck, shoulders, limbs, and underside of body covered with black or dark brown coarse bristles. Characterized by spines along head, nape, and back that can be raised into crest, in addition to sturdier quills about 13.8 in (35 cm) long and 0.4 in (1.0 cm) in diameter along sides and back half

of body, which is normally used for protection and defense. Spines are generally marked with alternating dark and light bands. Short tail is apparent, with presence of rattle quills at end of tail. Quills widen at terminal end and are hollow and thin walled, which produce hiss-like rattle when vibrated. Forefeet, which are 2.0 in (5 cm) long, have four well-developed, clawed digits per foot (the thumb is regressed), and the hind feet, which are 3.9–4.3 in (10–11 cm) long, have five digits each. The naked soles of paws contain pads; they walk on soles with heel touching the ground. Eyes and external ears are small, with sensitive hair or whiskers on head. Facial region of skull is inflated by pneumatic cavities, and nasal bones are enlarged.

distribution

Italy, Albania, Sicily, and northern Greece (European populations possibly introduced by humans) and along the Mediterranean coast of Africa to northern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tanzania.

habitat

Highly adaptable, usually found in forests, rocky areas, mountains, croplands, and sand-hill deserts up to 11,480 ft (3,500m). Shelter often occurs in caves, rock crevices, aardvark holes, or burrows they dig themselves. Burrows are often extensive and used for many years.

behavior

Small family groups, consisting of adult pair and various infants and juveniles, share (often) complex burrow system. Females usually establish separate den in order to bear young. Generally terrestrial, rarely climbing trees, but are able to swim. Strictly nocturnal but may avoid moonlight. Individuals may remain in burrows through winter but do not hibernate. Quills serve as an effective defense against predation. When disturbed, quills are raised and fanned in order to create illusion of greater size. If disturbance continues, feet are stamped, quills whirled, and (if necessary) enemy is charged back end first, attempting to stab with thicker, shorter quills. Such attacks have killed animals such as lions, leopard, and hyenas.

feeding ecology and diet

Herbivore that eats bark, roots, tubers, rhizomes, bulbs, nuts, fallen fruits (especially grapes, figs, and dates), and cultivated crops. Occasionally consumes insects, small vertebrates such as frogs, and carrion. Often gnaw on bones for calcium and to sharpen incisors. Significant distances may be traveled in search of food. Possess high-crowned teeth with plane chewing surfaces for grinding plants that are then digested in stomach. Undigested fibers are retained in enlarged appendix and anterior large intestine and broken up by microorganisms.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Most knowledge of breeding behavior comes from captive individuals. Breeding occurs throughout year at London Zoo and South Africa (mainly from August to March with peak in January), from July to December in central Africa, and from March to December in Indian zoos. Females do not show aggression to familiar males, but are aggressive to unknowns. To mate, female raises tail and male stands on his hind legs, supporting himself with his forefeet on female's back. No male weight is transferred to female, no penile lock occurs, and there are multiple thrustings. Mating occurs only at night, both in and out of burrow. Usually females have only one litter per year. After a 35-day estrous cycle and 112-day gestation period, one to two well-developed offspring are born in a grass-lined chamber within burrow system. At birth or shortly afterward, young's eyes are open and incisors are completely broken through; body is covered with short hair; and back spines are still soft with individual sensing bristles projecting far beyond spines. Newborns weigh only 3% of mother's body weight. Leave den after only one week, at which time spines begin to harden. Females have two to three pairs of lateral thoracic mammae. Young begin to feed on solid food between two and three weeks, and five white stripes found on side begin to disappear at four weeks. Usually reach sexual maturity and adult weight (soon thereafter) at one to two years. Life span usually 12–15 years in the wild.

conservation status

Generally endangered, listed by the IUCN as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. Species is rare and decreasing in number, especially in the Mediterranean region, due to poaching for food and being considered an agricultural pest. Besides humans, other enemies include big cats, large birds of prey, and hyenas.

significance to humans

Porcupine quills are often used as ornaments and talismans. Meat is often considered a delicacy. Animals are considered agricultural pests because they gnaw bark of trees and eat cultivated crops such as corn, pumpkin, sweet potatoes, cassava, and young cotton plants.

South African porcupine

Hystrix africaeaustralis

subfamily

Hystricinae

taxonomy

Africae australis Peters, 1852, Mozambique.

other common names

English: South African crested porcupine, Cape porcupine.

physical characteristics

Largest rodent in their region, with weight of 39.7–66.1 lb (18–30 kg). Relatively larger with longer, heavier quills than Hystrix cristata (North African porcupine). Tail is shorter compared to other species. Females are, on average, about 2.2 lb (1 kg) heavier than males and both sexes can be of body length 2.3–2.8 ft (71–84 cm) long and tail length up to 1 in (2.5 cm). Sense of hearing and smell is unusually sharp. Body is stout, with sharp quills up to 11.8 in (30 cm) long on its back. Flat, black, bristly hairs cover the body. Difference between quills and spines is largely one of length and thickness, with spines up to 19.7 in (50 cm) long and quills up to 11.8 in (30 cm) long. White and black crest of spines and quills can be voluntarily erected to make animal look enlarged and threatening. Specialized quills on tail are larger and hollow at the tips; used to make rattling (hissing) sound when shaken, often to warn potential enemies. Such sharp, backward-curving quills may be driven into enemy when moving backward toward enemy. Spines and quills come off when touched by predator or shaken off, but grow back quickly. Also have long whiskers. Facial region of skull is inflated by pneumatic cavities, and nasal bones are enlarged.

distribution

Despite its name, only found in sub-Saharan Africa, excluding the coastal desert of the southwest: basically the southern half of Africa up to 11,480 ft (3,500 m).

habitat

Found from sea level to 6,560 ft (2,000 m) above sea level in most areas with vegetation such as forests and savannas. Prefer rocky hills and outcrops, and must have shelter during day, often in caves or holes. Builds dens that can be up to 65.6 ft (20 m) long with a 6.6 ft-deep (2 m) living chamber near center.

behavior

Primarily nocturnal, although may be seen during day. Generally, either solitary creatures or living in small family groups, clans of up to six family members in which both parents give long-term care to young. Burrows are often dug in order to spend day hours inside, coming out at night to feed. Use an alternating gait when walking slowly and trot when running, able to swim fairly well and can climb if necessary. Very acute hearing and will freeze when approached by predators, such as big cats, large predatory birds, or hyenas. When cornered, can be aggressive, often running sideways or backwards to embed sharp quills in attacker. Cannot throw quills, but may become dislodged when hollow rattling quills are shaken. Defensive behavior is often to hide in their holes facing in and erect their spines so that they cannot be dislodged.

feeding ecology and diet

Mostly vegetarian, using strong digging claws to find roots, tubers, and bulbs. Also fond of fallen fruits, thistles, a variety of plants, leaves, and will sometimes gnaw on bark. Cultivated crops such as corn, sweet potatoes, pineapples, sugar cane, young cocoa and oil palms, bamboo, melons, and onions are eaten. Anterior large intestine and enlarged appendix contain microorganisms that break down undigested plant fibers. Also eat carrion in some cases. In areas deficient in phosphorous they gnaw on bones, often accumulating piles of bones in dens.

reproductive biology

Males reach sexual maturity between eight and 18 months, while females reach sexual maturity between nine and 16 months. Because of dangerous quills, females initiate copulation by presenting to males. Estrous cycle is about 35 days, and gestation lasts for a little over three months (93–105 days). Young are born in litters of one to four (usually one to two) normally twice a year, usually within grass-lined chamber in parents' den during wet months of August to March. Average newborn weight is 12.4 oz (351 g), but can range from 10.6–14.1 oz (300–400 g). Young are born relatively well developed, with eyes open and teeth present, quills and spines are soft (most likely to ease birthing process) but quickly harden within two weeks. Young can feed on solids from birth and grow rapidly, reaching full size in about one year. Nursing occurs on average of 101 days (but can range from three to four months) at which point young will weigh 8.8–11 lb (4–5 kg). Females have two to three pairs of teats in two rows located behind shoulders, on side of chest. After weaning of young, females cannot conceive for another three to five months. Life span can be 12–15 years in wild.

conservation status

Not threatened. Generally, throughout its range, it is common and does not face significant threat. Adaptability to wide range of habitats and food types helps protect healthy populations. Its main predators are humans and large cats.

significance to humans

Meat is highly prized by local peoples. Porcupines eat vegetable crops and are destructive feeders.

African brush-tailed porcupine

Atherurus africanus

subfamily

Atherurinae

taxonomy

Atherura africana Gray, 1842, Sierra Leone.

other common names

English: West African brush-tailed porcupine.

physical characteristics

Slender, rat-like creature, with distinctive long tail (that is easily broken off), tipped with a tuft of bristles. (Similar features to Atherurus macrourus.) Weight is 2.2–8.8 lb (1–4 kg), head and body length is 14.4–23.6 in (36.5–60.0) cm, and tail length is 3.9–10.2 in (10–26 cm). Body is long and slender, but legs are wide and short. Body color varies from black to dark grayish brown on upper side and white to light brown on under-side. On each side of jaw, five teeth are present: one incisor, one premolar, and three molars. Body covered with several types of protective spines, with softest ones on head, neck, and stomach. Flattened stiletto-type spines are found on edges of back with more thick, rigid bristle-type spines in middle and lower regions. Also has yellowish brush tail with platelet-type bristles (which can be rattled) and a group of small rattling cups on back. Partially webbed feet (suitable for swimming) are armed with blunt, straight claws. Agile, able to climb trees, and runs well. Postorbital processes are either lacking or very weak in skull.

distribution

Only in Africa in the countries of Gambia, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya, and southern Sudan.

habitat

Spend days hidden in burrows, caves, crevices, or fallen trees, and generally are most active when it is completely dark out-side (avoiding or at least reducing activities during bright moons). Prefer naturally occurring caves, holes in trees, rock crevices, and other natural burrows, and do not usually burrow out their own. Found in tropical forests, river forests, and island forests, at elevations of up to 7,400 ft (2,250 m). Territory is 14–57.5 acres (5.5–23 ha).

behavior

Adults usually live in families, generally around six to eight members, which include a mated pair and their offspring from multiple litters. Families share runs, territories, feeding, and latrine areas. Groups of families, up to 20 individuals, often share resources and live close to each other. Mainly terrestrial but are also good at climbing and swimming. Most known predators, such as carnivores (leopards), large owls, snakes, and humans, tend to be scared away by quills. When agitated, quills are raised, giving appearance of a body twice of actual size; also rattle tail and stomp feet in order to further threaten enemies. If predator comes close enough, it aligns itself so its rear faces enemy, then suddenly makes a backward attack, causing quills to become embedded and stuck in enemy.

feeding ecology and diet

Mostly herbivorous but occasionally feed on carcasses. Primarily eat bark, roots, tubers, sweet potatoes, leaves, bulbs, fruits such as bananas, and nodules. Tend to be very nervous and quick moving while hunting for food, which is done usually alone.

reproductive biology

Form pair bonds before mating, which is necessary because the female acts out in aggression against males with whom she is not familiar (such as raising her quills to halt the mating process). No clearly defined breeding period, up to two litters are possible each year. Females normally give birth to one, sometimes two, young per litter. Gestation period ranges from 100–110 days, after which the mother gives birth to well-developed young. At birth, eyes are open, teeth are already present, and hair (but not spines) covers the body. Young are born small, only 3% of mother's body weight. Weight at birth averages 5 oz (150 g) with a range of 3.5–6.3 oz (100–175 g, then increases to 18 oz (500 g) after one month, 2 lb (1 kg) after three months, 3 lb (1.5 kg) after five months, and 22 lb (10 kg) after 11 months. Both parents spend much time and effort raising offspring. Mothers nurse nearly constantly for first two months after birth; teats are located laterally on the chest. Sexual maturity is reached at about two years. Documented to live up to 23 years of age.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Possess a keen sense of smell, which is used to locate and uproot buried nodules and bulbs, thereby increasing density of vegetation in areas of forage. Known to feed on cultivated crops; also feed on bark and fleshy tissues of trees, which can damage trees. Also carrier of malaria parasite (Plasmodium atheruri).

Asiatic brush-tailed porcupine

Atherurus macrourus

subfamily

Atherurinae

taxonomy

Hystrix macroura (Linnaeus, 1758), Malacca, Malaysia.

other common names

English: Asian brush-tailed porcupine, Indochinese brush-tailed porcupine.

physical characteristics

Slender, rat-like creature, with distinctive long tail (that is easily broken off), tipped with a tuft of bristles. (Similar features with Atherurus africanus.) Weight is 2.2–8.8 lb (1–4 kg), head and body length is 15.8–21.5 in (40.1–54.6 cm), and tail length is 5.9–9.8 in (15–25 cm). Relatively long body is almost entirely spiny in appearance, though quills are softer on head, legs, and under parts. Longest spines located at mid-upper side region. Most spines are flattened with groove on upper surface; interspersed among them on lower back are a few round, thick bristles, giving appearance of distinct terminal tuft (which is whitish to creamy buff in color). Each bristle consists of chain of flattened discs, allowing tail to be rattled, as warning to predators. Body is blackish brown to grayish brown on its upper parts; individual hairs have whitish tips; underside is dirty white to light brown. On back is located flattened stiletto spikes fluted on outside, with flexible spines in between. Limbs are short and stout, and ears short and rounded. Partially webbed feet (suitable for swimming) possess blunt, straight claws. Agile, able to climb trees, and runs well. Postorbital processes are either lacking or are very weak in the skull.

distribution

Southeastern Asia, generally south-central China (Yunnan, southern Sichuan, Guangxi), Assam, Myanmar, Thailand, Indochina, Malay Peninsula and several small nearby islands, and Hainan.

habitat

Forests, river forests, and forest islands at elevations up to 9,850 ft (3,000 m); often near water. Prefer natural caves and dwell in rock caves and crevasses, in underground lodges dug by other mammals, and also in cavities in or under fallen trees. They may dig burrows in soft floors of rainforests. Prefer to stay in burrows during the day to emerge at night to forage.

behavior

Social life of clans often include up to four to eight members who often share common runs and trails, excrement depositories, feeding places, territories, and refuges. Running fast, swimming, and climbing are possible, and these animals are able to jump over 3 ft (about 1 m). Enemies include carnivores such as leopards, large owls, snakes, and humans. Normally shelter during the day in a hole among tree roots, rocky crevice, termite mound, cave, or eroded cavity along stream bank.

feeding ecology and diet

Usually green vegetation, bark, roots, tubers, leaves, bulbs, and fruits; sometimes also cultivated crops, insects, and carrion. Usually forage alone strictly during the night.

reproductive biology

One young, sometimes two, to a litter. Females have two pairs of lateral thoracic mamae. Weaning period is normally two months; sexual maturity reached after two years.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Hunted for meat. May overfeed on farmers' crops.

Long-tailed porcupine

Trichys fasciculata

subfamily

Atherurinae

taxonomy

Trichys fasciculata (Shaw, 1801), Malacca, Malaysia.

other common names

English: Borean long-tailed porcupine, Malaysian long-tailed porcupine.

physical characteristics

Relatively small compared to other species. Overall appearance is of a large, spiny (brown) rat. Weighs 3.3–4.4 lb (1.5–2 kg), with body length of 11.0–18.5 in (27.9–47.0 cm) and (extra long) tail length of 6.7–9.1 in (17.0–23.0 cm). Head and under parts are hairy and the fur underneath is rather woolly. Upper parts of body are black to light brown in color, whereas under parts are whitish. Body is covered with short stiletto-like spines with individual bristle-like hairs in between. Spines are shortest within family and are flattened, grooved, and flexible, with a dark brown color towards the end, and whitish towards base. Tail is brown and scaly, with hollow brush-like quills at the end; it is easily broken off and many adults, especially females, are found without tails. Front legs have four toes while the back feet have five toes, all connected by a continuous membrane. Quills are concentrated on the rear and hindquarters, so a defensive porcupine will often back into an attacker. Unlike other species, quills cannot produce any rattling sounds when shaken. Good climbers with broad paws, along with strong digits and claws for holding onto branches. Skull has well-marked postorbital processes.

distribution

Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo, especially Kalimantan.

habitat

Forests and cultivated areas up to elevations of 3,800 ft (1,290m).

behavior

Although primarily terrestrial creatures that live in burrows, they can be arboreal (climb trees), and are agile climbers. This is considered the most primitive genus within the family. Seem to prefer natural caves and dwell in rock caves and crevasses, in underground lodges dug by other mammals; also in cavities in or under fallen trees. They may also dig their own dens in the soft floor of rainforests. They are active mainly during the night.

feeding ecology and diet

Mainly herbivorous (especially fruits, other vegetation such as seeds and bamboo shoots) but diet can include invertebrates. Able to climb into bushes and tops of trees to pick food.

reproductive biology

In captivity it may live over 10 years. Reproductive biology is similar to the rest of the family.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

The tail has apparent value to some native people, who remove it from the rest of the hide. This porcupine destroys crops (such as pineapples) in some areas.

Resources

Books

Feldhemer, George A., Lee C. Drickamer, Stephen H. Vessey, and Joseph F. Merritt. Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, and Ecology. Boston: WCB McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Gould, Dr. Edwin, and Dr. George McKay, eds. Encyclopedia of Mammals. 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998.

Grzimeks Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1990.

Macdonald, David. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File Publications, 1984.

McKenna, Malcolm C., and Susan K. Bell. Classification of Mammals: Above the Species Level. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.

Nowak, Ronald M. Walker's Mammals of the World. Vol. 2, 6th ed. Baltimore, MD and London, U.K.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.

Vaughan, Terry A., James M. Ryan, and Nicholas J. Czaplewski. Mammalogy. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 2000.

Wilson, Don E. and DeeAnn M. Reeder, eds. Mammal Species of the World. 2nd ed. Washington, D.C. and London, U.K.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993.

Woods, C. A. "Hystricognath Rodents." In Orders and Families or Mammals of the World, edited by S. Anderson and J. K. Jones Jr., 389–446. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1984.

Other

Atherurus africanus. Animal Diversity Web, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. December 1999 [May 9, 2003]. <http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/atherurus/a._africanus$narrative.html>

Hole, Robert B. Jr. A Checklist of the Mammals of the World: Rodentia 3 (Hystricomorpha). BiologyBase. [April 19, 2003]. <http://www.interaktv.com/MAMMALS/Rodentia3Hystr.html>

Hystricidae, Hystricidés. [May 9, 2003]. <http://www.chez.com/rodent/Hystricidae/Hystricidae.html>

Hystricidae. The Indonesian Nature Conservation Database. January 2, 2001 [May 9, 2003]. <http://www.natureconservation.or.id/rodents.html>

Hystricidae: Old World Porcupines. Animal Diversity Web, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. November 26, 1999 [May 9, 2003]. <http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/chordata/mammalia/rodentia/hystricidae.html>

Hystrix pumila. Mammals of the Philippines, The Field Museum, Chicago, Illinois. [May 9, 2003]. <http://www.fmnh.org/philippine_mammals/Hystrix_pumila.htm>

Porcupine. Infoplease.com, Family Education Network. [May 11, 2003]. <http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0839733.html>

Lockwood, Burleigh. Rodentia: Suborder Caviomorpha (The Families of Caviomorpha: Guinea Pig-type Rodents). The Chaffee Zoo, Fresno, California. [May 9,2003]. <http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-transitional/part2c.html>

Night Safari Ranger Station: Crested Porcupine (Hystricidae brachyura). Volunteer Rangers, Singapore Zoological Gardens Docent Group. [May 9, 2003]. <http://nsrangers0.tripod.com/LeoTrail/porcupine.htm>

Porcupines. Forest Department Sarawak, Malaysia. [May 9, 2003]. <http://www.forestry.sarawak.gov.my/forweb/wildlife/mgmt/pa/3porc.htm>

William Arthur Atkins