Monarch flycatchers

(Monarchidae)

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Suborder Passeri (Oscines)

Family Monarchidae

Thumbnail description
Small to medium size insectivorous songbirds

Size
5–21 in (13–53 cm).

Number of genera, species
17 genera; 96 species

Habitat
Forest and open woodland

Conservation status
Critically Endangered: 5 species; Endangered: 6; Vulnerable: 9 species; Near Threatened: 14 species; Extinct: 2 species

Distribution
Tropical Old World from sub-Saharan Africa to Indonesia

Evolution and systematics

The paradise-flycatchers and monarchs are the most impressive and colorful of the flycatcher-like birds. Formerly considered to be part of the 'true' flycatchers (Muscicapidae), they have now been separated into a family of their own, though DNA-DNA hybridization studies suggest that they are closely related to the crows (Corvidae). The Monarchidae have differently shaped jaw muscles from the true flycatchers and no 'turdine thumb' on the syrinx. They are probably of Asian origin, but have spread several thousand miles southwest and southeast and are closely related to the fantails of Asia, Australasia, and Polynesia. Within the order, the Elminia and Erythrocercus genera have different anatomical characteristics, and future studies may suggest that further reclassification is necessary.

Physical characteristics

Paradise-flycatchers and monarchs are small to medium in size, from 5–21 in (13–53 cm), although the tail can account for 6 in (15 cm) of the largest species. The bill is wide, typically blue-gray, with a fringe of well-developed bristles around the gape, and many species have a keeled ridge on the upper mandible. The Monarchidae have short legs, small and sharp, curved claws, and relatively long wings, but the tail length varies from short to incredibly long. The plumage is often brightly colored, and many species have impressive crests. Most show no plumage differences between males and females, although in a few species the sexual dimorphism is dramatically exaggerated.

Distribution

The family is found throughout the tropical Old World, from Senegal to Indonesia. However, while representatives of the order are widely distributed, 30 species are endemic to single small islands or archipelagoes, even tiny islets, such as Sangihe and Talaud in Indonesia (caerulean paradise-flycatcher, Hypothymis coelestis) and Annobón, in the Atlantic Ocean, several hundred miles off the coast of Gabon (Annobón paradise-flycatcher, Terpsiphone smithii).

Habitat

Monarchidae forest-dwellers many frequenting open areas, clearings, and the forest edge, with some species regularly feeding in parks, gardens and fruit plantations.

Behavior

Most monarch and paradise-flycatcher species live in pairs throughout the year, although a few live in loosely organized groups, with nonbreeding 'helpers' assisting pairs to rear their young. When excited or alarmed, many species fan their tail.

Feeding ecology and diet

Many Monarchidae are gleaners, busily searching for insects, particularly arthropods, in the foliage of trees and shrubs, although most species can feed aerially, catching flying insects on the wing in the style of the 'true' flycatchers.

Reproductive biology

Monarchidae are not shy birds, the males being noisy and showy in their efforts to attract a mate, but some species are found deep in forests where few people ever witness the display. The nest is a tiny, deep cup, woven of fibers, moss, lichens and spider webs, often fastened in the fork of a branch or twig. In most species, males and females incubate the eggs, which hatch after about 14 days. Juveniles are plain, often brown, only gaining their colorful plumage after the completion of the first molt.

Conservation status

Thrity-six species of Monarchidae are listed in The 2000 Red List of Threatened Species. Many are endemic to single islands in Southeast Asia. Five species are Critically Endangered, the rarest being the Tahiti monarch (Pomarea nigra), with only a handful of individuals remaining by the late 1990s. Loss of wooded habitat is the principal cause of population decline among the family. Two species are already extinct, including the Guam flycatcher (Myiagra freycineti), which was common on the Pacific island of Guam until the 1970s but crashed to extinction in 1983 as a result of predation by the introduced brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis).

Significance to humans

None known.

Species accounts

List of Species

African blue flycatcher

Elminia longicauda

taxonomy

Myiagra longicauda Swainson, 1838, Senegal. Two subspecies. Sometimes considered a superspecies with the white-tailed blue flycatcher (E. albicauda).

other common names

English: Blue flycatcher, northern fairy flycatcher; French: Gobemouche bleu; German: Türkis Elminie; Spanish: Eliminia Azul.

physical characteristics

Male is cobalt blue above and on the throat, paler below, with a long tail. Females and immatures are grayer, with a narrow band of blue on edges of wing and tail-feathers.

distribution

The widest distribution of the Elminia flycatchers, from the Atlantic coast of West Africa to Lake Victoria in the east. There are apparent gaps in its distribution, but this probably reflects a lack of human knowledge, even of such a colorful bird.

habitat

Resident in woodlands, from sea-level plains to 7,200 ft (2,400 m), inhabits clearings and edges of open secondary forest, swampy or riverine forests, and wooded savannas. Also found in cleared and abandoned fruit and cocoa plantations.

Live at lower altitudes than the similar white-tailed blue flycatcher in most places.

behavior

Live in groups of up to 12, but usually 3–7 birds. Largest groups comprise several pairs or trios of adults with immatures or dependent young. A 'leader' defends the territory, singing frequently, with its crest erect, wings flicking and tail fanned.

feeding ecology and diet

Always on the move, picking small insects from the foliage in the top of trees and shrubs. Sometimes fly from a perch, catch a flying insect, and return to the branch, in true flycatcher fashion.

reproductive biology

Appear to be monogamous, though some may be polygamous. Female lays and incubates one or two white eggs in a compact, cup-shaped nest. Both birds in the pair feed the young, with assistance from nonbreeding adults or immatures in the group.

conservation status

Relatively common in good quality habitat, although endemic and breeding at a relatively low density.

significance to humans

None known.

African paradise-flycatcher

Terpsiphone viridis

taxonomy

Muscicapa cristata Gmelin, 1789, based on Brisson, 1760, Senegal. Ten subspecies.

other common names

French: Moucherolle de paradise; German: Graubrust-Paradeisschnäpper; Spanish: Monarca Paraíso Africano.

physical characteristics

Largest paradise-flycatcher in Africa, with tail that constitutes two-thirds of its length. Large head and crest glossy blue-black, eye surrounded by bright blue ring. Upperparts and graduated, outer tail feathers russet-brown, underparts gray. Most obvious markings are broad bar in each wing (white in some races, black in others) and two white, central tail streamers, which can be 3.5 in (9 cm) long in largest males. Females similar, but smaller, and colors are less bold and glossy.

distribution

Widespread south of the Sahara, the only flycatcher found in most of eastern and southern Africa.

habitat

Commonest flycatcher in Africa, found in almost all habitats except arid zones. Equally at home in savanna woodland, open forest, and plantations, prefers edges and avoids dense forest. Birds also nest and feed in orchards, parks and well-established gardens, up to 8,202 ft (2,500 m) in east Africa.

behavior

Usually found in ones or twos, often tame and vocal but usually unobtrusive. Long tail makes for a distinctive and graceful flight, often slow and undulating, with tail streamers waving. Some populations migrate within Africa, usually between habitats during the dry season.

feeding ecology and diet

Glean insects from the foliage, flit among the leaves to catch prey, or perch in wait for a passing insect, catching it in mid air. Feed on caterpillars, beetles, moths, butterflies, flying ants and termites, up to 1.2 in (3 cm).

reproductive biology

Males patrol and defend territory with loud calls and songs, especially at dawn and dusk. Tail streamers and crest play important role in courtship display, combined with shivering wing tips, calls, and sometimes 'dancing' on a perch. Neat, tight cup nest is fixed with cobwebs to fork of a branch, into which two or three creamy white, oval eggs are laid. Both parents incubate eggs for about 15 days. Young stay in the nest for 11–15 days and remain dependent on the parents for a further week.

conservation status

Common and widespread in a range of habitats.

significance to humans

None known.

Biak monarch

Monarcha brehmii

taxonomy

Monarcha brehmii Schlegel, 1871, Biak Island, New Guinea.

other common names

French: Monarche de Brehm; German: Falbschwanzmonarch; Spanish: Monarca Biak.

physical characteristics

5.2 in (13 cm). One of the smallest monarchs. Males have black upperparts, throat, and breast, with pale yellow under-parts, tail, and wing bars. Along with a short crest, its most significant feature is pale yellow crescent on each side of the head. Females similar, but have a whitish patch on throat and breast.

distribution

Endemic to the islands of Biak and Supiori in Cenderawasih (Geelvink) Bay, Papua (formerly Irian Jaya) in Indonesia.

habitat

The few birds found were in lowland forest, but it is suspected that they favor thick, elevated forests. The rainforests of Biak are very important for wildlife, with 13 endemic or near-endemic birds, 18 endemic butterflies, and five endemic mammals.

behavior

Few individuals have been seen, so little is known. Its grating call is characteristic of the Monarchidae.

feeding ecology and diet

Appear to gain most of their insect food by gleaning from foliage in the subcanopy of the forest, and by hawking aerial insects from a perch.

reproductive biology

Not known.

conservation status

Listed as Endangered by the IUCN and BirdLife International, with a declining and small population. Recorded only four times between 1980 and 2000, though there have been no recent expeditions to the interior forests, where it may be more common. Logging for timber and clearing the land for farming has already destroyed the primary forest in southern Biak and threatens the northern areas. Fortunately, Supioro's forests are steeper, with fewer people, and so at lower risk.

New expeditions to find and protect the most important areas of forest are a priority for their conservation.

significance to humans

None known.

Black-naped monarch

Hypothymis azurea

taxonomy

Muscicapa coeruleocephala Sykes, 1832, Decan, India. 19 subspecies recognized.

other common names

English: Pacific monarch; French: Tchitrec azuré; German: Schwarzgenickschnäpper; Spanish: Monarca Azul de Nuca Negra.

physical characteristics

6 in (16 cm). Long-tailed, slender. Similar in shape to fantails, but coloration is bolder. Males bright blue, with black patch on nape and black band on throat. Females grayer, lack black markings.

distribution

From India in the west, across southern Asia to southern China and the island groups of Hainan, Taiwan, Sundas, Philippines, Andamans, and Nicobars.

habitat

Common in scrub, forest and overgrown plantations, mostly in the lowlands, but up to 4,265 ft (1,300 m) in some areas. Birds tend to be found in the medium or lower canopy, but nests can be close to the ground.

behavior

Vocal and showy, with harsh, chirping call and rattling trill or whistle, which is easily attracted to an imitation. Outside

breeding season, pairs rove widely, often joining with other Black-naped monarchs or other species to form small flocks.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on variety of small insects, including small crickets, butterflies, and moths, mostly by gleaning from foliage, but also by snatching from mid-air.

reproductive biology

Nest is deep cup woven of thin strips of bark, plant fibers, moss, and spider webs, wedged in the upright fork of a tree, sometimes just a few feet above the ground. Females lay two or three buff- or cream-colored eggs, with red-brown spots. During breeding season, usually in the first half of the year, males defend territory from intrusion by conspecifics.

conservation status

Common and widespread in a range of habitats.

significance to humans

None known.

White-tipped monarch

Monarcha everetti

taxonomy

Monarcha everetti Hartert, 1896, Tanahjampea, Flores Sea. Considered an allospecies with the nearby Flores monarch (M. sacerdotum). There is scant knowledge about its relationship with the other species in the genus.

other common names

English: Buru Island monarch, Everett's monarch, white-tailed monarch; French: Monarque d'Everett; German: Weiss-chwanzmonarch; Spanish: Monarca de Puntas Blancas.

physical characteristics

5.5 in (14 cm); smaller than Flores monarch. Adult head, chest, upperparts, and central tail feathers are black, all other feathers are white. Immature birds grayish or brown above and white below, with rusty-colored wash and often a buff rump.

distribution

Endemic to Tanahjampea, a small island in the Flores Sea, south of Sulawesi.

habitat

Common in forested areas, also found in scrub and mangroves with scattered, large trees.

behavior

Found in pairs throughout the year, but outside breeding season they join small flocks with same and other species. Noisy, especially when foraging, and like many other Monarchidae, cock or fan the tail when alarmed, accompanied by harsh, scolding call.

feeding ecology and diet

Not known.

reproductive biology

A tremulous, plaintive whistle may be associated with the male's courtship or territorial display.

conservation status

Not scarce on Tanahjampea, but tiny global range puts the species at risk from habitat loss and degradation; fewer than 2,500 pairs probably remain. Logging is the common threat to all forest birds in Indonesia, and has been underway on this island since the 1920s, initially to create grazing areas for cattle. Although white-tipped monarchs appear to survive in logged or nonforest habitats, their densities are much lower, putting them at greater risk to other threats. As of 2001, no specific measures had been taken to identify or to protect their core breeding areas.

significance to humans

None known.

Resources

Books

Beehler, B. M., T. K. Pratt, and D. A. Zimmerman. Birds of New Guinea. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.

BirdLife International. Threatened Birds of Asia: The BirdLife International Red Data Book. Cambridge: BirdLife International, 2001.

BirdLife International. Threatened Birds of the World. Cambridge: BirdLife International, 2000.

Coates, B. J., and K. D. Bishop. A Guide to the Birds of Wallacea. Queensland, Australia: Dove Publications, 1997.

King, B., M. Woodcock, and E. C. Dickinson. Birds of South-East Asia. London: HarperCollins, 1975.

MacKinnon, J. Field Guide to the Birds of Java and Bali. Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1988.

Sibley, C. G., and B. L. Monroe, Jr. Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990.

Urban, E. K., H. C. Fry, and S. Keith, eds. The Birds of Africa, Vol. 5. London: Academic Press, 1997.

Wikramanayake, E., E. Dinerstein, and C. J. Loucks. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: A Conservation Assessment. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2001.

Organizations

BirdLife International. Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire CB3 0NA United Kingdom. Phone: +44 1 223 277 318. Fax: +44-1-223-277-200. E-mail: [email protected] Web site: <http://www.birdlife.net>

Julian Hughes