Turkey

Basic Data
Official Country Name:	Republic of Turkey
Region:	Middle East
Population:	65,666,677
Language(s):	Turkish, Kurdish, Arabic, Armenian, Greek
Literacy Rate:	82.3%
Number of Primary Schools:	47,313
Compulsory Schooling:	8 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	2.2%
Foreign Students in National Universities:	14,719
Libraries:	1,171
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 6,389,060
	Secondary: 4,760,892
	Higher: 1,434,033
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 107%
	Secondary: 58%
	Higher: 21%
Teachers:	Primary: 233,073
	Secondary: 218,829
	Higher: 50,313
Student-Teacher Ratio:	Primary: 28:1
	Secondary: 24:1
Female Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 104%
	Secondary: 48%
	Higher: 15%

History & Background

The Republic of Turkey is an independent country in the Middle East located in southwestern Asia Minor and southeastern Europe surrounded on three sides by the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Black seas. It is known locally as Turkiye Cumhuriyeti ; the shortened form of this name is Turkiye. Neighboring counties are Greece to the west; Bulgaria to the northwest; Georgia, Armenia and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria on the south. The majority of these boundaries were established after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Throughout history, Turkey has been the center of trade and migration route because of her long shoreline and her strategic location as a bridge between continents.

Turkey lies within one of the most active earthquake regions in the world, the Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt, and severe earthquakes, especially in northern Turkey, are not uncommon. There are many active fault lines. In the 1900s seven major quakes occurred along the North Anatolian fault. The Marmara earthquake occurred on August 17, 1999, and was one of the most severe earthquakes in Turkish history. The quake measured 7.4 on the Richter scale and was one the most devastating disasters of the century.

Approximately 3 percent of Turkey is located in Thrace on the European continent. The remaining 97 percent, called Anatolia, is located on the European continent. In 1941, the First Geographic Congress divided Turkey's total area of 780,580 square kilometers into seven geographical provinces: the Marmara Region, the Aegean Region, the Mediterranean Region, the Central Anatolia Region, the Black Sea Region, the Eastern Anatolia Region, and the Southeastern Anatolia Region. Four of the regions (the Marmara Region, the Aegean Region, the Mediterranean Region, and the Black Sea Region) are named for the seas that are adjacent to them; the Marmara Sea is an internal sea entirely surrounded by land and connected to the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea through straits. The other three regions were named in for their location in the central plateau, the Anatolia.

In 2000, the population of Turkey was approximately 65.7 million. Approximately 30 percent of the population is under age fifteen. Almost half of this number live in costal areas. Approximately 80 percent of the population is Turkish, and 20 percent is Kurdish. The annual population growth rate was estimated at 1.27 percent at the turn of the century with 29 percent of the population fourteen years of age or younger, 65 percent were between fifteen and sixty-four years of ages, and 6 percent were aged sixty-five and older. In 2000, Turkey's literacy rate was 82.3 percent. More males were literate (91.7 percent) than females (72.4 percent). Some 45.8 percent of the labor force works in agricultural areas, 33.7 percent in service areas, and 20.5 percent in industrial areas.

About 99.8 percent of all Turks are Muslims; most of these are Sunni. The small non-Muslim population is comprised of Christian and Jews. Turkish is the official language, but Kurdish, Arabic, Armenian, and Greek are also spoken. English is taught in the compulsory primary school, so its use is becoming more widespread.

Anatolia, the western portion of Turkey, is one of the oldest continually inhabited regions of the world. The earliest major empire in the area was the Hittites who controlled the territory from 18th through the 13th centuries BC. An Indo-European people, the Phrygians, invaded the land and controlled the region until the Cimmerians conquered them in the 7th century BC. The state of Lycia was formed when this people defeated the Cimmerians. During these years, Greeks were settling along the west coast of Anatolia and using the ports to transport goods produced in the region. Persians, coming from the east, invaded the area and controlled Anatolia for the next two centuries until Alexander the Great conquered them in 334 BC. Subsequently the land was divided into a number of Greek kingdoms.

The Romans invaded the region and by the middle of the first century B.C. controlled all of Anatolia. In 324 Constantine I moved the capital of the Roman Empire to the ancient city of Byzance and renamed it Constantinople; this move divided the empire into two segments: the East and the West. Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire.

In 1055 the Seljoukites, a group of Central Asiatic Turks, conquered Baghdad and established a Middle Eastern and Anatolian empire. This empire was broken up by Mongol invasions, but small Turkish states remained on the periphery of Anatolia. One of these emerged as the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453 and renamed the capital city Istanbul. A series of sultans waged war on many fronts and extended the territory controlled by the Ottomans. At the peak of their powering the 16th century, the Ottomans controlled most of the eastern Mediterranean and were one of the biggest empires in history.

As the Ottoman Empire began to collapse in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, European powers began fighting for control of the territory. In 1908 a group of young Turks led a successful revolution to regain control of the empire and introduced many civil and social reforms. The Ottomans were drawn into World War I as an ally of Germany. At the end of the war the empire was formally dissolved the empire and its territory dramatically reduced.

Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war hero later know as Atatürk or father of Turkey, organized a resistance force and took the offensive against the Allies in Anatolia. Following a series of impressive victories, he led the nation to full independence. In November 1922, the National Assembly became the government in Turkey. In October 1923, the Republic of Turkey was proclaimed and Kemal was unanimously elected President of the Republic. The constitution was ratified in 1924. Kemal moved the capital to Ankara and worked to transform Turkey into a modern westernized nation. He created a new political and legal system, abolished the sultanate and caliphate, made both government and education secular, gave equal rights to women, changed the Arabic script to a Roman alphabet and number system, and advanced Turkey's industry, agriculture, arts, and sciences.

These reforms introduced by Atatürk before his death in 1938 are still the ideological foundation of modern Turkey. Until 1950, the political party established in 1923, the Republican People's Party, dominated all elections. From 1950-1960, the Democratic Party governed Turkey. In 1960 a military coup ousted the government; a new constitution was written, and a civilian government was reinstated in 1961. For the remainder of the twentieth century, there were many political upheavals and changes. The current constitution was ratified in November 1982. Throughout all the changes, the ruling government has remained committed to the basic principles established when the republic was formed in 1923.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

Because of Turkey's emphasis on education, there are many laws and regulations that deal with education. Policies and programs for Turkey's national education system are determined and executed within the framework of Atatürk's Thoughts and Opinions Concerning Education, the country's constitution, and the laws governing education and training. The government programs and development plans emphasize education because it is seen as the most important component for Turkey's economic, technological, and social developments.

According to Article 42 of the Constitution, everyone has the right to receive an education. Depending upon individuals' interests and capabilities, they are guided through various programs and schools. The Education Integrity Law of March 3, 1924, made the Ministry of National Education responsible for all educational institutions and all educational training.

Basic National Education Law Number 1739 provides for the organization and general structure of the educational system and delineates the State's responsibilities in education and training. The law states that the objective of education is to educate individuals who adopt the values of the Turkish nation, who know and have accepted their duties and responsibilities to their country, who have mastered the subject matter and can apply that knowledge and technology, and who are democratic citizens that respect human rights. Article 2 of the Law on Private Education Institutions stipulates that programs and curricula of all private education institutions must be aligned with the Turkish National Education objectives and principles.

The Primary Education and Training Law Number 222 organized primary education in a systematic, integrated manner. Regulation Number 2201 on Guidance Services of the Ministry of National Education recognizes the importance of training advisors and guidance counselors to work with students and evaluate their interests, talents, and potentials in vocational and academic areas. One provision of Law Number 2841 requires public institutions to provide reading and writing courses for their illiterate employees.

Basic Law Number 1735 on National Education established the objectives and functions of secondary education, identified those eligible to attend, and delineated the types of programs available. The law also provided for early admission to the secondary program for those who demonstrated special abilities in the fine arts.

The National Education Principal Law Number 1739 divided the Turkish educational system into two parts: formal and nonformal. Formal education covered the four-level school system: preschool education, primary education, secondary education, and tertiary education. Nonformal education covered vocational and training programs for those who had never received any formal education or who left the formal education program.

The Basic Law of National Education Number 1739, passed in 1973, focused on higher education. In 1981, the Higher Education Law was passed, leading to the reorganization of academies, teacher training colleges and vocational schools. Private universities were the subject of Higher Education Law Number 2547, which was passed in 1984. The Apprenticeship and Vocational Law Number 3308 of June 5, 1986, was enacted to develop Turkey's vocational and technical education system so that it is a cooperative program between schools and industries. This law established a system for students to attend schools two days each week and receive on the job training for three days each week. The business pays the students who receive this skill training a set wage, and the government provides students with insurance.

Turkey's Five-Year Development Plan for 1996-2000 lead to the passage of Law Number 4306, which went into effect in August 1997. This law extended the number of years of compulsory primary education from five to eight beginning with the 1999-2000 academic year and provided for an increase in the number of teachers and classrooms so that the maximum number of students in each room is thirty. One of the first steps to implementing this provision has been hiring 27,000 new teachers. Law number 4306 also directed that foreign language instruction would begin in the fourth grade rather than the sixth and that computer and audio-visual equipment would be more widely used.

Turkey's formal and nonformal education and training are included in the country's five-year development plans. The State Planning Organization coordinates the implementation and evaluation of the plans. The Five Year Development Plan for 1996-2000 placed education in the highest priority sector. A master plan for the educational system through 2010 is being developed. This plan will stress the need to be flexible to meet the advancing needs of the individual and the nation as well as the global demands for a changing society.

Educational System—Overview

The Republic of Turkey places utmost importance on the development of human resources; therefore, education has always been one of its highest priorities. The contemporary Turkish education system was established in 1924 after Atatürk closed the religious schools, set up new secular schools, and made elementary school attendance compulsory. Atatürk regarded education as the force that would galvanize the nation's social and economic development. When the republic was established, less than 10 percent of its approximately thirteen million people were literate. There were twenty-three high schools, one university, and a small number of trade or vocational schools. Turkey began a program to educate both children and adults. From grade school to graduate school, education was made free, secular, and coeducational. Five years of elementary school were made compulsory. By 1938, one-third of the people were literate.

One of the major factors contributing to this increase in literacy was Atatürk's decision in 1928 to abolish the complex Arabic script that had been used for thousands of years and replace it with the Latin alphabet. In the early 1930s, other language reforms eliminated thousands of Arabic, Persian, and French words and replaced them with original words, provincial expressions, and coined words. This commitment to creating a national language continued over the years. In the early 1920s, over 80 percent of Turkey's written language was Arabic, Persian, and French words; by the early 1980s only 10 percent of the vocabulary was foreign words.

It took many years for the country to develop the infrastructure needed to provide universal primary education, but since the 1980s almost all children between ages six and ten have been enrolled in schools. Turkey's literacy rate in 1990 was 81 percent. Since then the number of Turkish citizens who can read and write has increased each year. The Turkish National Education System is composed of two main sections: formal education and nonformal education. Formal education includes preschool education, primary education, secondary education, and higher education. Nonformal education includes all programs and activities outside the school or along with the school for those who have dropped out of or never attended formal education programs. A total of 14,668,444 students received formal or nonformal instruction in the 1998-1999 school year. That year a total of 512,522 teachers worked in the 64,489 institutions. Approximately 31 percent of Turkey's population is between ages twelve and twenty-four. In an effort to deal with the interests and problems of its young people, Turkey plans to establish the Higher Council of Youth with representatives from both the public and private sectors. This council will assume the responsibilities of the many ministries that have been focusing on one or more components of youth, such as education, health, working life, and utilization of free time.

The importance of educating both males and females has been recognized since the Republic of Turkey was established. While the principle of gender equality is present in the Constitution and various laws, females at all levels have traditionally received less formal education than males and had less opportunities because the great majority of Turkey's patriarchal society practice Moslem beliefs. The position of females in modern society has improved and several decrees have focused on eliminating gender discrimination. Women's issues were key portion of the Fifth Five Year Development Plan (1985-1990). Part of this plan was the establishment of the General Directorate for the Status and Problems of Women in 1990. This directorate has been active, working to improve the status and opportunities for women. Among the facilities now available are a central women's library, shelters for battered women, and women's study centers.

In 1995 at the Fourth World Women's Conference, Turkey adopted the conference platform for improving education and job opportunities for women. One of the goals was to increase the ratio of literacy among women to 100 percent by 2000. This goal was not attained, however. In 1999, one-third of the women were illiterate although 135,000 had enrolled in literacy courses in 1998. The increase in the number of years of compulsory education ensures that females will receive more formal education than in the past. The urban unemployment of women is twice that of men; however, the unemployment rate for urban, educated women (28.6 percent) is comparable to their male counterparts (30 percent), thus underscoring the value of education in Turkish society. The number of women enrolled in higher education programs has increased over the years. In 2000, almost one-third of the students were women. Many of these were enrolled in programs that have been traditionally considered appropriate for females, such as the humanities and social sciences and fine arts, but the number of women studying medicine and engineering has increased.

In 1999, Turkey had 106 youth centers where young people could spend their free time in a variety of educational, social, cultural, and athletic activities or they could meet with guidance counselors. Over 22,000 youths participated in youth center programs in 1999. In addition to these programs, youths can visit one of the fifty-two youth and guidance bureaus or participate in one of the youth festivals that occur across Turkey. The General Directorate of Youth and Sports sponsored the Fourth International Folk Dance Festival in 1999 so Turkish young people would become better educated about the cultures of other countries and those countries' youths would learn more about Turkey's customs and traditions.

Private schools are available at all levels of education. Because Turkey's constitution prohibits the public wearing of clothing of a religious nature, even those attending Islamic private schools must comply. The ban on females wearing headscarves has been strictly applied in public schools for some time, but the ban was not applied in the private sector until 2000. This ban has been especially controversial. Although most Turks are Muslim, the state is officially secular.

Most private schools are found in urban regions. Their curricula often include an emphasis developing the knowledge and skills needed to prepare university entrance exams. English is taught in many of the private schools, and in some schools is the language of instruction.

The Ministry of National Education oversees private schools and ensures the State policies and guidelines are followed. In 1997, amendments were passed that allow private schools to have a greater role. In 1999, approximately 1.6 percent of the students attended private schools, but the number is increasing. The ministry projects that 15 percent or more of the population will attend these schools. In the 1998-1999 school year, there were 1,704 private preschools, primary schools, and secondary schools attended by 238,079 students. Approximately 21,000 teachers were employed at these schools.

There are over 200 special training schools and over 100 centers for students who need special services because of their physical, mental, emotional, or social development disabilities. Special training schools are provided for children and youths in five different disabilities groups including blindness, deafness, orthopedic disabilities, mental retardation, and long-term illnesses. The primary objectives of these programs are to meet the individual educational needs of the students, to integrate them into society, and to provide them with a vocation. Efforts are underway to integrate the special needs students at regular schools with students their own ages. This process is called "combining," In the 1998-1999 school year, over 32,500 students were in special training schools and institutions. Approximately one-third of these were combined in regular classroom programs. Job and vocational programs are also available for adults with special needs.

Turkey has educational, scientific, and cultural agreements with many countries and is an active member of a number of organizations that benefit education. Among these are the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF); and the World Health Organization (WHO). The Ministry of National Education actively participates in the Center for Research and Innovation (CERI) and the in the Educational Committee of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Turkish youths are encouraged to participate in international organizations and activities. The Ministry of National Education has begun courses aimed at educating youth leaders for exchange programs.

Preprimary & Primary Education

Preschool education begins at birth and ends when the child is six years old. The Ministry of National Education recognizes that education provided during these years affects the development of the child in later years and acknowledges this is an important stage of education, but attending a preschool program is not compulsory.

According to the Basic Law on National Education, the goals of preschool education are to provide for children's physical, mental, and spiritual development; to the help them acquire good habits; to prepare them for the compulsory primary education program; to provide children with a common education opportunity, regardless of the family income or environment; the ensure that children speak the Turkish language correctly and fluently. The Regulation on Preschool Education Institutions covers public and private programs affiliated with the Ministry of National Education.

Optional paid preschool education programs were established in 1953. Preschool programs are most common in large cities, where, since the 1980s, they have been increasing in popularity. Beginning with the 1994-1995 school year, the Ministry of National Education in cooperation with universities and other institutions, designated three primary types of preschool programs: kres and yuva (day nurseries), anaokulu (kindergartens), and anasinifi (preschool classes). The day nurseries are for children from birth to 36 months old. Kindergartens are for children 37 months to 60 months old, and preschool classes are for those 67 months to 72 months old. In addition, private preschool institutions provide both full-day and half-day programs. In the 1998-1999 school year, there were 207,319 students enrolled in 7,946 preschools, and there were 11,825 teachers.

The goal of Turkey's preschool education program is to prepare children for primary school by developing their mental and physical abilities as well as their language skills. The Ministry of National Education regulates preschool programs and determines whether or not additional programs are needed in an area. More parents are learning about the benefits of preschool programs and enrolling their children in one of the programs.

There are some government funded parenting programs. Mothers of preschool aged children (birth-2, 2-4, 4-6) attend classes to learn about childcare, child development, nutrition, immunization, accident prevention and first aid, parent-child relationships, and similar topics. The goal of the program is to help mothers become more involved with their children's needs and realize the importance of preschool education.

The ministry's goal is to increase the number of students enrolled in preschool programs to 16 percent by the end of 2000. To provide for the projected increase in preschool enrollments, an amendment to the Regulations for Private Educational Institutions requires each primary school to have at least one preschool class. The ministry is also working toward development and standardization of preschool educational materials and equipment.

Preschool education is compulsory for children diagnosed as having certain physical or mental disabilities. Each child has an individual training plan. Parents work with the teachers at each phase of the child's education.

Primary education covers education and training of children aged six to fourteen. Primary education is compulsory for all citizens and is offered free of charge at state schools, but parents must buy the schools uniforms, books, and school supplies. The Ministry of National Education oversees the primary education program and establishes guidelines for passing classes, exams, and attendance. Prior to 1982, students began the primary program at age seven. Turkey has allocated the funds necessary to build additional schools and hire the teachers needed for the compulsory eight-year primary school program. In the 1998-1999 school year, there were 9,512,044 students enrolled in 44,525 primary schools, and there were 316,991 teachers. The success of Turkey's primary education program is evident: in 2000, only 3 percent of males aged fifteen to nineteen were illiterate, and only 10 percent of females in this age bracket were illiterate.

The primary program's objective is to provide children with the knowledge and skills needed for further education or skill training and with the behaviors and habits of good citizens. The goals of Turkey's primary education program focus on creating the type of educational environment in which students learn subject matter knowledge and information about Turkish society; develop a comprehensive, broad view of the world; become knowledgeable about information technologies; and develop interpersonal skills. Parental involvement is important because the family is viewed as an integral component of the education system.

Students in the primary education program are expected to complete one grade level each year; thus the program covers grades one to eight. They are graded on a scale of 1-5. A grade of 2 is the minimum passing score. Those who successfully complete the primary program receive the Ilkögretim Diplomasi (Basic Education Diploma). The countywide average rate of repetition for grades one five was 5.7 percent in 1997. There was no significant difference in the number of males being retained and the number of females. The eighth grade repetition rate in 1997 was 3.1 percent for males and 2.1 percent for females.

The Ministry of National Education must approve all materials used in schools. Students' textbooks and worksheets as well as teachers' resources are prepared by the Ministry, which also develops and prescribes the curricula. All primary schools offer the same courses which include Turkish language and literature; mathematics; social studies; science; civics and human rights; the history of the Turkish Republic and Atatürk's reforms; a foreign language (English, French, or German); individual and group activities; religious culture and ethics; art/handicraft; music; physical education; traffic safety and first aid; career guidance; and elective course.

When Law Number 4306 was passed in 1997 changing the primary education program to a compulsory program for six to fourteen year olds, the Basic Education Program was initiated. This program's purpose is to prepare Turkey's schools for the twenty-first century. It is increasing the coverage and quality of primary education, promoting the public's interest in primary education, and making primary schools learning centers for their communities. Because of the program's goals, many improvements are ongoing. Computer laboratories are being installed in all primary schools and there is a transition to computer-assisted education. All primary education teachers are becoming computer literate and learning how to integrate computer-aided instruction into the curriculum. New schools are being constructed or renovated in rural areas. The program also contains an Açik Ilkögretim Okulu (Open Basic Education School) that allows students fifteen years of age and older to complete their education as external students.

The Contemporary Education Project 2000 has been implemented to improve primary education program. Class size is being reduced to thirty pupils. Some students that live in sparsely populated rural areas and attend schools with multi-grade classrooms are being bussed to centrally located schools which offer an improved education program; school uniforms, textbooks and other educational materials as well as lunch are provided for these students.

Since 1962, those six to fourteen year olds who live in rural areas, in villages, and sub-village settlements that do not have schools or who are from poor families may attend a Regional Primary Education Boarding School or a Primary School with Pension; all expenses are paid by the State. In 1999, pilot programs were initiated at some of the education boarding and pension schools that target preparing students for vocational training as well as for the secondary school program. In 2000, there were over 280 regional primary boarding schools and over 250 primary schools with pensions. Over 100,000 students were given the option of studying in boarding schools and in pensioned schools.

Several primary school programs are underway in cooperation with the United Nations. These are aimed at improving students' personal hygiene and health and at bringing working children into primary education programs to increase their education achievement levels. Many of these programs take place in remote, poverty stricken areas where as many as 30 percent of the boys and 60 percent of the girls work rather than attend primary school.

Secondary Education

An optional secondary education program follows the eight years of basic education. Fourteen-year-old students who complete the basic education program may enroll in one of the over 1,300 public high schools whose programs match their abilities and interests. All schools are coeducational. The academic year is from October to July. The percent of students choosing to enroll in the secondary program has increased. In 1980, some 44 percent of males were enrolled, and in 2000, some 68 percent of males were enrolled. During that same period the number of females secondary students doubled, increasing from 24 percent to 48 percent. In the 1998-1999 school year, there were 1,094,610 students enrolled in the 2,611 general high schools, and there were 70,936 teachers at these schools. During this school term, another 918,542 students were enrolled in Turkey's 3,097 technical and vocational high schools; 68,728 teachers taught at these schools.

The goal of secondary education is to provide students with general knowledge and prepare them for a profession and for higher education. The Ministry of National Education supervises the high schools. Programs last for three to four years and cover general, vocational, and technical education. There are two main categories of secondary schools: general high schools and vocational-technical high schools. There are five types of general secondary schools: Genel Lise (General High School), Yabanci Dil Agirlilki Lise (Foreign Language High School), Anadolu lisesi (Anatolian High School), Fen Lisesi (Science High School), Anadoulu Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi (Anatolian Fine Arts High School), and Anadoulu Ögretmen Lisesi (Anatolian Teacher Preparatory High Schools). Students completing these schools receive the Lise Diplomasi.

The Genel Lise (General High School) is a three-year program that prepares students for higher education. In the 1997-1998 school year, there were 1,606 general high schools serving 928,545 students. The Yabanci Dil Agirlilki Lise (Foreign Language High School) is a four-year program designed to prepare high achieving students for higher education programs. These schools were first introduced in the 1992-1993 school year at twenty-eight high schools. In the 1998-1999 school year there were 674 Foreign Language High Schools.

Anadolu lisesi (Anatolian High School) were first opened in 1955 in several major cities as Ministry of Education Colleges. In 1975 they were renamed Anatolian High Schools. These selective four-year schools use a foreign language, often English, as the language of instruction in certain subjects. Admission to Anatolian High Schools is based upon a competitive placement examination. The graduates of these schools are often score well on the university entrance exams. In 1998-1999, there were 406 Anatolian High Schools.

The first Fen Lisesi (Science High School) was established in 1982 to provide education to the exceptionally gifted mathematics and science students. In 1998-1999, there were thirty-nine Science High Schools. All are boarding schools. The language of instruction is Turkish. Class size is limited to twenty-four. These four-year schools emphasize research and laboratory activities. The first Sanatlar Lisesi (Anatolian Fine Arts High School) opened in 1989 for gifted students. In 1999, there were nineteen Anatolian Fine Arts High Schools. The first year of the four-year program is an intense foreign language preparatory program.

Anadoulu Ögretmen Lisesi (Anatolian Teacher Preparatory High Schools) are four year schools designed to prepare teachers to enter university teacher education programs. In addition to the core curriculum courses, students take courses in general education theory and methodology as well as the history of education. In 1997-1998, there were 23,437 students enrolled at 78 schools.

Students enrolled in all general high schools are subject to the Ministry of National Education Regulations Governing Grading and Passing at Secondary Institutions. All examinations, homework assignments, and projects are graded on a 100-point scale which correlates with a five-point grading scale: five (85-100) is excellent, four (70-84) is good, three (55-69) is satisfactory, two (45-54) is passing, one (25-44) is failing, zero (0-24) is failing and not included in the grade point calculation.

All secondary schools have the same core curriculum: Turkish language and literature, religious culture and ethics, history, geography, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, health, foreign language, physical education, military science, history of the Turkish revolution and the reforms of Atatürk, and philosophy. In addition to the core courses, the General High Schools, Anatolian High Schools, and Foreign Language High Schools offer concentrations in six subject areas: science, social studies, Turkish language and literature and mathematics, foreign language, fine arts, and sports. At Science High Schools, only the concentration in science is available. Students at the Anatolian Fine Arts High Schools can specialize in either art or music.

A select number of high schools in the largest cities are bilingual, teaching classes in Turkish and either English, French, or German. Twelve high schools are open to students from the three legally recognized minorities: Armenians, Greeks, and Jews. These schools teach some subjects in Armenian or Greek.

Meslek ve Teknik Lise (Vocational and Technical High Schools) prepares students for employment or for higher education. Meslek high schools are three-year vocational high schools (grades nine to eleven) that offer courses such as binding and screen printing, ceramics, electrical engineering and electronics, food technology, library science, and telecommunications. Graduates of these schools receive the devlet mesiek high schoolssi diplomasi (State Vocational School Diploma). Teknik high schools are four-year technical high schools (grades nine to twelve) that offer courses such as electronics, technical drawing, and communications. Graduates of these schools receive the devlet teknik high schoolssi diplomasi (State Technical School Diploma).

There are four main groups of Vocational and Technical High Schools: Erkek Teknik Ögretim Okullari (Technical Schools for Boys), Kiz Teknik Okullari (Technical Schools for Girls), Ticaret ve Turizm Ögretimi Okullari (Commerce and Tourism Schools) and Din Egitimi Okullari (Religious Education Schools).

Erkek Teknik Ögretim Okullari (Technical Schools for Boys) train students to become skilled as technical personnel needed in science and technology areas. Kiz Teknik Okullari (Technical Schools for Girls) educate females to work in technical and scientific areas so they can supplement the family income. These programs are available in both formal and nonformal education systems. Ticaret ve Turizm Ögretimi Okullari (Commerce and Tourism Schools) train students for a variety of public and private sector jobs as well as providing the skills needed for higher education programs. There are a number of schools devoted to specialized areas such as hotel management and tourism, foreign trade, commerce. culinary arts, mass communications. Many of these programs provide on the job vocational training for students. The number of students enrolled in Commerce and Tourism Schools has steadily increased; in fact, more schools are needed to accommodate all the applicants.

Din Egitimi Okullari (Religious Education Schools) were established to prepare male student to become imams (prayer leaders) and males and females to be preachers or course instructors. In 1997-1998, there were 605 Religious Education Schools attended by over 178,000 students.

Most students with special needs are educated in special schools, but there is some mainstreaming of special needs students at regular schools with students their own ages. Special schools are designed for the visually impaired, the hearing impaired, the orthopedically impaired, and the chronically ill. Each province has a special education guidance and counseling service unit to organize, coordinate, supervise, and evaluate the special education services.

In addition to the public high schools, there are a number of private educational institutions. Most of these are preparatory schools for Turkey's higher education program. All of these schools operate under the supervision and control of the Ministry of National Education.

Higher Education

Higher education is comprised of all postsecondary programs that are at least two years in length. The academic year begins in October and ends in July. The languages of instruction are English, French, German, and Turkish. The higher education system consists of fifty-three state and nineteen private universities and non-university institutions of higher education, such as colleges and police and military academies. Public universities' academic and administrative staff receive civil service status and can earn tenure. Research assistants and assistant professors are non-tenure track positions.

Until 1984, there were no private universities in Turkey. Higher Education Law Number 2547 allowed non-profit foundations to establish universities that must be accredited periodically. The Council of Higher Education (YOK) supervises and regulates all private universities. It is possible for a private university to receive public funds, if it meets certain criteria.

The law founds universities, faculties, institutions, and four-year schools. They offer degrees at three levels or stages: bachelors, masters and doctorate. Student who complete the first stage of a four-year two-stage program earn a pre-Licenciate degree. When the four-year program is completed, they receive the Licenciate degree. Dentistry and veterinary medicine programs are five-years long. Medicine is a six-year program that leads to the Doktor degree. In engineering, a Mühendis Diplomasi is awarded after completion of a four-year program.

To enter the second level of higher education, students must first take an entrance examination. If accepted into a program, they must complete an additional two years of study. The first is primarily devoted to course work, and the second is primarily spent writing a thesis. The Uzmanlik Belgesi (specialist certificate) is conferred in agriculture, pharmacy, or veterinary medicine. To work toward the Yüksek Lisans Diplomasi (Higher Licenciate Degree), an individual must first pass an entrance examination and then complete two years of study.

Those completing of the third state of higher education earn a Doktora Diplomasi (Doctoral Degree). Candidates must have completed the previous stages and must pass an entrance examination. The degree is conferred after two years of additional study and completion of a doctoral dissertation. The Tip Uzmanlik Belgesei (specialist certificate) in medicine is conferred on those who complete advanced studies. This degree is the equivalent of a Doktora Diplomasi.

In November 1981, Law Number 2547 established the Higher Education Council (YOK), a twenty-two member autonomous organization that connects all universities and higher education institutions and coordinates their activities. Seven of the members are elected by the Interuniversity Council, seven are appointed directly by the President of the Republic, and eight are appointed by the government, mostly from the senior civil servants. The term of office is four years, and council member may be reappointed. A nine-member executive committee elected by the council handles YOK's day-to-day operation. The Minister of National Education represents higher education in Parliament and can chair YOR meetings, but he has no vote. Decisions made by YOK do not have to be ratified by the Ministry.

YOK prepares short and long-term plans to establish and develop higher education institutions and to educate the teaching staff needed either in Turkey or abroad. One of the council's primary goals is reorganizing the current higher education system and freeing it from a centralized, bureaucratic structure. To accomplish this goal, YOK is working to increase the power of the boards of directors and faculty at the universities and faculties and to improve the relationships with industries. Another focus of YOK is working to ensure the education-training systems and programs meet international systems and standards. Open university education using distance-learning programs has supplemented the formal education programs. A non-profit foundation to establish higher education law went into effect in 1981.

In addition to YOK, two other bodies greatly influence higher education administration: the Interuniversity Council, which is comprised of all the rectors of all universities and one member elected by the senate of each university, and the Turkish University Rectors' Committee, which is made up of all university rectors and five ex-rectors.

Effective 1998-1999, admission to higher education is based upon a national entrance exam, which has verbal and quantitative sections. Those scoring between 105 and 120 points on the exam are offered a limited choice of programs. The Student Selection and Placement Center administer the exam each year. This center was established in 1974. In 1981 it became affiliated with YOK.

Anadolu University offers both a two-year and a four-year degree via distance learning. Lectures are televised. Students accepted into the program must meet stringent entrance requirements.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Turkey invests a substantial amount of its budget in education and educational research. The ratio of the annual cost of one pupil in primary education to per capita gross national product was 9.6 percent in 1997.

The effectiveness of the five-year development plans are continually assessed and data analyzed to determine if the stated objectives have been met. Public documents report the results of the comprehensive analysis. Educational research is the basis of many changes. Needs assessments, economic reports, government indicators are some of the ways in which the Ministry of National Education gathers information. Since the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, involving the public in educational matters has been important. The country's goal is to have universal literacy and life-long learning.

A network linking all universities' libraries and computing facilities' networks with major international networks and databases is underway. This project is in cooperation with the Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey.

Nonformal Education

Nonformal education is one of the two components of the national education system. This component is for those who never received any formal education, those with certain skill and ability levels who are currently enrolled in a formal education program, and those who left the formal education program without receiving a degree.

The objectives of Turkey's nonformal education program are to teach reading and writing to adults who have not mastered these skills; to provide these individuals basic knowledge and, if they attended any formal education program, to build on the knowledge base of the last level they attended; and to create new opportunities that will help them earn a living. The program also explains and promotes Atatürk's reforms and principles to further develop the country's sense of national unity and solidarity. It is concerned with educating this segment of the population about new agricultural and industrial technologies and techniques so the standard of living can be improved.

Nonformal education has two components: general and vocational technical nonformal education programs. Institutes providing nonformal education include the practical arts schools for girls, advanced technical schools for girls, industrial practical arts schools, technical education centers for adults, public education centers, and apprenticeship training centers. The programs may be classified as public education, apprenticeship training, and distance education.

Most of the public education programs and activities take place in formal education centers. Any individual, regardless of age or educational background, can enroll in literacy courses, vocational courses, and social and cultural courses that are offered in many of the formal education buildings. In the 1998-1999 school term, 1,055,936 individuals participated in public education courses.

Apprenticeship training is available to fourteen to nineteen year olds who have not received formal education, to those who completed the eight-year compulsory program but were not eligible to continue their formal education, and to those who never completed the required formal education program. Individuals between the ages of fourteen and nineteen who have complete the primary education program may enter a three to four year apprenticeship training program. The apprentices attend training centers one day each week for eight to ten hours of training each time. Those who complete the training program may take the journeyman examination. If they pass the examination, they receive a journeyman certificate and may take the master's examination after three years of work experience if they continue mastership training. 267,074 students received apprenticeship training in one of 328 centers during the 1998-1999 school year.

Other options are available for those who have completed formal vocational training. They may take the master's examination after one year of work experience. Those who work at a workplace included in the law's list of vocations and who sign an apprenticeship contract are classified as students and the Ministry of National Education pays their insurance premiums during the training period. Those who complete the program receive journeymen's certificates and may enter a three-year mastership-training program. Turkish law requires a master's certificate for anyone who is employed as a foreman or who opens an independent business.

Every Turkish citizen may participate in distance education courses. Beginning in 1997 when the compulsory primary education program was extended from five to eight years, open primary education school programs were available for those who, under the previous national education program, had completed the required five-year program but not continued for the then optional three-year middle school program. This open primary education program allows individuals to compete the compulsory eight-year primary program. In the 1998-1999 school term, this program enrolled 69,076 students. The open education high school program is available to three groups of students: those who are unable to continue their formal education, those who too old to continue in the formal education program, and those who are currently enrolled in a formal education program who prefer to complete their formal education via distance learning. There were 223,184 students in open education high schools in the 1998-1999 school year.

In addition to these nonformal education programs, Turkey provides educational and training services to Turkish citizens living aboard. Turkish educational consultancies in twenty-one locations and educational attaches oversee these programs. In 1999, almost 800,000 Turkish students received education abroad; over 1,000 teachers were sent from Turkey to provide the necessary instruction.

Teaching Profession

Turkey recognizes the importance of teacher training and preparation. Students wishing to become teachers must complete the secondary Anatolian Teacher Preparation High School program. They then must meet entrance requirements at a university faculty of education and compete the required curriculum before being allowed to teach. Approximately 17,000 prospective primary teachers graduate annually. Primary education teachers for the first five grades must complete at least a four-year bachelors program where they must obtain a Lisans Diplomasi. They must also demonstrate teaching competencies in order to receive the Primary Education Teachers Certificate. To teach in grades six through eight, teachers must complete additional more specialized subject matter courses. When they begin to teach, the instructors must successfully complete a one-year probationary program before they are appointed as regular teachers.

In 1999 a project was begun to prepare teachers' manuals that would guide teachers as they implement pupil-centered instruction. Some teachers are having to learn a new teaching methodology that emphases actively involving students in the learning process. In-service training programs have target teaching primary school teachers more about computers and computer-assisted instruction. All teachers, inspectors (supervisors), and administrators should be computer literate by the end of the year 2000.

Teachers at the secondary level must also complete at least a four-year bachelor's program where they obtain a Lisans Diplomasi. In order to be considered for a teaching position at certain secondary schools, such as the Science High Schools, teachers must take a competitive examination. To teach at a higher education institution, individuals must meet various criteria. According to the Higher Education Law, higher education institutions are responsible for training their own academic staff.

Summary

The Republic of Turkey recognizes that a quality education system is essential for the country's development. High priority is placed on literacy and providing opportunities for all citizens, regardless of age, to have access to free programs that teach reading and writing. The Ministry of National Education recognizes the need to integrate traditional curricula with computer science and technology training.

In 2000, the population of Turkey was approximately 65.7 million. Approximately 30 percent of the population is under age fifteen. Thus, many Turks are being educated in schools that are undergoing continual changes in curricula and instructional techniques. The implementation of computers and information technology training at all levels of formal education will impact future generations.

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—Jo Anne R. Bryant