Chapter 8
Teachers

Teachers are the foundation of the education process. A well-designed, challenging curriculum, a first-class facility, and state-of-the-art equipment need motivated and well-trained teachers to complete the equation. Teachers are usually the first to come under fire when test scores and achievement do not meet expectations, and are among the last to be rewarded when things go well. Overall their salaries are considerably lower than those of similarly educated professionals.

A growing number of teachers face situations that would have been inconceivable a generation ago, ranging from lack of respect from students to outright physical attacks. Teachers in inner-city schools particularly bear the brunt of many "school" problems that are often a reflection of society's problems. Despite these challenges, however, the number of teachers is increasing, and a clear majority of teachers are pleased with what they do.

TRENDS IN TEACHER SUPPLY AND DEMAND

According to Is There Really a Teacher Shortage? (Richard M. Ingersoll, Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy, Seattle, WA, September 2003), in 2002 teachers made up about 4% of the civilian workforce in the United States. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, the number of classroom teachers in elementary and secondary schools has increased steadily, reaching 3.4 million in 2001, an increase of 36% from 1980. There were nearly three million teachers in public schools in 2001, and 390,000 private school teachers. By 2013 the National Center for Education Statistics projects the number of classroom teachers to increase to 3.6 million—3.2 million public and 411,000 private school teachers.

A Teacher Shortage?

Impacts on teacher supply and demand include: teacher retirement, the region of the country, student enrollment, class size, subject area shortages, turnover rates, the reserve pool of teachers who have already been trained, and school reform efforts. The American Federation of Teachers (AFT) reported in Survey and Analysis of Teacher Salary Trends 2002 (F. Howard Nelson and Rachel Drown, Washington, DC, 2003) that in general fewer school districts were experiencing considerable shortages than in the past.

According to Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?, teacher turnover has been an important factor that impacts the perception of shortages. Between 40% and 50% of new teachers leave the field after five years. Turnover also varies based on the subject. Mathematics, science, and elementary special education teachers have higher rates of turnover than do English and social studies teachers. The type of school impacts turnover as well. Schools with high proportions of impoverished students have higher teacher turnover rates than do schools in wealthier districts. Urban schools have more teacher turnover than suburban or rural schools, and private schools experience more turnover than public schools.

One consequence of teacher shortages is the increased hiring of teachers who are not certified to teach the subject they are assigned. According to Out-of-Field Teaching and the Limits of Teacher Policy (Richard M. Ingersoll, Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy, Seattle, WA, September 2003), in 1999–2000 about 38% of seventh- to twelfth-grade mathematics teachers did not have a college major in mathematics, mathematics education, or a related discipline. About one-third of all secondary school English teachers did not have a major or minor in English or a related subject, and more than one-quarter of science teachers did not have a major or minor in one of the sciences or science education.

Most public elementary and secondary teachers (94%) have state-approved teaching certificates. High-poverty schools have fewer certified teachers (90%) than low-poverty schools (96%). Schools with higher levels of minority enrollment have fewer certified teachers (89%) than schools with low-minority enrollment (96%), and urban schools have fewer certified teachers (92%) than suburban (96%) or rural (95%) schools. Schools that are poor and urban with high minority enrollment have fewer certified teachers (85%) than those that are suburban, serve white students, and are not poor (96%).

According to Out-of-Field Teaching and the Limits of Teacher Policy, small schools have more out-of-field teaching than larger schools, and there are more grade seven and eight teachers who are assigned to teach out of field than teachers in grades nine through twelve.

Reasons for Teacher Turnover

Teachers who move to other schools do not represent a loss to the profession, but they are a loss to the schools from which they move. Their departures often require that a replacement be found to fulfill set staffing levels. Overall, Ingersoll found that teachers leave for a variety of reasons, including personal issues (such as caring for family members), school staffing actions (layoffs, school closings, and reorganization), dissatisfaction with teaching, job change (to nonteaching jobs in education or to jobs outside the field of education), and retirement.

Personal reasons, such as departures for family moves, pregnancy and child rearing, or health problems, accounted for 36% of migration (that is, "movers" leaving a teaching job at one school for another) and 44% of attrition ("leavers" giving up the teaching profession entirely).

Pupil-Teacher Ratio

Educators prefer a low ratio of students per teacher, which allows teachers to spend more time with each pupil. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, from 1980 to 2001 the pupil-teacher ratio in elementary and secondary schools declined from 18.6 to 15.8 students per teacher. For public schools, the ratios were 18.7 in 1980 and 15.9 in 2001; in private schools, the ratios were 17.7 and 15.2, respectively. Thus the overall supply of teachers relative to the number of students increased during that time period. This does not mean, however, that all schools were able to find as many well-qualified teachers as they needed.

In fall 2000 Maine, Vermont, and Virginia reported the lowest average pupil-teacher ratio (12.5, 12.1, and 12.5, respectively), while Utah and California reported the highest (21.9 and 20.6, respectively). Some states have laws limiting class sizes, especially in elementary schools. Several other states are involved in developing or are considering similar laws.

CAREER OUTLOOK FOR TEACHERS

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) in Occupational Outlook 2004–05, excellent job opportunities will be available over the next decade as many current elementary and secondary teachers reach retirement age. The BLS noted that secondary teachers will be particularly in demand, and opportunities at all levels will be plentiful in states with fast-growing populations, including California, Texas, Georgia, Idaho, Hawaii, Alaska, and New Mexico. According to the BLS, many urban school districts offer good prospects for teachers because of the high turnover experienced in districts with high rates of poverty and overcrowded classrooms. However, rural areas, too, experience high turnover due to their remote locations and low salaries, and offer numerous opportunities for teaching professionals. Subject areas that are considered promising for new teachers include mathematics, chemistry, physics, bilingual education, and foreign languages. In most states, teachers are unionized and have relatively good job security through state tenure laws. Teachers who satisfactorily complete a probationary period are eligible for tenure, which protects them from being fired without a full investigation and due process procedures.

TEACHER EXPERIENCE

The National Center for Education Statistics' Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) collected cycles of data starting in 1987–88, and then in 1990–91, 1993–94, and 1999–2000. In the 2003 Condition of Education (U.S Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, June 2003), the 1999–2000 SASS data was used. During the 1999–2000 school year, 16% of public school teachers had three or fewer years of experience. Nearly one-quarter (23%) of teachers in private schools had three or fewer years of experience. At public schools with more than 75% minority enrollment, 21% of the teachers had three or fewer years of experience. At public schools with less than 10% minority enrollment, 14% of teachers had three or fewer years of experience. More than one-quarter (28%) of teachers had three or fewer years of experience at private schools with more than 75% minority enrollment. For private schools with less than 10% minority enrollment, 20% of teachers had three or fewer years of experience.

SALARIES

Since the mid-1980s there have been great fluctuations in teachers' salaries. As school enrollments fell in the late 1970s and early 1980s, average teachers' salaries (in constant 2002–03 dollars, adjusted for inflation) also declined. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 1980–81, teachers' salaries averaged $37,094. From 1982–83 to 1990–91, salaries rose steadily to $44,992, a 21% increase. From 1990–91 to 2002–03, salaries remained comparatively stable. In 2002–03 the average teacher salary was $45,822, a 48% increase over 1959–60 (in constant dollars). Elementary teachers earn slightly less than secondary teachers. (See Table 8.1.) Private schools tend to pay their teachers less than public schools.

According to the American Federation of Teachers, California had the highest average teachers' salary in 2002–03, at $55,693, followed by Michigan ($54,020), Connecticut ($53,962), New Jersey ($53,872) and the District of Columbia ($53,194). In 2002–03 South Dakota had the lowest average salary ($32,414), followed by Montana ($35,754), Mississippi ($35,135), North Dakota ($33,869) and Oklahoma ($33,277).

Alaska had the highest average beginning salary in 2002–03 ($37,401), followed by New Jersey ($35,673), the District of Columbia ($35,260), New York ($35,259), and California ($34,805). Montana had the lowest average beginning salary ($23,052), followed by Maine ($24,631), South Dakota ($24,311), North Dakota ($23,591) and Arizona ($23,548).

Comparisons to Selected Other Professionals

According to the BLS in National Compensation Survey: Occupational Wages in the United States, 2004 (http://www.bls.gov/ncs/ocs/sp/ncbl0727.pdf), the mean hourly earnings (half earned more and half earned less) of full-time elementary school teachers was $32.53, a penny more than full-time secondary teachers in the same survey. The mean number of hours worked per week by full-time elementary school teachers was 36.5 hours, compared with thirty-seven hours for full-time secondary teachers.

Teachers made less per hour than full-time lawyers ($48.63), financial managers ($37.24), and computer systems analysts ($35.17), but also worked fewer hours than people in those professions. The mean number of hours worked per week by full-time lawyers was 41.8; the number for financial managers was 40.5 and for computer systems analysts, 40.1, according to the National Compensation Survey 2004. However, teachers earned more per hour in 2004 and worked fewer hours per week than mechanical engineers ($31.68, 40.8 hours), chemists ($30.64, 39.9 hours), or psychologists ($29.00, 38.1 hours).

According to the BLS, the mean hourly earnings of full-time college and university teachers was significantly higher than for elementary and secondary teachers ($41.96) and the workweek longer (39.3 hours). In focused subject areas, college and university teachers were often higher paid than professionals working in those areas. For example, biological sciences teachers at the college level earned $41.76 per hour and worked 40.2 hours per week, while biological and life scientists had mean hourly earnings of $28.09 and worked 39.2 hours per week.

TEACHER AND PRINCIPAL TRAINING AND RECRUITING FUND

The No Child Left Behind Act (see Chapter 5) required states to put highly qualified teachers in every public school classroom by 2005–06. Existing grant programs were combined to create the new Teacher and Principal Training and Recruiting Fund (Title II). States and local districts are permitted to use these funds for staff development for their public school teachers, principals, and administrators. In addition to funding professional development, states and school districts are allowed to use their grants for reforming teacher certification or licensure requirements; alternative certification; tenure reform; merit-based teacher performance systems; bonus pay for teachers in high-need subject areas and in high-poverty schools and districts; and mentoring programs.

Highly qualified teachers must be certified, hold a bachelor's degree, and have passed a state licensing test. Requirements for middle and secondary school teachers are more rigorous for the specific subject matter taught, and experienced teachers are held to higher standards than new teachers.

PUBLIC OPINION ABOUT EXTRA PAY FOR TEACHERS AND ASSESSING THE PERFORMANCE OF TEACHERS

The 36th Annual Phi Delta Kappa/Gallup Poll (http://www.pdkintl.org/kappan/k0409pol.htm, 2004) asked if respondents favored awarding extra pay to public school teachers for various reasons. Slightly more than three-quarters (76%) of those surveyed believed that having an advanced degree should be used to determine whether a teacher receives extra pay. The length of teaching experience was favored by 71% of respondents, and nearly as many (70%) believed that high evaluations of the teacher by the school principal or other administrators should be a factor. Nearly two-thirds (65%) favored using high evaluations by other teachers in the school district as a reason to award extra pay, and 64% thought that high evaluations by students should count. Fifty-nine percent of respondents favored high opinions of parents as a reason to award extra pay. (See Table 8.2.)

When asked whether a teacher's ability should be judged on how well his or her students perform on standardized tests, nearly half (49%) responded that it should, and almost as many (47%) believed that it should not. (See Table 8.3.) Applying the same question to school principals in 2004, 47% thought that one measurement of a principal's quality should be based on how well the students in the school perform on standardized tests, and half (50%) responded that this should not be a factor in how the principal's quality is judged. (See Table 8.4.)

CRIMES AGAINST TEACHERS

As shown in Figure 8.1, the average annual rate of crime against teachers is the sum of teacher victimizations for the five years from 1998 to 2002, divided by the sum of the number of teachers during those five years, multiplied by 1,000. From 1998 to 2002, male teachers were more often the victims of violent crimes, with thirty-four violent crimes per 1,000 male teachers and fifteen violent crimes per 1,000 female teachers. Female teachers were more often the victims of theft, with thirty-four incidents of theft per 1,000 female teachers and twenty-three incidents of theft per 1,000 male teachers. Crimes were more common in middle/junior high schools and high schools than in elementary schools. The average annual crime rate was fifty-nine crimes per 1,000 teachers in middle/junior high school, seventy-one crimes per 1,000 teachers in high school, and thirty-eight crimes per 1,000 teachers in elementary school. More crimes occurred in urban schools (sixty-four crimes per 1,000 teachers) than in suburban schools (forty-two crimes per 1,000 teachers). The fewest crimes occurred in rural schools (thirty-four crimes per 1,000 teachers). (See Figure 8.1.)