Switzerland

Basic Data
Official Country Name:	Swiss Confederation
Region:	Europe
Population:	7,262,372
Language(s):	German, French, Italian, Romansch
Literacy Rate:	99%
Compulsory Schooling:	9 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	5.4%
Foreign Students in National Universities:	24,093
Libraries:	2,344
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 477,643
	Secondary: 559,924
	Higher: 148,024
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Higher: 33%
Female Enrollment Rate:	Higher: 25%

History & Background

Switzerland, located in the heart of Europe, is among the small nations of the world. It is 41,300 square kilometers and shares its borders and its three main languages with Germany, France, Italy, Austria, and Liechtenstein. The Helvetic Confederation, the Latin name for Switzerland, can be divided into three natural regions: the Jura mountains in the northwest, the central lowlands between the Lake of Constance and Lake of Geneva, and the Alps in the south and east. Although the Alps and the Jura Mountains cover more than half of Switzerland, most of the Swiss people live between the two mountain ranges. The estimated population in 1998 was 7,374,000, including foreign workers, who made up almost 19 percent of the population. In the central lowlands are most of Switzerland's industries and its richest farmlands. Switzerland's capital city, Bern, and its largest city, Zurich, are located in this area. The population, with a density of 179 people per square kilometer is 68 percent urban and 32 percent rural.

The population is divided between three major and one minor language groups. According to the 1990 census of the resident population, 63.7 percent spoke German, 19.2 percent French, 7.6 percent Italian, 0.6 percent Romansch, and 8.9 percent other languages. German, French, and Italian are deemed official languages, whereas Romansch, which is spoken by less than 1 percent of the population in the Grisons, is considered a national language. With regard to religion, in 1990 some 46.1 percent of the population were Roman Catholics, 40 percent were Protestants, 5 percent belonged to other denominations, and 8.9 percent were "nonreligious."

Switzerland has limited natural resources, but it is a very affluent industrial nation. Using imported raw materials, the Swiss manufacture high-quality goods including electrical equipment, machine tools, and watches. They also produce chemicals, drugs, chocolate, cheese, and other diary products.

The Swiss have a long tradition of freedom. The Swiss Confederation was created over 700 years ago in what is now central Switzerland. The original defensive alliance formed in 1291 of the three mountain cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden, gradually increased to 13 by 1513. Similar to other parts of central Europe, education started in church schools, which were primarily dedicated to training the clergy. It was not until the late Middle Ages that schools for reading and writing for more practical purposes were established in some towns. During the Reformation and Counter-Reformation era education was largely the privilege of the upper classes of society. As part of the new democratic system, elementary schools were established at the end of the eighteenth century. These schools provided education for a much broader cross-section of the population.

Education has played a very important role in the Swiss Confederation. The Swiss Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) developed many of the basic pedagogical approaches and teacher training principles that are used in many western countries of the world. Pestalozzi's ideas spread as far as the United States by the 1860s, and his theories influenced Friedrich Froebel, the German founder of the first kindergartens, as well as many other educators and philosophers. A report on Popular Education in France from 1861 that also analyzed Popular Education in Switzerland commented on the quality of Swiss schools.

The principle of direct democracy is an important part of Swiss democracy and firmly rooted in the federal constitution. The electorate frequently votes, either to elect representatives or to vote on initiatives or referendums. Decentralization and direct democracy are also an important part of the education system. Education has remained primarily the responsibility of the cantons (states) and municipalities. Switzerland is made up of 26 cantons, which enjoy a considerable degree of autonomy. The cantons are further divided into communes or municipalities, approximately 3,000 in all.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

Two essential hallmarks of the Swiss education system are federalism and pragmatism. Federalism delegates most education responsibilities to the cantons and municipalities. Except for narrow areas the cantons are responsible for compulsory education. The constitution stipulates that the cantons shall exercise all rights, which are not expressly delegated to the federal government. The responsibility for "adequate" primary education is delegated to the cantons. The constitution mandates for state education to be available to children of all creeds without any restrictions with respect to freedom of conscience or belief. Attendance at primary school is compulsory and free of charge. Each canton has its own legislation concerning education. The definitions of the goals of education are, therefore, not the same throughout Switzerland.

Pragmatism takes the form of various agreements for educational cooperation and coordination. An important legal instrument for coordinating the education system is the "Agreement on the Coordination of Education" known as the Concordat, which was drawn up by the cantons in 1970. Its mission is to harmonize cantonal legislation on education. Twenty-five cantons have signed this agreement in order to coordinate their legislation on education with respect to compulsory schooling, duration of compulsory school attendance, and the school calendar. Because of the extremely fragmented Swiss educational system and the system of direct democracy in Switzerland it has taken over 15 years to adopt the existing system. In addition, important agreements have been signed between the cantons concerning intercantonal recognition of qualifications, university funding, admission to educational institutions in other cantons, and funding for communal institutions.

The 1970 Concordat and subsequent agreements have set out the following requirements for compulsory education: (1) the age for entry to compulsory education at six, (2) the duration of compulsory education for at least nine years, and (3) the period of schooling between the start of education and sitting for the matura, or school-leaving certificate (which allows a student to enter the university) at least 12 years.

Responsibility for compulsory and higher education is relatively complex in Switzerland because of the federal system and distribution of power between the federal government and the cantons. Although there is no federal or national Ministry of Education, the Federal government has a limited, but important role in harmonizing education in Switzerland. The Confederation is responsible for supervising "a sufficient level of primary education," which is compulsory, free and for which the cantons are responsible. A second responsibility is to provide legislation concerning vocational training for industry, trade, commerce, agriculture, and domestic service. The federation also regulates the teaching of physical education. In the area of higher education, the central government controls the Federal Institutes of Technology in Zurich and Lausanne, the Swiss Pedagogical Institutes for vocational training (Berne, Lausanne, Lugano) and the Federal College of Physical Education in Macolin. It also regulates admission to medical studies and to the Federal Institutes of Technology. Through these regulations the Confederation legitimizes the requirements for the matura.

In addition, the central government subsidizes the cantonal universities, and scientific research. Grants from the federal government help support the poorer cantons and provide grants for Swiss schools abroad. Through legislation the federal government also promotes the education and integration of handicapped children and adolescents.

In special circumstances the Swiss parliament may temporarily delegate responsibility to the Confederation in order to fulfill important tasks of national importance such as programs for nonuniversity higher education, university exchanges, or Swiss participation in European research and training programs. In most cases where legislative powers are held by the Confederation, the Federal Assembly passes the necessary laws and delegates the corresponding executive powers to the cantons or, in rare cases, to private bodies. The cantons usually delegate the responsibility for setting up and maintaining certain types of schools, including kindergartens and compulsory schools to the municipalities.

The cantonal government and its Department of Education, along with the Education Council in certain cantons, are responsible for organizing and running the cantonal education system. The "cantonal minister," who is the head of the education department, is elected by the people and is reelected every four or five years. Almost all cantons set up education services, including cantonal offices for statistics, research, and documentation during the 1960s. Their goal is to ensure the proper functioning of compulsory education and to help in technical matters, including school improvement and curriculum planning.

One of the major problems with the Swiss educational system is its lack of coherence. Until World War II, the cantonal education systems were very fragmented, in spite of the fact that as early as 1897 the heads of the cantonal departments of education set up a Conference with the aim of exchanging information and coordinating the education system at a national level. From the 1960s onward the need for more coordinated educational policy produced new and restructured organizations, often in collaboration with the Confederation.

The Swiss Conference of Cantonal Directors of Education (EDK/CDIP) was restructured and provided with a secretariat and four regional organizations. These four regional Conferences included French-speaking Switzerland and the Ticino, northwest Switzerland, central Switzerland, and eastern Switzerland. Language, geography, and history have played an important part in these regional Conferences. Each region coordinates the publication of common curricula, educational material, and joint running of educational institutions, as well as agreements on recognition of qualifications and admission to schools and colleges.

The fragmented nature of the Swiss educational system makes it difficult to evaluate. In reality there are 26 slightly different educational systems in this small country. The responsibilities of the Confederation in education are as follows:

• It supervises the cantons, which are responsible for providing "a sufficient level of primary education" that is compulsory and free.
• It is responsible for legislation with respect to vocational training for industry, trade, commerce, and agriculture.
• It regulates the teaching of physical science.
• It is responsible for the Federal Institutes of Technology in Zurich and Lausanne, the Swiss Pedagogical Institutes in Berne, Lausanne, and Lugano, and the Federal College of Physical Education in Macolin.
• It regulates admission to medical school as well as the Institutes of Technology and through regulations specifies the requirements for admission to higher education (by specifying requirements for the school-leaving diploma).
• It subsidizes the cantonal universities, scientific research, and Swiss schools abroad.
• It promotes the education and integration of exceptional children and adolescents through legislation with respect to disability insurance.

Globalization and the need to be part of a common Europe have produced significant changes in the Swiss education system, particularly at the higher secondary and nonuniversity levels of higher education. Although Switzerland is not a member of the European Community, in order to compete in a global society the confederation coordinated many changes at the end of the twentieth century and beginning of the new millennium in order to bring its educational system in line with most European countries. Many of these changes are still in the process of implementation at the beginning of the twenty-first century.

Educational System—Overview

The structure of the educational system starts with preschool education. It is called kindergarten in German-speaking Switzerland, école enfantine in the French-speaking area, and scuola dell'infanzia in the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino. Preschool was first introduced in the first half of the nineteenth century in a few large cities, in Geneva in 1826 and Zurich in 1845. Since that time it has spread to all the cantons.

Preschool is followed by compulsory education, comprising the primary and first level of secondary school. These differ widely in structure throughout Switzerland, although there are moves toward intercantonal coordination. In general the Swiss educational system reflects the continental system. The period of primary education varies by canton. In general it lasts six years, but in some cases only four years (like the Grundschule in Germany), or five (like the scola elementare in Italy). This shorter period in primary school is offset by a longer period at the next stage of secondary school. For example, in Ticino, the Italian-speaking canton, primary education lasts five years and is followed by a single scola media lasting four years. In French-speaking Valais, on the other hand, primary school lasts six years and secondary education, considered as an orientation cycle, is only three years.

There is a single teacher per class, not only in primary schools, but also in some first cycle secondary schools. However, in practice other teachers are involved, particularly for various types of remedial reading and optional arts and technology subjects. There is a particularly marked differentiation of methods in the case of children with learning difficulties—roughly five percent of a particular age group—who are taught in smaller classes.

During compulsory education, children are taught in their mother tongue, French, Italian, or German, depending upon the canton. In bilingual cantons, schools follow the predominant language of the municipality or commune. In German-speaking Switzerland, this presents a special problem because dialect rather than Standard German is spoken. In Switzerland, dialect usage is prevalent in all parts of German Switzerland. The widely used term Schwyzertütch, or Swiss German, represents not a single language but a wide range of local and regional dialects. Although quite different in the various Swiss German regions, most of the dialects are mutually comprehensible without difficulty. Unlike the Swiss German majority, French and Italian Swiss are not dialect-speakers.

Virtually all German Swiss children must learn High German in school, starting in the early primary grades. Most German Swiss become bilingual between dialect and standard German during the first few years of elementary schooling. School is the institution where more High German is spoken than anywhere else. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach High German to children who have only a very vague and passive knowledge of Standard German when they start school. During the first year at school, nothing but dialect is spoken. In the second year, the teacher changes gradually from High German for certain subjects, whereas the texts for reading are in High German from the very beginning. This imposes high demands upon German-speaking Swiss children, for they have to learn to read, write, and use a relatively unknown language all at once. Later on, the language spoken during the actual lessons is mainly High German.

There is a need to learn additional languages because Switzerland is a multilingual society and a small country in the heart of Europe. The requirement that a second language be taught from the fourth grade onwards (usually German in the French-speaking cantons and French in Ticino and the German-speaking cantons) makes additional demands on primary schools. In the canton of Zurich, at the end of 2000, the education director, responding to the pressure from pupils and their parents, changed the first foreign language to English with French only learned in later grades. The movement toward English as the first foreign tongue to be learned in the schools in German-speaking cantons has generated concern in French Switzerland, which encompasses less than one-fifth of the Swiss population.

Most cantons provide several types of education at the lower secondary level, with several different sections with two or three different categories of requirements. Other cantons provide more crossover points from one track to another. The first level of secondary school has resulted in a complex and varied system among the cantons, which is, at the beginning of the twenty-first century, undergoing attempts toward more standardization between cantons.

The postsecondary or upper secondary level consists of Maturitätsschulen, or general education schools, which are attended by 17-20 percent of a student group. Teacher training colleges are attended by less than three percent of the appropriate age group. Schools offering a technical diploma enroll about four percent of students. The dual system of schooling and apprenticeship enrolls almost 70 percent of the 16-19 year olds. The remainder of the group attends technical high schools or other programs.

One of the most marked features of postsecondary education in Switzerland is the contrast between two highly specific tracks. The larger of these is the system of apprenticeship known as the dual system. Students go to a vocational school for approximately two days a week, with the rest of the time spent in on-the-job training. This cycle of upper secondary education is usually started at the age or 16 or 17. Approximately 70 percent of students opt for the apprenticeship system and over 90 percent of them are awarded a certificate of proficiency.

The federal law on vocational training applies to 260 professions in industry, trades, and commerce. A separate law covers the fields of agriculture and forestry. Apprenticeships tend to last for three or four years, depending on the field. The less academically oriented students may go into elementary vocational training, which lasts only one or two years. Only one percent of the apprentices choose this option. At the end of elementary vocational education successful students are awarded an official certificate instead of the federal diploma (CFC).

The gymnasium provides an academic general education for those students who plan to attend university. It is an elite and selective publicly funded school. The number of those taking the matura or maturité exam has increased in recent years. Between 1986 and 1998 the percentage awarded this certificate almost doubled to 19 percent.

A third track is also emerging in Switzerland between the gymnasium and apprenticeship dual education system. A series of full-time vocational training programs provide education for social workers, primary school teachers, and for a large number of middle-ranking business and technical careers. Usually these schools provide an intermediate diploma rather than the maturité certificate. They comprised about 11 percent of the 1998 graduates.

The tertiary level of education is comprised of university, teacher training schools for postprimary students, and higher vocational schools and apprenticeship programs. There are 11 traditional university level institutions in Switzerland. Four cantonal universities (in Basle, Zurich, Berne, and St. Gallen), the Swiss Institute for Further Training in Upper Secondary Education in Lucerne, and the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich are in the German-speaking part of Switzerland. German Switzerland encompasses three-quarters of the population and 20 cantons. The other cantonal universities (Lausanne, Geneva, Neuchâtel, and Fribourg, the latter offering courses in French and German) and the Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne are located in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, which encompasses around 19 percent of the population. Ticino, the only Italian-speaking canton that comprises eight percent of the Swiss population, also has its own university. It is the newest of the Swiss universities only coming into existence in the mid-1990s. The distribution of universities illustrates the ability of the Swiss to accommodate, and over-represent the minority language groups at the university level.

In addition to universities, there are also local specialized institutions of higher learning that do not require the federal matura certificate for entrance. These applied institutions include the areas of engineering, administration and commerce, the hotel trade and tourism, health care, counseling and applied psychology, social work, media, communications and information technology, and arts and design. In order to enter these schools one must have a Berufsmatura, which is earned with a year of intensive study after the apprenticeship or appropriate upper secondary school.

The Fachhochschulen, or nonuniversity institutes of higher learning, stress a high level of applied skills. They are a relatively new part of the higher education system in Switzerland. Fachhochschulen are meant to fill the gap in the new postindustrial society for highly skilled individuals without a university education. Most of the institutions are cantonal or regional in nature. Fachhochschulen are distributed throughout Swiss society. By the beginning of the twenty-first century there were 20 in French-speaking Switzerland, and five in the Ticino. In German-speaking Switzerland, where they predominate, five were located in central Switzerland, nine in eastern Switzerland, and five in northwest Switzerland. More than 20 were located in the two most populous German-speaking cantons of Zurich and Bern. Nonuniversity higher education is a very important part of the Swiss education system. For example, the cantonal institutes of technology produce three times more engineers than the two Federal Institutes of Technology.

Preprimary & Primary Education

In all cantons children have the right to a preschool education for at least one year. In some cantons two years of preschool education are financed. Preschool education is not compulsory; however, it is almost universally attended. An average of 99 percent of all children throughout Switzerland receive preprimary education during the year before they start compulsory education, and 63 percent attend for two years. In Switzerland the cantons and/or municipalities are responsible for organizing and funding preprimary education. Kindergarten is generally housed in a separate building from the primary grades.

In preprimary education, although the cantons follow slightly different curriculums, the aim is to promote social skills and to acquire the skills needed for primary school. Another important goal is to integrate foreign mother-tongue children and handicapped children into the school system and to identify children with learning problems. In Geneva, for example, almost half of the children do not speak French. In German Switzerland where dialect is spoken, non-German dialect speakers receive special instruction in the Swiss dialect. In the 1994/95 academic school year 23 percent of those attending kindergarten were of foreign mother tongue. A new curriculum came into effect during the 1994/95 school year for preprimary teachers in all the French-speaking cantons. In the German-speaking cantons, kindergarten teachers tend to follow the curriculum set by their professional associations.

In the German-speaking part of Switzerland, children attend kindergarten for approximately two hours in the morning and two hours in the afternoon. They return home for lunch between the two sessions. In the Ticino, however, kindergarten usually stays open from 8:45 a.m. to 3:45 p.m. The organization of the school year is the same as primary education.

Kindergarten classes have between 17 and 19 children. In German- and Italian-speaking Switzerland, children stay in the same group for the duration of their preschool education. In contrast, in some of the French-speaking cantons, the teacher changes from year to year.

According to the Agreement on the Coordination of Education, children who have reached the age of six by June 30th are eligible for compulsory education. Each canton has its own laws regarding education, which defines the way in which compulsory education is organized. In 20 Swiss cantons primary education lasts six years, in four cantons for five years, and in two cantons for four years.

Cantonal authorities fix the curriculum. While a few regions have established common curricula, ultimately the canton is responsible for what is taught in separate subjects. With the exception of mathematics, foreign languages and some aspects of mother-tongue language classes, the teachers enjoy considerable freedom in deciding the content of the syllabus that governs the various subjects. There is little specialization in primary school and generally the teachers teach all the subjects. The only exception is specialized teachers in some schools in physical education and art.

The primary school curriculum stresses the teaching of the mother tongue as well as the fundamentals of science and mathematics. A second language is also introduced, usually in the fourth grade. In French-speaking Switzerland, German is generally learned and in German-speaking Switzerland, French or in some cantons English. Virtually all Swiss children attend primary school. In Switzerland in the 1994/95 school year there were 6,400 primary schools that enrolled 437,400 pupils. Of these pupils 18.7 percent were of foreign mother tongue.

The average class size in primary schools in 1994/95 was between 15 and 20. Most schools include children only at one level, but in remote areas one class may include different grades in one class. In general, children are not put in different tracks in primary school. Pupils receive a report card two or three times a year in which grades are given for each subject. The average grades at the end of the school year are used to determine whether the pupil should go into a higher class. Many cantons do not grade students in the first few years of primary school, but rather depend on assessment meetings and periodic reports. In all cantons there are regulations allowing for pupils to repeat a year. If after repeating a year, a student still experiences difficulty, parents in collaboration with the teacher and other school authorities decide whether to transfer the child to a special class. The trend is to integrate slower children into normal classes during primary school.

Throughout Switzerland, the first year at primary school comprises on the average approximately four hours of teaching per day. This increases to slightly over five hours per day in the final year at primary school. School is held in the morning and afternoon. Some cantons have school on Saturday mornings and one afternoon during the week free. Usually the children go home for lunch, however, there has been a trend towards children staying at school for the lunch pause, especially in urban areas. Depending on the canton, the school year comprises between 35.5 and 40 weeks.

Secondary Education

Swiss secondary education is divided into a lower secondary and an upper secondary branch. Lower secondary education is defined as the part of compulsory education immediately following primary schooling, usually grades seven to nine. Depending on the length of primary education (four, five, or six years), lower secondary education consists of three to five years of schooling.

Most cantons provide several types of education at the lower secondary level. There are often two or three different sections with very different requirements. Lower secondary school is compulsory and free. The sections with basic requirements, which have various names throughout Switzerland, prepare the pupils for basic vocational training. About one-third of the pupils in the same age group will be in these sections, with more boys then girls.

The sections with higher requirements contain about two-thirds of the pupils in lower secondary education. In most cantons these are divided into two types: Sekundarschule with general requirements and Progymnasium with advanced requirements. Lower secondary school lasts three, four, or five years depending on the canton. Although there has been some experimentation with comprehensive schools, they have not survived the experimental phrase with the exception of the prespecialization classes in the canton of Geneva, the Ticino, and Valais. Some cantons have managed to develop some characteristics of comprehensive schools by improving the ability to change tracks and by reducing the number of tracks. The concept of a unified system of compulsory education, such as in the United States, has not been accepted in the Swiss school system.

Elementary tracks (known as practical, modern, or prevocational) prepare pupils for entry into vocational education. Tracks with broader requirements (general, science, modern languages, classics) prepare for Progymnasium, or more advanced training and school-leaving certificate schools. In some cantons, the lower division in school-leaving certificate schools is integrated into lower secondary education as a distinct track.

The mother-tongue language is taught in all sections of general secondary education, along with mathematics, a second national language, natural science, geography, history, civics, history, art, and physical education. In the sections with basic requirements, emphasis is also placed on mechanical and industrial arts; in the sections with higher requirements, there might be a third language (mainly English), bookkeeping, computer skills, or technical drawing. In the Progymnasium section more advanced subjects are introduced. The number of hours of school varies from one canton to another, but pupils generally have between 30 and 35 lessons per week. In principle, the choice of the school curriculum and choice of materials is fixed at the cantonal level, but the schools and teaching staff have a certain degree of freedom of choice in these matters.

Continuous assessment throughout the year is basically the responsibility of the teacher. Switzerland does not have a general examination at the end of lower secondary school. In some cantons pupils can take a written and oral examination in their main subjects in order to get a certificate; in other cantons this is not the case.

The private schools that include the compulsory period and enroll Swiss students, follow the same basic curriculum and use of teaching materials of the canton in which they are located. Others that primarily enroll non-Swiss, have complete freedom in establishing their curriculum. About 9 percent of all students below the university level are enrolled in private schools. About twothirds of these schools receive some public funds.

Public schools, being both compulsory and yet offering guidance for educational and occupational choices, are faced with conflicting aims. On the one hand, teachers in a democratic society need to allow pupils to make choices, which may be changed several years later; on the other hand, their task is to prepare them for upper secondary education, primarily for the dual system of education. This continues to be a challenge for secondary education in Switzerland.

Academic High Schools: In Switzerland, upper secondary school, which prepares students for university level work, takes place in separate schools called gymnasium. The gymnasium lasts between four and five years. At the end of the gymnasium, one must pass the matura, or school-leaving certificate in order to enter university or the two Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology. The Swiss maturity diplomas are officially recognized both by the Confederation and the cantons, thus setting a comparable standard for the access to universities. This is the reason that there has thus far been no need for additional entrance examinations to the universities and the two federal institutes of technology.

The Swiss Maturity regulations were revised in 1995. They are regulated both by the Confederation at the federal level and the cantons. The 1995 regulations abolished the previous system of five predetermined types of gymnasium education or tracks recognized in Switzerland. Previously there were five types of school-leaving certificates: type A: classics (Latin and Greek), type B: modern languages and Latin, type C: mathematics and natural sciences, type D: modern languages, and type E: economics. The 1995 regulation allowed for more flexibility and a greater range of subjects. There is also an increased emphasis on economy and law and Italian as a third national language. In addition to examinations in nine subjects, the students must write a comprehensive Baccalaureate paper or maturity thesis. This is similar to the requirement set by the International Baccalaureate, which is offered in some high schools in the United States. The first updated maturity diplomas were awarded in 1999. These new regulations have made the Swiss system comparable to most other European forms of school leaving-certificates.

According to the new law the basic subjects are: first language; a second national language; a third language, which can be either English or a classical language; mathematics, science, including as compulsory subjects biology, chemistry, and physics; humanities, including as compulsory subjects history and geography, as well as elementary economics and law; visual arts and/or music. The specific option is chosen out of eight subjects and the additional option out of 13. For the basic subjects the proportion of teaching allocated to each area is as follows: languages 30-40 percent; mathematics and science 20-30 percent; humanities 10-20 percent; arts 5-10 percent; and 15-25 percent to other optional subjects.

Pupils' work is subject to continual assessment and students are promoted into a higher class on the basis of the results they obtain throughout the year. At the end of the gymnasium, the Federal School-leaving certificate Matura Commission supervises examinations. Special federal examinations are held for young people and adults who have studied for their certificates at private schools, at evening classes, or through correspondence courses. For the subjects in which an examination is taken, a grade is awarded on the basis of results obtained during the final year and results obtained in the examination, each factor being of equal weight. For the other subjects, the final grade is awarded on the basis of the results obtained during the final school year, which is based on examinations both written and oral. Under the new law, all students must learn basic English as part of their gymnasium studies.

Gymnasium education in Switzerland continues to carry a great deal of prestige. It is an elite and selective publicly funded preparatory school. In 1998, about 18 percent of all 19-year-olds passed the maturity diploma. Slightly more women (18.7 percent) than men (16.5 percent) successfully completed the matura. There has been a significant increase in the percentage of young women obtaining the school-leaving certificate, from 30.6 percent in 1970 to 48.6 percent in 1980 to over half in 1998.

Between 1980 and 1998, the percentage of students awarded the school-leaving diploma increased from 11 percent to 18. In French and Italian-speaking Switzerland the percentage completing the matura is higher (almost 24 percent) than in German-speaking Switzerland (15 percent). This is related to earlier school reforms and a more equalitarian school system in French and Italian Switzerland. The urban German-speaking cantons of Basel, Zurich, and Schaffhausen are also above the Swiss average. Rural, Catholic inner Switzerland, on the other hand, has the lowest percentage (approximately 12 percent) of students awarded the maturity diploma.

Gymnasiums have a long tradition going back to the Middle Ages. The recent 1995 change in standards and objectives of these schools are still based on nineteenth century humanist and scientific ideals, which have been partially brought up to date by the demands of modern society. Gymnasiums have very high standards and hold almost a complete monopoly on access to the university. Although all cantons have gymnasiums, only eight cantons have a university. Cantons, without universities have a particular interest in maintaining national matura standards in order to ensure that their students can gain access to higher education.

Technical High Schools: Before and immediately after the Second World War some cantons and municipalities established upper secondary schools, which offered a general education but whose requirements were lower than the gymnasium. They were called technical high schools, general high schools, paramedical schools, and schools of tourism. Their successful students went to work in health care, kindergartens, tourism, transport and social service jobs. At the time there was no uniformity between these schools with regard to curriculum, structure, or length of courses after compulsory education. In 1987, after more than 15 years of discussion, an agreement was reached between the cantons concerning curriculum and other requirements. Two proposals: "Guidelines for the recognition of diplomas" and "curriculum framework for technical high schools," were adopted in 1987 by the Swiss Conference of Cantonal Directors of Education. The high school courses of two or three year's duration are recognized by all the cantons as long as the technical high schools adopt the approved curriculum and framework developed by the Commission for Technical High Schools.

The technical high schools have helped to bridge the gap that existed in the type of education offered at the upper secondary level. These schools offer an opportunity to a broader spectrum of the student population to complete their general education at a higher level and an opportunity to learn about future professional activities. Students can do this without committing themselves to an apprenticeship program. Technical high schools require their students to acquire a general training and education, which will enable them to go on to higher, nonuniversity training in fields such as teaching, health care, social work, administration, and the arts.

The curriculum at technical high schools encompasses a common core of general subjects and a choice of technical subjects. The general studies include mother-tongue language, other languages including at least one other national language, mathematics, science, humanities, art, and movement. The technical options depend on the field of study and include, for example, paramedical studies, social work, or business administration. The guidelines set forth by the Swiss Conference of Cantonal Directors of Education apply to all Swiss cantons. The regulations concerning assessment of pupils in lower secondary education also apply to technical high schools. Under the terms of the new law issued in 1995, a written examination, which may be accompanied by an oral examination, must be taken in five out of six subjects. In addition there are examinations in their technical subjects. If students fulfill all the requirements for the diploma for the technical high schools, they are recognized by all the cantons.

Teacher-Training Colleges: Most Swiss cantons carry out the training of preschool teachers in upper secondary school. Cantons offer two types of training for primary school teachers: teacher training colleges (upper secondary level) and university after secondary education in a gymnasium. Basic training for gymnasium teachers is given at the universities and the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. In some cantons, reforms since the 1980s have resulted in changing from teachers' training colleges to studies at universities following the matura examination, although most cantons still prefer the teachers' training system.

The training takes five years, or three years following the matura. The primary school teachers' examination provides access to the teaching profession or (with certain limitations) to studies at the university. Teacher candidates for lower secondary levels attend a university or university institute for seven or eight semesters. The training corresponds to language regions (French, German, or Italian), and there is a trend toward a mutual recognition of the diplomas. The teacher candidates specialize in either mathematics and natural sciences or languages and history. Teachers at the upper secondary level receive specialized training at a university as well as specialized professional education.

There are currently 100 institutions that train teachers for compulsory education, technical high schools, and other colleges of further education. In Switzerland teacher training of primary teachers has been the subject of serious discussion in almost all cantons.

Teachers of vocational education have different qualifications from those teaching compulsory education and the gymnasium. The majority of teachers at technical colleges are employed by the cantons. The teaching staff of technical colleges is generally trained at the Swiss Pedagogical Institute for Vocational Training, which is a federal institution. Those teaching general subjects must already possess a teaching diploma for primary or secondary education. The teachers of technical subjects must possess an engineering diploma or a higher technical diploma. For teaching at commercial colleges, a university degree is required. In the workplace, individuals must have several years of experience in their trade and have taken a special course for training apprentices, organized by the professional associations or the cantons, in order to supervise apprentices.

Vocational Training: The comparatively low level of youth unemployment in Switzerland has been attributed to the dual apprenticeship system. The dual system has existed in Switzerland for over a century and is well developed as a cooperative effort between the cantons, federal authorities, and professional organizations. The majority of Swiss youth (approximately 70 percent) continue their education after compulsory schooling in vocational education. The dual system of vocational education is comprised of a practical course in a private or public company and parallel attendance at a vocational training school, which provides basic theoretical knowledge, general subjects, and physical education. Students go to school for one to one and a half days per week and engage in an apprenticeship for the rest of the week. The vocational school education complements the practical vocational experience gained on the job. In addition, basic skills are taught by supplementary introductory courses, which are organized by the professional association. Therefore, vocational education is in reality a threefold system.

The trainee signs a contract with a company, which must be approved by the cantonal vocational training authorities. The scope of vocational training courses, the subjects taught, and number of lessons is fixed for each profession in close collaboration with the corresponding professional association within the framework of a program drawn up by the Federal Office for Industry and Labor (BIGA/OFIAMT). The federal law on vocational training applies to about 260 professions in industry, trades, commerce, and domestic service.

Young people who go into basic vocational training do not pay any college fees. Apprentices who are trained within the framework of the dual system are paid a monthly salary, which ranges from a few hundred Swiss francs to over a thousand (roughly $150-$700 a month), depending on the branch they are in, the size of the firm, and how many years of training they have already completed.

After two to four years, the apprentices take a final examination. If they are successful, they are awarded a federal diploma (CFC), which is recognized all over the country. The final examinations comprise a practical part and a theoretical part. The examinations are normally organized by the cantonal authorities and carried out in collaboration with consultants from industry. As far as possible the examinations are standardized for an entire linguistic region (French, German, or Italian). An upper secondary vocational diploma does not normally qualify students for admission to university, but it does allow them to enter further vocational training in the nonacademic branch of tertiary education.

Higher Education

University Education: Swiss higher education before 1800 developed along much the same lines as that of Central Europe. Education was the task of the monasteries. The first university in Switzerland was founded in Basle in 1460. Since that time there has seen a steady increase in universities and university education in Switzerland. There are 12 state-run university institutions in Switzerland. Switzerland ranks among the countries having the highest university density, with one university for every 600,000 inhabitants. The cantonal universities are situated in Basle, Zurich, Berne, St. Gallen, Lucerne, Lausanne, Geneva, Neuchâtel, and Fribourg. In 1996 the canton of Ticino, with only four percent of the population and the only Italian-speaking canton, opened a university of its own. Universities are disproportionately distributed in the language minority cantons. In addition to the 12 universities, there are two federal institutes of technology in Zurich and Lausanne.

Although each university has its own characteristics, they are basically similar in structure. They are divided into departments or faculties, including law, economics and social science, art, natural science, and medicine. Two of the smaller universities, Fribourg and Lausanne, offer only the basic courses in medicine. St. Gallen specializes in economics, social science, and law. Lucerne, located in a Catholic canton, offers Catholic theology and philosophy, as well as law and the arts. The Italian-speaking university offers courses in architecture, social science, and arts. The two Federal Institutes of Technology produce highly qualified engineers, architects, and natural scientists. Unlike the United States, there are no private universities in the Swiss Confederation.

Each university is administered under the cantonal Department of Education. A considerable amount of autonomy is allowed under cantonal law. The two institutes of technology are exclusively maintained by the Confederation, with their autonomy assured by the Federal Act of 1993. In order to aid the cantonal universities, the "Federal Act concerning the financial aid to the universities" was implemented in 1968, amended several times and completely revised in 1999. The Federal Act of 1999, which extends until 2008, constitutes the legal basis for the federal subsidies to university cantons.

In order to offset the high costs associated with maintaining a university, the Intercantonal Agreement of 1981 initiated an agreement for all cantons, both those responsible for university and nonuniversity cantons to share costs proportionally to the number of their own students in the cantonal universities. In return for this intercantonal equalization of the financial burdens, the cantonal universities grant equal access to students from all contributing cantons. The partnership between cantons and the Confederation is a hallmark of Swiss federalism and education policy.

Individuals who want to enroll at a Swiss university must earn a state-recognized Swiss matriculation certificate (matura) or a foreign school-leaving certificate of equivalent value. All Swiss university level institutions have the same basic requirements. The Swiss maturity diplomas are officially recognized both by the Confederation and the cantons, thereby setting a comparable standard for access to Swiss universities.

Studies at Swiss universities grant basic and postgraduate degrees. Some differences exist between the various universities with respect to the length of study, the structure of the courses, and the required subjects. Since 1990 there have been several interdepartmental agreements to harmonize the study courses in specific subjects (such as law, engineering, sociology, German literature, etc.). At this writing in 2001, the Swiss universities are in the process of introducing the European credit transfer system (ECTS). The basic classes, which are of four years duration (eight semesters) lead to a first academic degree, a licentiate, which is roughly equivalent to a master's degree (M.A. or M.S.) or diploma. The completion of this degree allows further specialization and research in the chosen field leading up to a doctorate or to other specializations in professional schools or other postgraduate studies. Swiss universities do not grant Bachelor's degrees. At the beginning of the new millennium, changes toward a universal degree program are under discussion in order to comply with the American and British traditions and the Declarations of Sorbonne and of Bologna of 1998/99.

In the last decades of the twentieth century the two Federal Institutes of Technology set up continuing education departments that organize postgraduate courses. In Switzerland, continuing education is aimed at working university graduates. The courses range from a few days to a few semesters duration. Private institutions also offer continuing education, primarily in the area of business administration.

There has been a marked increase in the number of students studying at Swiss universities since the 1980s. From 1980-2000 there has been a 62 percent increase in student numbers, reaching almost 96,000 in the 1999-2000 academic year. About one-fifth of the corresponding age group of 20- to 24-year-olds attends university. By 2003 the university student body is expected to rise by 20 percent. Switzerland has a particularly high percentage of foreign students, amounting to almost one-fifth of the student population. Female students account for 45 percent of the total enrollment. There is a higher percentage of both foreigners and females at the Italian and the French-speaking universities than at German-speaking universities in Switzerland.

During 1990-2000 the number of students studying humanities, social sciences, and engineering increased. With the growing numbers of students, the institutions are becoming increasingly crowded. Medical students and students from other faculties such as psychology have to take a national aptitude test and may have to accept transfers to a Swiss university other than their first choice. So far all applicants who have complied with university entrance requirements have been granted entry to a university. If numbers continue to increase at their present rate, this situation may change in the future. The teaching staff has generally not kept up with increasing student numbers, which poses another problem at Swiss universities.

Fachhochschulen/Hautes Écoles Spécialisées (Technical Colleges): In order to face new challenges related to an increasingly technological society, Switzerland created the Fachhochschulen (FH)/Hautes écoles spécialisées (HES) (Universities of Applied Sciences) in the mid-1990s. The new FH/HES system shares a similar level with the traditional scientific universities; however, it is more applied and accepts individuals who have completed a higher vocational education. The curriculum and research are oriented toward practical application rather than pure research. Under limited conditions students may transfer from the Swiss Universities of Applied Sciences to traditional university studies.

The new FH/HES-Universities have grown out of the former Colleges of Higher Education in engineering and business administration, agriculture and sports, fine arts, design, music, health care, social work, and teachertraining. Some of these came under federal auspices while others were cantonal in nature. They still tend to service regional rather than national labor markets. There are seven regional centers of Universities of Applied Sciences. It is still unclear whether a FH/HES education will have the same status and job mobility as that provided at the traditional universities.

The Fachhochschulen offer alternatives to the academic university education at the tertiary level. The degree courses are slightly shorter in length than the traditional universities. The first FH/HES degrees were awarded in 2000. They qualify professionals to work independently by providing them with both the necessary theoretical and academic job background with a practical training of the necessary skills. Admission to the FH/HES is granted to those holding a Berufsmatura, maturité professionnelle (Federal Vocational Maturity Certificate). The degree was introduced in 1993 jointly by the Confederation and the cantons. It is achieved after three years of apprenticeship followed by a one-year, full-time general education course. Admission is also available through a federal matura and at least one year's practical experience in industry. The diplomas from the FH/HES have been developed to be approximately equivalent to the Bachelor Degree. For example, the first degree in economics is equivalent to a Bachelor of Business Administration (in comparison with the first degree at the traditional universities which is comparable to a Master's degree or M.B.A.).

The Federal Act for the Universities of Applied Sciences was adopted by the Federal Parliament in 1995, and revised in 1999. The first stage, which lasts until 2003, concentrates on the fields that are supervised by the federal authorities: engineering, economics and management, and design. By the end of 2003 the four subjects listed above are expected to enroll approximately 20,000 students. In the 1999/2000 academic year slightly under 17,000 students were enrolled.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Neither the Confederation nor the cantons has a unique educational administrative ministry that covers the entire educational system. At the federal level responsibility for education is shared by two different ministries: the Federal Department of the Interior and the Federal Department of Economics. The Federal Department of the Interior oversees the two Federal Institutes of Technology, subsidies for universities, grants, science and research, and physical education. Responsibility within the Interior ministry is assumed by the Science Agency (GWF/GRS) and the Federal Office for Education and Science (SHK/CUS). The Federal Department of Economics is in charge of vocational education. Within the Economics department is the Federal Office for Industry and Labor (BIGA/OFIAMT), which governs the vocational training sector. The Federal Office for Agriculture, also under the Federal Department of Economics is in charge of training in the field of agriculture.

The cantonal government and its Department of Education, along with the Education Council in some of the cantons, are responsible for organizing and running the cantonal education system. The cantonal minister, who is the head of the education department, is a popularly elected official who must run for office every four or five years. The size of the Department of Education is dependent on the size of the canton.

Funding for education is mostly a cantonal responsibility. Municipalities generally are responsible for buildings, equipment, teaching materials, and part of the staff salaries. The cantons are responsible for the major part of teacher's salaries. The source of funding for upper secondary schools and the universities comes primarily from the cantons. The Confederation is totally responsible for the two Federal Institutes of Technology including some research costs, and subsidizes the cantonal universities. The Confederation, cantons, and professional associations share the cost of vocational training.

In 1993 expenditures for the various levels of education were divided up as follows: municipalities 35 percent, cantons 53 percent, and the Confederation 12 percent. Resources are allocated on the basis of precise budgets rather than block or global grants. In 1997, almost 21.5 million SFr (approximately 14.5 million U.S. dollars) were spent on all levels of education by the Confederation, cantons, and municipalities. This equaled 18.3 percent of the national domestic budget. The Swiss education system is one of the best funded in the world, exceeded in 1999 only by those of the United States, Norway, and Denmark.

Although educational research has been carried out in Geneva since the late nineteenth century, the establishment of educational research in a systematic way throughout Switzerland did not take place until the mid-1960s. Because of the highly decentralized nature of Swiss education, most educational research takes place in a large number of decentralized institutions. Switzerland does not have a national educational research institute. As a consequence there are many microlevel studies, primarily in the fields of educational psychology and didactical studies during compulsory education. The cantons are the largest source of funding for educational research (47 percent of the total). The Confederation contributes 44 percent, primarily through the Swiss National Scientific Research Fund. The municipalities or communes (three percent) and the private sector (about six percent) play a less significant role.

Nonformal Education

In 2001 there does not yet exist a Swiss academic institution of distance learning or an Open University. However, a limited number of technology and distant learning classes were inaugurated in summer 2000. These are subsidized by the Confederation. Because of the small size of the country, the great density of universities, and the multilinguistic nature of Switzerland, it is unlikely that a distance learning university will become a reality in the near future. Switzerland is characterized by great diversity. It contains 26 cantons, each responsible for its own educational system and three major languages. There are, however, contacts to Open Universities of other European countries, which have led to the establishment of study centers, including the German Fern University Hagen in Brigue and the British Open University in Geneva.

In addition there are also a number of activities on the Internet that are related to education. The Center for Continuing Education at the Swiss Institute of Technology (ETH) provides up-to-date information about all the opportunities in continuing education. "EduETH," the education server of the ETH Zurich, provides a platform to exchange subject matter and information for secondary students. Most elementary and secondary schools in Switzerland have access to computers and the Internet.

Nonuniversity continuing education plays a very important role in Switzerland. Approximately 28,000 individuals were enrolled in a nonuniversity course in 1992/93, which is about a quarter of the population of the relevant age group. Many of these courses are offered at the FH/HES. Adult education is recognized as an integral part of the educational system in Switzerland and is promoted by the Confederation, the cantons, and the municipalities. However, it is financed and run mainly by private educational organizations. Public facilities such as courses for parents, adult education classes, and advanced education are supplemented by the services provided by club schools and groups allied to churches, trade unions, or political parties. The Swiss Association for Adult Education comprises approximately 30 coordinating and individual organizations. Because adult education is not a university subject, there is little research available on this topic. Available statistics indicate that approximately 40 percent of the working population is engaged in specialized professional adult education.

Teaching Profession

Swiss teachers are very well paid and hold a generally high status in the community. Teacher training and pay depend upon the level taught, with higher grades requiring longer periods of education and higher salaries.

Training for kindergarten teachers varies among the various cantons. In the majority of cantons, kindergarten teachers are trained for three or four years at teacher training institutions. In most cantons, primary school teachers also receive their training in teacher-training colleges. They are able to enroll after passing an entrance examination, as soon as they have completed compulsory education. In some cantons it is common for teachers to be trained at an institution attached to a university. In nonuniversity cantons, teachers are usually educated in separate teacher-training colleges. The diploma for primary school teachers is a specialized one and not the same as a university diploma. The teacher-training course normally lasts five years. Prospective teachers are assessed on their moral, psychological, and intellectual character as well as their knowledge and professional qualities.

There are basically two types of teachers in secondary school. Those who teach in the sections with basic requirements are, as a rule, primary school teachers who have had specific additional training. They are not specialized in any subjects. Those who teach in sections with higher requirements are specialized in one to three subjects. These teachers often possess a university education. This is reflected in the profile of gymnasium teachers who are specialists in one subject and university educated.

Summary

Switzerland's educational system is experiencing a period of rapid change at the beginning of the new millennium. Both internal and external factors have influenced educational reform. Globalization and a unified European Community, even though Switzerland is not a formal member, have put significant pressures on the educational system. In order to meet the growing demand for qualified workers and to work towards international recognition of Swiss diplomas, the nonuniversity higher education sector has been modified and reclassified as technical colleges. These include most teacher colleges. The dual system of higher education is comparable to similar institutions in Germany, Austria, and Holland, which include university level institutions and technical colleges. In Switzerland the different schools comprising the technical college level are still very fragmented. Transferability between the two sectors of higher education still remains problematic, with few clear paths between the FH/HES and the universities and Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology.

The number of students attending the gymnasium has increased significantly in the last 20 years. In the last decade women have made significant progress in completing the gymnasium and continuing to university studies. The ratio of maturity graduates is considerably higher in the areas of the Suisse romande (French and Italian Switzerland), where children are tracked later than in German-speaking Switzerland. In contrast, children of foreign workers and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are less likely to complete higher secondary educations or to go on to higher education. There is also significant disparity between the educational systems of the mountain regions and those of urbanized Switzerland. Future educational reform needs to be directed toward questions of equity in the educational system.

Education in Switzerland continues to be very decentralized and fragmented, although important strides have been taken toward reducing the disparities between the cantonal educational systems. Coordination measures, such as the introduction of standards for middle schools or maturity certificates, and the development of less elitist forms of higher education, take years to institute. As a whole, Switzerland has a very good educational system; however, free transfer from canton to canton is impeded by the 26 different cantonal educational systems and the lack of common educational standards.

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—Carol L. Schmid