Netherlands

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Netherlands

Basic Data
Official Country Name:	Kingdom of the Netherlands
Region:	Europe
Population:	15,892,237
Language(s):	Dutch
Literacy Rate:	99%
Number of Primary Schools:	7,287
Compulsory Schooling:	13 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	5.1%
Libraries:	1,130
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 1,230,987
	Secondary: 1,415,712
	Higher: 468,970
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 108%
	Secondary: 137%
	Higher: 47%
Teachers:	Primary: 84,900
	Secondary: 69,000
Student-Teacher Ratio:	Primary: 15:1
Female Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 107%
	Secondary: 134%
	Higher: 46%

History & Background

The Netherlands is located in northwestern Europe, between the North Sea to the north and west, Germany on the east, and Belgium to the south. Land area includes only about 13,255 square miles, and with a population of 15.5 million, it is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Although indigenous Dutch are most likely a combination of Frisians, Saxons and Franks, immigrants from many other cultures have settled in the Netherlands for centuries. Twentieth century immigrants from former Dutch colonies, mainly Indonesia, Molucca and Suriname, make up a majority of ethnic minorities. In 1996, more than 16 percent of the Dutch population was non-indigenous. The largest minority population groups came from the Dutch Indies (more than 300,000), Surinam (282,000), Turkey (272,000), Morocco (225,000), the Antilles (94,000), and other Mediterranean countries (164,000).

Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Dutch Constitution, church and state are separate, and there is no state religion. The Dutch population in 1997 was generally divided among Roman Catholics (32 percent), Protestants (22 percent), and the non-religious (39 percent). Almost 8 percent of the population belonged to other religious groups. Among those, 2.5 percent of the population was Muslim and.5 percent Buddhist.

In 1999, approximately 40 percent of the Dutch population was under twenty-nine years of age, making it not a particularly young country but nonetheless known for its counterculture youth. Dutch is the language of the country and of instruction, but in the province of Fries-land, Frisian is also an official language and taught in the schools. Due to its history of occupation, geographic location, and tourism interests, many people in the Netherlands are fluent in a few languages. Three-quarters of the Dutch speak a second language, and 44 percent speak two foreign languages. The most common foreign languages spoken regularly in the Netherlands are English, French and German.

Historical Evolution: The Netherlands has a long history of educational reform. In the fourteenth century, the Brethren of the Common Life was founded to bring together laymen and religious men. The Brethren eventually set up schools that some of the most important humanists from northern Europe attended. The most well known was Desiderius Erasmus, a great scholar and liberal educator.

The first piece of educational legislation in the Netherlands, the Elementary Education Act, was passed in 1801. Before the Kingdom of the Netherlands was founded in 1813, education was the responsibility of mainly private religious institutions, and guilds supplied vocational training. In the Constitution of the New Kingdom, education was declared the responsibility of the state to ensure that citizens unable to afford expensive private schools had an opportunity to receive a basic education free of charge. This was the beginning of Dutch public schools. Later the Constitution of 1848 restored the right of private organizations to found schools, but without financial help from the state. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, elementary schools were divided into government-funded public schools and privately-funded private schools.

The unequal treatment of public and private education led to the "schools dispute," a political battle to achieve complete equality under the law for both types of schools. Catholics and Protestants wanted their own schools but with equal state funding. The Liberals also wanted their freedom of education guaranteed by the Constitution to receive equal financial treatment. Dutch taxpayers were already contributing to the costs of funding state education. Most active church members felt they should not have to pay for private ("confessional") education at their own expense in addition to helping to pay for state ("profane") schools. Ultimately this led to the political emancipation struggle, often referred to as the "school funding controversy." This was finally resolved with the 1917 Constitution, in what is known as the "Pacification of 1917," establishing equal funding for state and private schools. After 1917, the principle of financial equality was extended to secondary and higher education. There are now nearly twice as many private schools as public schools.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

Constitutional Provisions: One of the key features of the Dutch education system is freedom of education, guaranteed under Article 23 of the Constitution. Freedom of education includes the freedom to found schools, to organize the teaching in schools, and to determine the principles on which the schools are based. This means that different groups in society have the right to found schools on the basis of their own religious, ideological or educational beliefs. Schools in the Netherlands, therefore, differ markedly from each other due to their differences in religion or educational philosophy.

Laws Affecting Education: Numerous Acts of Parliament govern education in the Netherlands. Some of the most important and recent acts are the Primary Education Act of 1998, the Expertise Centers Act, the Secondary Education Act, the Adult and Vocational Education Act, the Higher Education and Research Act, the Recognized Educational Institutions Act, the Student Finance Act, the Study Costs Allowances Act, the Compulsory Education Act of 1969, the National Education Support Activities (Subsidies) Act, and the Education Participation Act of 1992.

Educational Philosophies: Freedom of choice is central to Dutch life and education, as well as the spirit of humanism. The Netherlands has long been a country of tolerance of diversity in religion, education, and social life. Strong groups of liberals, socialists and conservatives have always co-existed, but the prevailing atmosphere has been progressive in terms of education, culture and society.

Educational System—Overview

Compulsory Education: The first legislation making education compulsory was passed in 1900. It prescribed six years of compulsory education (between the ages of six and twelve). The Act was repeatedly amended and eventually replaced by the Compulsory Education Act of 1969, which required children to attend school full time between the ages of six and sixteen. In 1985, the Primary Education Act required compulsory schooling to begin at five years of age. For example, if a child reaches the age of five in March, he or she must start school on April first of the same year. In practice, however, most children in the Netherlands go to school from the age of four. This additional year is especially important for children whose native language is not Dutch.

Full-time education is compulsory up to and including the child's sixteenth year. For example, if a student turns sixteen in February, he or she must complete that school year. In 1971, the Compulsory Education Act was extended to include an additional year of part-time compulsory education two days a week. This may be combined with practical training or employment. Children aged twelve and over may be punished for not attending school. For pupils aged fourteen and over who are experiencing problems with full-time education, a special program can be devised combining general education with some form of light work.

Academic Year: In primary, special, and secondary schools, the school year runs the entire year, from August 1 to July 31. However, primary and special schools have a six week summer holiday and secondary schools have seven weeks. These holidays are staggered across three regions of the country to make vacation traffic and tourism more manageable. All schools have a holiday at Christmas and at the beginning of May (Queen's Birthday and Liberation Day). In addition, there are autumn and spring holidays. The school year contains at least two hundred days between August and June. Schools run Monday through Friday, but Wednesday afternoon is generally free. The minimum number of hours taught a year is 880 (children aged seven), one thousand (age ten) and 1,067 at the lower secondary level.

Language of Instruction: Dutch is the official language of instruction throughout the country. In areas where Frisian or another living local dialect is spoken as well as Dutch, this language can be used as the language of instruction in schools alongside Dutch. In primary schools, pupils from ethnic minorities may receive lessons in their home language and culture, such as Turkish or Arabic, but these are given after regular school hours. In higher, adult, and vocational education, legally classes and examinations must be in Dutch. Exceptions include courses in foreign languages or courses taught by non-Dutch visiting lecturers. In addition, if the native language of the student requires it, an exception can be given. In a number of primary schools close to the border, some experimental teaching is being done in French and German, the languages of the neighboring countries.

Examination & Assessment: Teachers continuously assess students throughout the primary and secondary school years. When children are in their final year of primary school, parents must select secondary schools for them. They are assisted by the head teacher who uses the students' achievement records, and in many cases, results from national tests designed to help guide secondary school choice. Some 70 percent of all Dutch primary schools use tests for primary school leavers developed by the National Institute for Educational Measurement (CITO). These tests assess pupils' level of attainment at the end of primary schooling. Progression depends on student achievement, and students may be required to repeat a year. Secondary students who fail a year twice must transfer to a less demanding type of education.

Public & Private Schools: There are two main categories of schools: publicly run and privately run. Public schools are nondenominational and open to all children. Private schools can be denominational or nondenominational. The former include Roman Catholic and Protestant schools and schools founded by other religious groups. Private nondenominational schools are based on ideological or educational principles. Almost 65 percent of all pupils attend privately run schools. The Constitution requires equal financial support of public and private schools, but private schools must satisfy certain conditions in order to qualify for funding. Some publicly run schools are also based on specific educational principles. The Netherlands has a relatively large number of Montessori, Steiner, and Jena Plan schools, both public and private. The freedom to organize teaching means that public and private schools are free to determine content and methods of teaching. However, this freedom is limited by the qualitative standards set by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. The standards state which subjects should be studied, the attainment targets or national examination syllabi to be used, as well as the number of teaching periods per year, and the required qualifications for teachers.

Curriculum Development: The Ministry of Education determines the overall curriculum and details of compulsory subjects. Schools devise their own curricular plan, teaching methods, and they select teaching materials. Compulsory areas of learning at the primary level include sensory coordination and physical exercise, Dutch, mathematics, English, humanities and sciences, expressive activities, social and life skills, and health education. The compulsory core curriculum for the first three years of all secondary education programs consists of core primary subjects and a second modern language, information technology (IT), economics, technology, and arts.

Parental Involvement: There is an extensive amount of parental involvement in Dutch schools. The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science publishes guides for parents to primary and secondary education with information about the education system and the rights and obligations of parents. Schools are required to produce a prospectus to inform parents about the school's curriculum and results achieved. Every school must also have a participation council and a complaints committee. The participation council includes representatives of both parents and staff; they discuss matters such as facilities, resource allocation, pupils' rights and obligations, textbooks, holiday dates, and parental involvement in school activities. In addition, many schools also have a separate parents' council or committee.

Preprimary & Primary Education

Children often attend day care centers or playgroups up until the age of four. The 1994 Social Welfare Act, under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, covers childcare standards and facilities. The 1999-2002 welfare policy called "Towards Social Quality" coordinates childcare with local youth programs and education policy. In 1996, approximately 10,800 children attended day nurseries, approximately 198,600 children participated in established playgroups, and approximately 25,200 children aged four to twelve attended out-of-school centers.

Primary Education: Primary schools in the Netherlands are designed for children from four to twelve years of age. In 1997, there were over seven thousand primary schools in the Netherlands, attended by over 1.6 million children. Roughly one-third of these children attend publicly run schools while two-thirds go to private schools. The aim of primary education is to promote the development of children's emotions, intellect and creativity and the acquisition of adequate social, cultural and physical skills. The curriculum includes: sensory coordination and physical exercise; Dutch; arithmetic and mathematics; English (in the last two years); expressive activities such as language, music, drawing, handicrafts, play and movement; self-reliance such as road safety and healthy living; social sciences such as geography, history, biology, social structures, and political studies; and religious and ideological movements. Attainment targets have been formulated indicating the basic minimum that schools are required by law to teach their pupils in each area of the curriculum. However, schools have considerable freedom in the choice of course books and materials, and they can also add their own emphases to the curriculum.

Special Education: Children in need of special care and attention can attend special schools. Like mainstream schools, these may be either publicly or privately run. In 1997 there was a total of almost one thousand institutions providing special education, including schools for physically disabled children, for the partially hearing and visually impaired, and for children with learning and behavioral difficulties. However, under the "Going to School Together" policy, children with learning and behavioral difficulties are integrated into mainstream schools as much as possible. Children who require special provision because of their disability are given a personal budget, which parents may spend at either a special or a mainstream school.

Improvements in Quality: The Netherlands is undergoing measures to improve the quality of primary education by tailoring instruction to the individual needs and abilities of the students. Developing intermediate attainment targets and teaching guidelines, introducing student monitoring systems, evaluating the quality of textbooks, improving the training and supervision of teachers, and reducing class size are the most important among these goals. Initially, the focus will be on improving the teaching of arithmetic and Dutch and on identifying and resolving problems at the earliest stage possible.

The use of information and communication technology (ICT) is essential for the general improvement in teaching and adaptability to individual student needs. Substantial investment in ICT has already been made and will continue in Dutch schools. The action plan "Investing in Progress" outlines many opportunities to improve education quality through the use of computers and for providing a good educational network between schools with access to the Internet. It supports an integrated approach of funding in-service training for teachers at the same time as funding courseware development and hardware. The goal is to have one computer for every three students.

Secondary Education

The main goals in secondary education are interrelated: to encourage broad, personal development and social education of all students; to create active, independent learners; and to recognize and make use of individual differences between students. There have been a number of curricular reforms in secondary education based on these goals.

Secondary education is intended for students aged twelve and over. It is divided into prevocational education (VBO), junior general secondary education (MAVO), senior general secondary education (HAVO), and pre-university education (VWO). In 1999, VBO and MAVO were combined to create prevocational secondary education, VMBO. However, the new VMBO is being gradually phased in and both systems co-existed in 2001.

In the 1999-2000 school year, there were 861,485 pupils attending 635 public or private secondary schools. In the past, the different kinds of secondary courses were provided in separate schools, but by the end of the 20th century, many of these schools had been merged, creating broad-based combined schools. This has given students a choice in programs within the same school. Some schools are still independent, however, and many of these only have one kind of education program, such as preuniversity education with Latin and Greek.

Prevocational Education: Prevocational education (VBO) lasts four years and prepares students for secondary vocational education (senior secondary vocational education and apprenticeships). There are fifteen departments within VBO: building techniques, metalworking, electrical engineering, motor mechanics, fitting techniques, catering, printing technology, caring occupations, beauty care and hairdressing, fashion and clothing, retailing, clerical work, commerce, agriculture and the natural environment, and food technology. However, not every VBO school offers all of these courses. Some VBO schools have a separate department for individualized education (IVBO) to teach students who need extra help at their own speed.

Junior General Secondary Education: Like VBO, junior general secondary education (MAVO) lasts for four years. However, unlike the more vocationally oriented VBO, MAVO provides a more general education. Like VBO, MAVO prepares pupils for senior secondary vocational education (MBO) and apprenticeships.

Senior General Secondary Education: Senior general secondary education (HAVO) lasts five years and prepares students to enter higher professional education. However, many of these students go on to either preuniversity education (VWO) or MBO.

Pre-university education: Pre-university education (VWO) lasts six years and prepares students for university studies. However, some of these students prefer to enroll in higher professional education courses. There are three types of VWO schools: the atheneum (where Latin is sometimes offered as an optional subject), the gymnasium (where Greek and Latin are compulsory) and the lyceum (where Latin and Greek are optional).

Special Secondary Education: Schools for special secondary education (VSO) are created for children with physical disabilities, impaired hearing or vision, or chronic illnesses. Children with learning and/or behavioral difficulties also frequently attend VSO schools. Special secondary schools work in conjunction with MAVO, VBO or IVBO schools to put together courses based on students' individual needs to improve their chances of graduating from school or going on to vocational training.

Basic Secondary Education: In August 1993, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science introduced basic secondary education and a new core curriculum. Basic secondary education replaced the first three years of VBO, MAVO, HAVO, and VWO with a compulsory core curriculum of fifteen subjects: Dutch, English, German or French, history and politics, geography, economics, physical education, mathematics, physics and chemistry, biology, self-sufficiency (social and life skills), IT studies, technology, and two creative subjects. Each school chooses their creative subjects from these possibilities: drawing, handicrafts, textile crafts, photography, film/audiovisual studies, music, drama, or dance.

At the end of the basic secondary education period, pupils are assessed to see if they have acquired the knowledge, understanding, and skills defined in the attainment targets. Students need to take at least one final national test for each subject. Schools can vary the tests according to different learning styles and abilities of their pupils, and they may include additional school-specific examination questions. There are also cross-disciplinary general attainment targets relating to social issues and skills that are assessed at the end of basic secondary education.

Reforms in Secondary Education: Prevocational secondary education (VMBO) was introduced on August 1, 1999 as part of the secondary education reforms. The "learning pathways" of VMBO will eventually replace VBO and MAVO courses, although they both existed in 2001. The goal of the learning pathways is to provide a sounder basis for the next stage of vocational training, secondary vocational education (SBO) the new name for senior secondary vocational education (MBO).

After completing basic secondary education, students spend the second stage of their courses preparing for the school-leaving examinations for the program they have selected. These are both internal examinations given by the school and national examinations administered under government supervision. The system for selecting examination subjects was also changed in 1999. The VMBO, replacing VBO and MAVO, is made up of engineering and technology, economics, agriculture and care, and welfare. Students choose among three learning pathways: theoretical (MAVO), vocational (available at two levels), or combined theoretical and vocational. A fixed combination of examination subjects is specified for each pathway. In addition, a new kind of practical training was created to prepare students to enter the labor market directly if they do not qualify for completing VBO or MAVO.

Four set subject combinations were also introduced in 1998 for the second stage of HAVO/VWO. Students now choose among set combinations of: science and technology, science and health care, economics and society, or culture and society. Each combination includes an optional component for students to take subjects outside of their set combination or non-examination subjects chosen by the school, such as religious education. The reforms have been created to improve the transition from secondary to higher education by emphasizing independent learning.

Information & Communication Technology: The "Investing in Progress" action plan integrates information and communication technology (ICT) into the basic secondary education core curriculum to support independent learning and to support the teaching of modern languages and Dutch. Information and communication technology is also being used to update VBO, HAVO and VWO curricula to reflect the use of computers in trade, industry, research, and higher education.

Higher Education

More than one-third of all Dutch men and women between twenty and twenty-four years of age pursue higher education degrees. Annually, more than 375,000 students attend higher education programs. There are three types of higher education in the Netherlands. Higher professional education (HBO) is taught at hogescholen, university higher education is taught at universities (WO), and higher distance education is taught at The Open University (OU). Different admission requirements exist in hogescholen and universities, whereas The Open University has no admission requirements other than students must be at least eighteen years of age. The Open University is a state institution, but there are public and private hogescholen and universities, both funded equally by the Dutch government. To retain this funding, they must meet set standards of educational quality, and public and private degrees must be equivalent.

Higher Professional Education: In 1997 there were 59 hogescholen or HBO institutions with 259,000 students. HBO institutions provide theoretical instruction and practical training for more demanding and professional occupations than those studied through vocational education. Some of the types of training and programs available are: educational theory, language and culture, behavior and society, social welfare, art, science, health care, agriculture and natural environment, economics, and engineering and technology. All HBO programs include an important practical training element, and most programs require professional placement outside of the hogescholen. Courses usually last four years.

The government and industry are working together to attract more students to technical HBO programs. They are also experimenting with dual training and combining learning and working in new ways. Since many students of ethnic minorities and lower income groups are entering HBOs with MBO diplomas, more is being done to prepare MBO students for HBO programs. HBO and MBO institutions are working together to condense course requirements and facilitate enrollment by minority students.

University Education: There are thirteen universities in the Netherlands with 169,000 students attending in 1997. Universities combine scientific research with academics that distinguishes them from higher professional education. Increasingly, however, graduates of universities compete with HBO graduates in the professional world.

Three Dutch universities focus on technology: Delft University of Technology, Eindhoven University of Technology, and the University of Twente. There is one agricultural university, Wageningen Agricultural University, whereas the University of Utrecht and the University of Leiden offer more general courses. Other universities are gradually known for either progressive teaching techniques or specific areas of study: The University of Amsterdam, University of Groningen, University of Maastricht, Erasmus University at Rotterdam, Free University of Amsterdam, University of Tilburg, and the University of Nijmegen.

Most courses at the universities last four years. However, some professions require longer initial periods of training. Doctors, pharmacists, veterinary surgeons, and dentists require six years of initial study; philosophers in a particular discipline, some engineers, and some agricultural scientists require five years of initial study. After completing the initial degree, students in all areas may continue studying towards a specialization, for research, or for a doctoral degree.

Universities are experimenting with new ways of combining working and learning, and they are attempting to make university programs more adaptable and practical. They are also examining and making changes to their administrative structure. To this end, the government allocated a substantial amount of money from 1996-1998 to fund projects to improve teaching and the quality and practicability of courses. One goal was to redesign courses to make it easier for students to complete programs within the desired time frame.

Admission to Higher Education: Students who have senior general secondary education (HAVO) diplomas or senior secondary vocational education (MBO) diplomas are eligible for admission to HBO institutions. Students are eligible to enter a university if they hold VWO certificates or HBO propaedeutic certificates which are conferred at the end of the first year of HBO courses. In some cases there are additional requirements of specific courses that must be completed at the secondary education level to be admitted to the university. Exceptions exist for applicants aged twenty-one or older who do not possess the required VWO or HBO qualifications. These applicants may be admitted to university courses if they pass a viva voce entrance examination.

For medicine, dentistry, and veterinary science, the government imposes a numerus fixus (quota) to restrict the number of first-year students admitted to the programs each year. In these cases, from 1972-1999, students have been admitted through a weighted lottery draw with a higher average VWO examination grade generally giving applicants a better chance of obtaining a place. This system was debated for years, and in 1999, the Minister of Education, Culture and Science accepted a new system which will guarantee students with high examination grades and grade point averages admission to medical studies. Interestingly, the Netherlands is undergoing a shortage of doctors, and the maximum number of medical students accepted will be increased from 2001-2004. There is some discussion of eliminating the numerus fixus system entirely.

Degree System: University graduates may use one of the following academic titles: ingenieur, doctorandus, ormeester, depending on the type of degree (ingenieur for more technical degrees, meester for law, doctorandus for the rest). After further study towards a doctorate and completing a thesis, graduates may use the title "doctor."

Beginning in 2002, the Netherlands will introduce a Bama or Anglo-Saxon degree system where graduates may use the title of "bachelor" or "master" in addition to the Dutch doctorandus. This will be done to adapt the Dutch university system to a single European system that will be used in twenty-nine European Union countries. Students who choose the new degree system will be required to study for at least three years for a bachelor degree and at least an additional year for a master's degree, so there will be some curricular changes as well. HBO institutions will be allowed to offer master's programs, but most likely, the government will not fund these.

Accreditation: In addition to adopting the degree system of the European Union, the Netherlands will also initiate an accreditation system in 2002 to certify all universities and higher professional education programs. Educational institutions will need to reapply for accreditation every five years. This will make international recognition of higher education programs easier, and it will enable students to compare the quality of Dutch programs to other European programs.

Student Finance: Most higher education courses last four years during which all students are entitled to a basic grant. In September 1997, the basic grant was set at NLG 125 a month for students living at home and NLG 425 for students living away from home. In addition, students may take out loans of up to NLG 372.92 a month. Depending on parental income, students can apply for a supplementary grant of up to NLG 395.53 a month if living at home or up to NLG 430.53 a month if living away from home. If students need more time to complete their courses, they may take out loans for three more years. If students are in courses that require more than four years of initial study, they are eligible for loans for a longer period.

Grants are awarded to students depending upon performance according to a "loan then grant" principle. Initially students receive grants as loans, which are converted to non-repayable grants if they meet the performance criteria. To keep grants non-repayable the first year of study, students must obtain 50 percent of the available credits (21 out of 42). Similar criteria exist for the second, third and fourth years of study, and all loans eventually become non-repayable if the student graduates within four years. Students are allowed six years to complete a four-year course, but they must finance themselves during the additional two years. In 2002, the time allowed to finish a degree will be increased to ten years. Student loans must be repaid within fifteen years of graduation, but only if the borrower can afford to do so. Those on low incomes do not need to pay back much, and any outstanding debt is cancelled at the end of fifteen years.

Foreign Students & Students Abroad: As in all areas of education in the Netherlands, internationalization of higher education is a priority. To that end, the government promotes international exchanges of teachers and students. In 1998-1999, almost 27 percent of higher education graduates had had experience abroad. Six thousand of these higher education students studied on scholarships, and the United Kingdom was the most popular country for foreign study. During the same year, seven thousand foreign students studied in the Netherlands. Most of these students came from other European Union countries.

As of the 2003 academic year, Dutch students will be able to enroll in foreign universities and retain their student grant or loan. They will not need to be enrolled in a Dutch university at the same time. This is part of the "Education without Frontiers" policy created to make education finance more flexible for Dutch students. Students will need to verify that the foreign institution and program is of equivalent quality to their Dutch university program. Initially programs in other European Union countries will be eligible, but eventually programs in the United States, Australia and Canada and other countries should be eligible.

In addition to studying abroad, a unique international cooperative effort began in January 2001, when the education ministers of the Netherlands and Flanders signed a treaty to create the Transnational University Limburg. The University of Maastricht and the Limburg University Center in Flanders will combine their teaching and academic research programs in the new university. Dutch or Flemish students will receive dual degrees that are recognized in their respective countries, but the new university will be structured according to the Bama bachelor/master system.

Administration, Finance & Educational Research

Ministry/Department of Education: The Ministry of Education, Culture and Science is headed by the Minister of Education, Culture and Science, and there are two state secretaries or junior ministers, each with specific areas of responsibility. The Education Council is the only national advisory body that advises the government on educational policy and legislation.

Since the 1990s, there has been increased emphasis on greater autonomy and decentralization. Many governmental powers have been passed down to the local level. For public schools, the individual municipality and elected school board is responsible for implementing legislation and for policy-making. For private denominational or nondenominational schools, the national umbrella organization of the church or foundation that established the school is responsible for implementing regulations and for policy-making.

Central government concentrates on broad policy-making and encouraging quality education. Educational institutions need to conform to policies and performance standards stated by the Minister of Education, Culture and Science, but they are generally allowed to allocate their finances as they see fit. The Educational Inspectorate supervises the Dutch educational system for the Minister, verifying that schools are conforming to regulations and policies. Individual education inspectors visit schools on an annual basis.

Universities and higher education institutions have umbrella organizations, management boards or executive boards, and they are given a large amount of autonomy by the central government.

Primary and secondary schools are assisted by a large group of support institutions, providing advice on educational theory, teaching methods, and materials. Four of these support organizations are the School Advisory Services, National Educational Advisory Centers, the National Institute for Curriculum Development, and the National Institute for Educational Measurement.

Educational Research: Dutch academic research is extremely well developed with several hundred research institutes and laboratories in the country. Although most research is university related, joint research with industries and contract research accounts for over 25 percent of research at Dutch universities. Natural and engineering science research in the Netherlands is among the ten most productive (in terms of publications) and the most influential (in terms of citations) in the world. Dutch researchers produce 2.45 percent of all scientific publications worldwide. About 75 percent of these publications come from Dutch universities, 20 percent from public or semipublic organizations, and 5 percent come from trade and industry. The Dutch government funds 38 percent of the research, whereas trade and industry funds almost 49 percent. Much of the university research is privately funded. As in other aspects of Dutch higher education, there is an increasing amount of international collaboration in research with foreign scientists on publications, especially with scientists from other countries in the European Union.

Nonformal Education

Adult Education: Adult education provides a foundation for vocational and secondary education courses and to help adults become productive, participating members of society. Courses are offered in broad basic education and adult general secondary education (VAVO) to give adults a second chance to obtain MAVO, HAVO or VWO qualifications. Dutch as a second language courses are designed to bring language skills of non-native speakers to an acceptable level. Newcomers to the Netherlands are required legally to attend a social integration program at a Regional Training Center, to receive not only Dutch language lessons but also training to help them cope with the Dutch way of life. In 1998-1999, there were 203,800 adults enrolled in adult education courses.

Open University: The Open University in Heerlen is a public institution offering open higher education distance learning courses for people aged eighteen and over. No certificates are required for admission, and all course work can be individually paced. Courses are offered in law, social sciences, arts subjects, economics, management and administrative science, engineering sciences and natural sciences. The courses are taught as separate modules, creating flexibility for students who can combine them to create their own program of study. It is also possible to study for a complete HBO or university degree through the Open University. Study centers throughout the Netherlands help provide assistance and advice for students. The Open University also works with other higher education institutions on developing joint teaching materials and new methods of teaching.

Teaching Profession

Training & Qualifications: Primary school teachers are qualified to teach all subjects, but they specialize in one subject area. Teachers complete a four-year teachertraining degree at an HBO institution. Secondary teachers specialize in one subject area and are qualified to teach the lower years of VMBO, HAVO and VWO. Teachers who complete a one-year postgraduate course at a university or a three-year part time program at an HBO are qualified to teach at all levels of secondary education. ICT training is emphasized, especially with primary school teachers. In 2000, the eventual goal is to use ICT for 50 percent of teaching time, and teacher-training institutions need to build this expertise.

Between 2001 and 2004, the Netherlands will need approximately 8,500 new primary school teachers a year, 5,500 secondary school teachers, and from 2,500-3,500 vocational and adult education instructors. There is a teacher shortage in the Netherlands, and not enough teachers are being trained to keep up with demand. Steps are being taken to bring ex-teachers back to the profession and to recruit new teachers from college graduates in other fields. The teacher shortage is most pronounced in the large cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague and Utrecht.

The government understands that it needs to make the teaching profession more attractive by offering competitive working conditions and salaries, making time and money available for in-service training, and to lighten teacher load by increasing support staff. Teachers want more time for innovation and student counseling. In addition, more efforts towards decentralizing working conditions in primary education are needed. The "Professions in Education Act" will be sent to Parliament at the end of 2001, outlining necessary reforms in the teaching profession in the hopes of curbing the national teacher shortage.

Summary

The Netherlands has a long tradition of educational reform and progressive educational philosophy. This tradition continues into the twenty-first century with innovative approaches to teaching and uses of technology. Despite problems of limited space, population growth, and an influx of refugees and immigrants, the Netherlands continues to make education accessible to close to 100 percent of its population. As student bodies and needs have changed, the educational system has tried to change with them. The latest government policy stresses quality and variety of education and the need to individualize and customize education at all levels to reach students most effectively. There is some concern, however, that as non-native populations grow, educational institutions are becoming increasingly segregated, especially in the larger urban areas. The admirable qualities of freedom of education and freedom of choice, and the increasing desire for autonomy, unfortunately make self-segregation unavoidable. In order to maintain equal educational opportunities for all, the Dutch will need to do more to combat educational disadvantages among ethnic minorities. Although much has already been done, statistics show little improvement in educational attainment by minorities. If the Dutch are able to discover new methods of reaching this population group effectively, they will be able to make great advancements not only educationally but socially as well.