MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Sorcerers and Astrologers

Occult science among the ancient Mexicans could be represented as a middle ground derived between the tribal medicine men and the magical practices of the medieval sorcerer. The sources of information are limited, chiefly gleaned either from the works of the early missionaries to the country, or from the legends and myths of the people themselves.

Writing about the sorcerers of Mexico, Bernardino de Sahagun, an early Spanish priest, stated that the naualli or magician was one who enchanted men and sucked the blood of infants during the night, a reference to the vampire -like characteristics of Central American magical practitioners. He observed that the magician was ignorant of nothing that appertained to sorcery, and possessed great craft. Magicians hired themselves out to people to work evil upon their enemies, and to cause madness and maladies. He added:

"The necromancer is a person who has made pact with a demon, and who is capable of transforming himself into various animal shapes. Such people appear to be tired of life and await death with complaisance. The astrologer practices among the people as a diviner, and has a thorough knowledge of the various signs of the calendar, from which he is able to prognosticate the fortunes of those who employ him. This he accomplishes by weighing the power of one planet against that of another, and thus discovering the resultant applies it to the case in point. These men were called into consultation at births and deaths, as well as upon public occasions, and would dispute with much nicety on their art."

Astrology among the Mexicans was, like their calendar, intricate and advanced. (The reader is referred to Lewis Spence 's The Civilization of Ancient Mexico (1911), Bernardino de Sahagun's Historia de la Conquista de Mexico (1829), and Bulletin 28 of the United States Bureau of Ethnology. ) In connection with the astrological science of the Aztecs, it is noteworthy that the seventh calendric sign was the one under which necromancers, sorcerers, and evil-doers were usually born. Bernardino de Sahagun noted that:

"These work their enchantments in obscurity for four nights running, when they choose a certain evil sign. They then betake themselves in the night to the houses where they desire to work their evil deeds and sorceries…For the rest these sorcerers never know contentment, for all their days they live evilly and know no peace."

The myths of the Mexicans give a good working idea of the status of the enchanter or sorcerer in Aztec society. For example, the Toltec god Quetzalcoatl who, in early times was regarded as a culture-hero, was bewitched by the god of the incoming and rival race, Tezcatlipoca, who disguised himself as a physician and prescribed for an illness of his enemy's an enchanted draught that made him long for the country of his origin—that is, the home of the rains. This would indicate that potions or philters were in vogue among Mexican sorcerers.

In their efforts to rid themselves of the entire Toltec race, the traditional aborigines of Mexico, the incoming race's god Tezcatlipoca was pictured as performing upon a magical drum in such a manner as to cause frenzy among the Toltecs, who leaped by thousands into a deep ravine by their city.

Wonderful stories were told of the feats of the Huaxteca, a people of Maya race dwelling on the Gulf of Mexico. Sahagun related that they could produce from space a spring with fishes, burn and restore a hut, and dismember and resurrect themselves. The Ocuiltec of the Toluca Valley also possessed a widespread reputation as enchanters and magicians.

Divination and Augury

Although divination was practiced among the Aztecs by means of astrology, there were other less intricate methods in use. A College of Augurs existed, corresponding in purpose to the Auspices of Ancient Rome, the members of which occupied themselves with observing the flight and listening to the songs of birds, from which they drew their conclusions.

The calmecac, or training college of the priests, had a department where divination was taught in all its branches. A typical example of augury from birds may be found in the account of the manner in which the Mexicans fixed upon the spot for the foundation of their city.

Halting after years of wandering in the vicinity of the Lake of Tezcuco, they observed a great eagle with wings outspread perched on the stump of a cactus, and holding in its talons a live serpent. Their augurs interpreted this as a good omen, since it had been previously announced by an oracle, and upon the spot where the bird had alighted they drove the first piles upon which they built the city of Mexico—the legend of the foundation of which is still commemorated in the heraldic arms of modern Mexico.

Dreams and visions also played a great part in Mexican divination, and a special caste of augurs called Teopixqui, or Teotecuhtli (masters or guardians of divine things) were set apart for the purpose of interpreting dreams and of divining through dreams and visions, which was regarded as the chief route between man and the supernatural.

The senses were quickened and sharpened by the use of drugs, and the ecstatic condition was induced by lack of sleep, fixing of the mind upon one subject, swallowing or inhaling cerebral intoxicants such as tobacco, the maguey, coca, the snake-plant or ololiuhqui, and similar substances.

Some tribes of Native Americans believed that visions came to the prophet or seer pictorially, or that acts were performed before them as in a play. They also believed that the soul traveled through space and was able to visit those places of which it desired to have knowledge. It was likely that the seers hypnotized themselves by gazing at certain small, highly-polished pieces of sandstone, or that they employed these in a manner similar to the crystal-gazing practices found around the globe. The goddess Tozi was the patron of those who used grains of maize or red beans in divination.

On such native group, the Cuna people indigenous to Panama, believed that the Avisua, sang songs of magic that have curative powers—whether it was the healing of the sick, change atmospheric conditions, or inspire a person to act in some oppositive way. The witch doctors, or Neles, claimed powers of extrasensory perception using them to heal, or see into the past, present or future. The main source of those powers was dreams, as well. From 1968 until 1972, Robert Van De Castle conducted ESP tests among Cuna children, both boys and girls. The results were inconclusive, with the girls scoring higher than the boys. Whether or not any of these children were Neles, was also not determined. If that is so, the powers of the witch doctors, remain untested.

Charms and Amulets

The amulet was regarded in Mexico as a personal fetish. The Tepitoton, or diminutive household deities of the Mexicans, were also fetishistic. It is probable that most of the Mexican amulets were modeled on the various ornaments of the gods. Thus the traveler's staff, carved in the shape of a serpent like that of Quetzalcoatl, was undoubtedly of this nature, and to it occasionally sacrifices would be made. The frog was a favorite model for an amulet. As elsewhere, the thunderbolts thrown by the gods were supposed to be flint stones, and were cherished as amulets and as symbols of the life-giving rains.

Vampirism

Vampirism was an important part of Mexican folk belief and there are various vampire deities. The notion of the vampire that most permeated the life of average people is found in connection with the ciupipiltin, or ghosts of women who have died in childbirth. These haunted the crossroads, crying and wailing for the little ones they have left behind them. But as in many other countries, notably in Burma, they are malevolent—their evil tendencies probably being caused by jealousy of the happiness of the living.

In order that they do not enter their houses and injure their children, the Mexicans at certain times of the year stopped up every possible hole and crevice. The appearance of these ghosts (Sahagun described them as "goddesses") at crossroads is highly significant, for we know that the burial of criminals at such junctions was merely a survival of a similar disposal of the corpse of the vampire, whose head was cut off and laid at his side, and entombed at a crossroads for the purpose of confusing him as to his whereabouts.

The Cult of Nagualism

Both in Mexico and Central America a religio-magical system called nagualism existed, the purpose of which was to bring occult influence against the European conquerors for their destruction. The rites of this practice usually took place in caverns and other deserted localities, and were naturally derived to a large extent from those of the suppressed native religion. Each worshiper possessed a magical or animal spirit-guide, with which he or she was endowed early in life. This system flourished as lately as the last quarter of the nineteenth century.

Central America

Information on magic and sorcery amongst the Maya, Kiche, and other Central American peoples is even rarer than that relating to Mexico, and there is little but local legend to guide research in these areas. The great storehouse of Central American legend is the Popol Vuh, an early study published by Lewis Spence (1908), with some having appeared in more recent years. This fascinating work of mythological history states that some of the elder gods were regarded as magicians, and the hero-twins, Xblanque and Hun-ahpu, whom they sent to earth to rid it of the Titan Vukubcakix, were undoubtedly possessed of magical powers.

As boys, the twins were equipped with magical tools that enabled them to get through an enormous amount of work in a single day. When they descended into Xibalba (the Kiché Hades) for the purpose of avenging their father and uncle, they took full advantage of their magical propensities in combating the inhabitants of that drear abode. Xibalba itself possessed sorcerers, for within its borders were Xulu and Pacaw, who assisted the hero-gods in many of their necromantic practices.

Regarding divination, the Maya possessed a caste of augurs, called Cocomes, or the listeners, while prophecy appears to have been periodically practiced by their priests.

In the books of Chilan Balam, which are native compilations of events occurring in Central America previous to the Spanish Conquest, certain prophecies appear that seem to foretell many events, including the coming of the Spaniards. These appear to have been given forth by a priest who bore the title (not the name) of "Chilan Balam," whose offices were those of divination and astrology. These pronouncements were apparently colored at a later date by Christian thought, and not of a genuine aboriginal character. For example, certain astrological formulas in the books exist that are simply borrowed from European almanacs of the century between 1550 and 1650.

Amulets were in great vogue among the Maya, and they had the same fear of the last five days of the year as had the Mexicans, who regarded them as nemontemi or unlucky, and did no work of any description upon them. These days the Maya called uyayayab, and they believed that a demon entered their towns and villages at the beginning of this period. To avert evil influence they carried an image of him through the village in the hopes that he might afterwards avoid it.

In his book Atlantis in America (1925), Lewis Spence, who published several books on the folklore of Mexico and Central America, believed that there was some evidence for the influence of the civilization of an Atlantis in what he found.

Death Day

Beginning in the days of the Spanish conquests, the original Indian culture, religion, and superstitions have become inextricably interwoven with Christian beliefs and customs, creating a complex synthesis. With the modern history of war, revolts, and revolution extending into the twentieth century, it is not surprising that death has a special place in the symbolism and folklore of the Mexican people. This is vividly illustrated in the traditional celebration of All Soul's Day on November 2nd, when toys, cakes, and candies in the form of skulls are on sale in the streets, with carnival style costumes and plays depicting skeletons.

Although All Soul's Day is an imported Christian feast, it has blended with the Mexican Indian beliefs in which skulls and death goddesses are typical of pre-Columbian art, with the death orientation of the Spanish monastic orders, and the Christian memento mori tradition, as well as the memory of wars and revolutions.

The extraordinary profusion of death images is well illustrated by the work of the Mexican printmaker José Guadalupe Posada (1852-1913), famous for his calaveras (skeletons) that ate, drank, made merry, rode bicycles and horses, brandished swords and daggers, or were humble workers and revolutionaries.

Something of the extraordinarily complex history and beliefs of Mexico is captured on film by the great Soviet director S. M. Eisenstein in his uncompleted epic Que Viva Mexico of 1932. His vast footage remained in limbo, or was carved into short films by other hands during Eisenstein's lifetime. Political and ideological complications of the time prevented Eisenstein from completing the film as planned; but a 60-minute version titled Time in the Sun was completed by Marie Seton in 1940, and a longer reconstruction by G. Alexandrov (Eisenstein's assistant) and N. Orlov titled Que Viva Mexico was completed in the U.S.S.R. in 1979. Both are available on videocassette, but the former was released in Britain on the PAL system. The Alexandrov and Orlov film is available on NTSC video from Ifex Films, 201 W. 52nd St., New York, NY 10019. Both versions illustrate the Death Day feast, as well as the history and folklore of Mexico. An earlier short, "Death Day," made from Eisenstein's material was released in cinemas in 1934.

Until his death in 1950, Enrique O. Aragon, a Mexian physician, and dean of the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, set out to investigate claims of paranormal activities, including those of poltergeists. He worked not only to clarify the phenomena, but also to expose fraud.

Organizations dedicated to the study of parapsychology and the paranormal are limited throughout Mexico and Central America. Those in Mexico are: Sociedad Mexicana de Parapsicologia, at Apartado 12-699, 03000 Mexico, D.F., Mexico; the Instituto Latinoamericano de Psicologia Paranormal, at Apartado Postal 156, San Juan del Rio, 768000 Querataro; and the Fundacion Interncional Subdud (International Subdud Foundation), located at Plutarco Elias Calles No. 702, Col. Club de Golf, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62030, Mexico. The latter is a branch of the international organization, and was established in 1982 as a charitable organization. The foundation works with the University of Zacatecas and the Instituto Politecnico Nacional to help physically and mentally challenged adults and children in Mexico's rural areas. As therapy, the staff works with the patients using energized gems, acupuncture, and Kirlian photography as a diagnostic tool to determine the psychological health of the children while they are in treatment. Panama's Instituto de Estudios Parapsicologicos, located at Apartado 8000, Panama 7, Panama, and the Sociedad Hispano-Americano para la Investigaticion Filosofica y Metafisica, operating from the same location, also publishes, Boletin Informativo. Courses in parapsychology were present from 1982-85, but were suspended at the National University during the time of political unrest. A Spanish-language website for the Parapsychology Institute in Mexico is available through http://www.aliensonearth.com.

Sources:

Berdecio, R., and S. Appelbaum, eds. Posada's Popular Mexican Prints. New York: Dover, 1972.

Berger, Arthur S., and Joyce Berger. The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research. New York: Paragon House, 1991.

Recinos, Adriàn, Delia Goetz, and Sylvanus G. Morley, trans. and eds. Popul Vuh: The Sacred Book of the Ancient Quiché Maya. London: William Hodge, 1951.

Sahagun, Bernardino de. Historia de la Conquista de Mexico. Mexico, 1829.

Spence, Lewis. Atlantis in America. London: Ernest Benn, 1925. Reprint, Detroit: Singing Tree Press, 1972.

——. The Civilization of Ancient Mexico. London, 1911.

——. The Gods of Mexico. London: Fisher, Unwin, 1913.

——. The Magic and Mysteries of Mexico. London: Rider, 1930.

——. The Myths of Mexico and Peru. London: Harrap, 1913.

——. The Popul Vuh: The Mythic & Heroic Sagas of the Kichés of Central America. London: David Nutt, 1908.