Elizabeth Blackwell

1821-1910

English American Physician and Medical Educator

Elizabeth Blackwell was a pioneer in opening the medical profession to women and served as an inspiration to generations of American girls. Although Blackwell is often described as the first woman doctor in America, this is not strictly true. Other women had practiced medicine and obstetrics, but Blackwell was the first woman in American history to earn a degree from an orthodox medical college.

Elizabeth Blackwell was born in Bristol, England, into a large, well-to-do family. When a fire destroyed her father's business in 1832, the family immigrated to America. Eventually, the Blackwells settled in Cincinnati, Ohio, where Samuel Blackwell died in 1838, leaving his widow with nine children and little money. The oldest girls supported the family by running a boarding school until their brothers established themselves in business. The Blackwells were interested in many social reform movements, including the abolitionist crusade, the women's rights movement, education for women, and the New England Transcendental Movement.

In her autobiography Elizabeth said that she decided to become a doctor after a woman friend, who was dying of a painful "female disease," told her that her suffering would have been mitigated if she could have seen a "lady doctor." Although many medical practitioners called themselves "doctor" after private studies or apprenticeships, Elizabeth was convinced that she must attend a legitimate medical college.

In 1847, when Blackwell began to apply to medical schools, none of the established medical schools admitted women. Many schools rejected her even though admission standards for nineteenth century medical schools were notoriously low. Some physicians suggested that she disguise herself as a man and enter medical school, but Blackwell saw her struggle as a moral crusade that had to win public approval. Finally, Geneva Medical College, New York, a small country school, accepted her. Being the only female at Geneva Medical College presented many difficulties, but Blackwell was able to persuade the professors that she should be allowed to attend all lectures and demonstrations. Blackwell's success did not convince the College to accept other female students. Indeed, Geneva Medical College rejected Elizabeth's sister Emily (1826-1910). (In 1854 Emily graduated from Cleveland Medical College.)

In 1849 Blackwell was awarded her diploma of Doctor of Medicine. Like many other American medical graduates, she went to Europe for further training and clinical experience. While she was treating a baby with an eye infection, some infectious fluid spurted into her eyes. This resulted in a serious infection and permanent damage to one eye. In England Blackwell met Florence Nightingale (1820-1910), who became a major influence on her ideas about sanitation and proper hospital administration.

Convinced that opportunities for women doctors in America were improving, Blackwell decided to settle in New York. In 1853 Blackwell began her battle to establish a dispensary and hospital where women physicians could obtain clinical experience while serving the poor. Her sister Emily and Dr. Maria Zakrzewska soon joined her. The New York Infirmary for Women and Children was a pioneering effort and the first time a hospital was conducted entirely by women. The hospital was needed because female medical graduates were denied essential hospital experience and instruction. In 1868 the Infirmary established a medical school for women. The Infirmary's school established strict entrance examinations and emphasized clinical training.

Elizabeth Blackwell served as one of the few role models available to American women interested in medical careers, but she refused to allow the Women's Rights Movement of her time to divert her from her crusade for women in the medical profession. She returned to England to continue the battle and, in 1859, became the first woman listed in the Medical Register of the United Kingdom. Her successes stimulated the work of Dr. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Dr. Sophia Jex-Blake (1840-1912), who established the London School of Medicine.

When Elizabeth Blackwell assessed the progress of women in medicine in 1869, she was entirely optimistic about the future. In 1899, convinced that special women's colleges were unnecessary, Emily Blackwell closed the Woman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary. Unfortunately, the 1890s proved to be a very brief "Golden Age" for women physicians.

LOIS N. MAGNER