Bioluminescence

Bioluminescence is the production of light by living organisms. Some single-celled organisms (bacteria and protista ) as well as many multicellular animals and fungi demonstrate bioluminescence.

Bioluminescence in nature

Marine environments support a number of bioluminescent organisms including species of bacteria, dinoflagellates, jellyfish , coral, shrimp , and fish . On any given night one can see the luminescent sparkle produced by the single-celled dinoflagellates when water is disturbed by a ship's bow or a swimmer's motions. Many multicellular marine organisms have specialized light emitting organs that project light in a particular direction or convey a unique shape to the light. The anglerfish has a light-emitting organ that projects from its head, which serves as a bait to attract smaller prey fish. The light emitted from this organ in the anglerfish is actually produced by bacteria, living in a symbiotic relationship in which both the fish and bacteria profit from their shared existence.

Bioluminescent organisms in the terrestrial environment include species of fungi and insects . The most familiar of these is the firefly, which can often be seen glowing during the warm summer months. In some instances organisms use bioluminescence to communicate, such as in fireflies, which use light to attract members of the opposite sex. Certain reef fish use light produced from organs under their eyes to illuminate the interior of crevices and caves. This not only helps the fish to navigate, but also allows it to locate prey. Organisms that are unpalatable or dangerous, such as jellyfish, use bioluminescence as a signal to warn off attacks by predators. A newly-discovered deep sea octopus has bioluminescent organs in place of suckers.

Biochemical mechanism

Light is produced by most bioluminescent organisms when a chemical called luciferin reacts with oxygen to produce light and oxyluciferin. The reaction between luciferin and oxygen is catalyzed by the enzyme luciferase. Luciferases, like luciferins, usually have different chemical structures in different organisms.

In addition to luciferin, oxygen, and luciferase, other molecules (called cofactors) must be present for the bioluminescent reaction to proceed. Cofactors are molecules required by an enzyme (in this case luciferase) to perform its catalytic function. Common cofactors required for bioluminescent reactions are calcium and ATP, a molecule used to store and release energy that is found in all organisms.

The terms luciferin and luciferase were first introduced in 1885. The German scientist Emil Du Bois-Reymond obtained two different extracts from bioluminescent clams and beetles . When Du Bois mixed these extracts they produced light. He also found that if one of these extracts was first heated, no light would be produced upon mixing. Heating the other extract had no effect on the reaction, so Reymond concluded that there were at least two components to the reaction. Reymond hypothesized that the heat-resistant chemical undergoes a chemical change during the reaction, and called this compound luciferin. The heat sensitive chemical, Reymond concluded, was an enzyme which he called luciferase.

Bioluminescence as a research tool

The two basic components needed to produce a bioluminescent reaction, luciferin and luciferase, can be isolated from the organisms that produce them. When they are mixed in the presence of oxygen and the appropriate cofactors, these components will produce light with an intensity dependent on the quantity of luciferin and luciferase added as well as the oxygen and cofactor concentrations. Luciferases isolated from fireflies and other beetles are commonly used in research.

Scientists have used isolated luciferin and luciferase to determine the concentrations of important biological molecules such as ATP and calcium. After adding a known amount of luciferin and luciferase to a blood or tissue sample , the cofactor concentrations may be determined from the intensity of the light emitted. Scientists have also found numerous other uses for the bioluminescent reaction such as using it to quantify specific molecules that do not directly participate in the bioluminescence reaction. To do this, scientists attach luciferase to antibodies—molecules produced by the immune system that bind to specific molecules called antigens. The antibody-luciferase complex is added to a sample where it binds to the molecule to be quantified. Following washing to remove unbound antibodies, the molecule of interest can be quantified indirectly by adding luciferin and measuring the light emitted. Methods used to quantify particular compounds in biological samples such as the ones described here are called assays.

Luciferase is often used as a "reporter gene" to study how individual genes are activated to produce protein or repressed to stop producing protein. Most genes are turned on and off by DNA located in front of the part of the gene that codes for protein. This region is called the gene promoter. A specific gene promoter can be attached to the DNA that codes for firefly luciferase and introduced into an organism . The activity of the gene promoter can then be studied by measuring the bioluminescence produced in the luciferase reaction. Thus, the luciferase gene can be used to "report" the activity of a promoter for another gene.

In recent studies, luciferase has been used to study viral and bacterial infections in living animals and to detect bacterial contaminants in food. The luciferase reaction also is used to determine DNA sequences, the order of the four types of molecules that comprise DNA and code for proteins .

Resources

books

Herring, Peter, Anthony Campbell, Michael Whitfield, and Linda Maddock, eds. Light and Life in the Sea. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Herring, Peter, ed. Bioluminescence in Action. New York: Academic Press, 1978.

Purves, William, Gordon Orians, and H. Heller. Life: The Science of Biology. 3rd ed. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinaur Associates, Inc., 1992.

Smith, D.C., and A.E. Douglas. The Biology of Symbiosis. Baltimore: Edward Arnold, 1987.

Steven MacKenzie

KEY TERMS

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Antigen

—A molecule, usually a protein, that the body identifies as foreign and toward which it directs an immune response.

Assay

—Method used to quantify a biological compound.

ATP

—Adenosine triphosphate; a high energy molecule that cells use to drive energy-requiring processes such as biosynthesis, transport, growth, and movement.

Cofactor

—Molecule required by an enzyme to perform its catalytic function.

Dinoflagellate

—Chloroplast containing protists that primarily inhabit marine environments.

DNA

—Deoxyribonucleic acid; the genetic material in a cell.

Enzyme

—Biological molecule, usually a protein, which promotes a biochemical reaction but is not consumed by the reaction.

Extract

—Solution from a biological material that contains an active compound.

Gene promoter

—Regions of DNA that control gene activity.

Luciferase

—An enzyme that catalyzes the reaction between oxygen and luciferin.

Luciferin

—Complex carbon molecules that produce light when oxidized.

Oxidation

—The process where a molecule loses one or more electrons.

Oxyluciferin

—An oxidized luciferin molecule which is the product of a bioluminescent reaction.

Protista

—Kingdom composed of single-celled organisms whose DNA is enclosed by a nucleus.