Qur'an

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Qur'an

The Qur'an is the scripture of Islam, consisting of revelations received by the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia during a period of about twenty-three years (610–632 c.e.). About the size of the New Testament and in Arabic, the Qur'an is the fundamental text of Islam. It is also regarded as the greatest masterpiece of the Arabic language.

Textual History

The word qur'an means both "reading" and "recitation"—it is both read from a written text and recited from memory. The name also stresses the importance of the contents of the Qur'an—it is scripture worth reading and reciting. Muhammad belonged to one of the clans of Quraysh, the ruling tribe of the coastal town of Mecca. Having rejected the idolatrous religion of Quraysh and other Arabs, he became accustomed to retiring for meditation to a cave outside Mecca. Here, at age forty, he received his first revelation, a short passage of a few verses, through the angel Gabriel. Thereafter the revelations came in small and large portions. The revelations were memorized by many of his followers. After the emigration of Muslims to Medina in 622 c.e., a systematic attempt was made, under Muhammad's supervision, to record the revelations in writing. The rudimentary writing materials available could not lead to the production of complete or finished copies—in the modern sense—of the Qur'an, and so a number of codices, prepared by different hands and differing in arrangement and sometimes in the amount of content recorded, came into existence. During the rule of the third caliph, 'Uthman, authoritative copies of the Qur'an were prepared and sent as "masters" to several major cities. It should be emphasized, though, that in Muslim understanding the primary method of transmission of the scripture is not written but oral. The extraordinary fact that millions of Muslims have memorized the Qur'an underscores another important point—that Muslims have consciously and methodically relied on memory to preserve the text of their scripture, which has been remarkably homogeneous through the centuries. The so-called "variant" readings, while important from historical and academic viewpoints, are not regarded as equivalent to the standard 'Uthmanic recension, which is in use throughout the Muslim world. Most modern Muslim authorities agree that Muhammad himself was responsible for the present arrangement of the Qur'an.

Structure and Themes

The Qur'an is made up of 114 chapters—called suras —which vary greatly in length. Shorter suras have one theme or specific themes and usually present no difficulty of understanding. Longer suras deal with multiple themes, sometimes with a large number of them, and it is often difficult to follow the train of thought. Part of the difficulty, however, arises from the nature of classical Arabic, the language of the Qur'an, which emphasizes brevity and conciseness. A number of modern Muslim scholars have concluded that there is a definite order to the verses in the individual suras and also to the suras taken as a whole, and that there are significant patterns of arrangement in many parts of the Qur'an. There is general agreement that the Qur'an has a firm thematic focus. The major themes of the Qur'an include: (1) monotheism: there is only one God, the possessor of perfect attributes—"the most beautiful names"—and he alone deserves to be worshipped and obeyed; (2) prophecy and revelation: in order to guide humankind, God placed prophets among all nations and gave them revelation, Adam being the first prophet and Muhammad being the last; (3) the afterlife: on an appointed day God will resurrect the dead and pronounce judgment on them, rewarding the virtuous with heaven and punishing the evil in hell; (4) belief and action: right belief must be accompanied by right action, and both must be grounded in and imbued with taqwa — God-consciousness—the only true criterion of human excellence in the eyes of God, the distinctions of race, language, or color being meaningless; (5) social justice: a just society is one where gross social and economic disparities do not exist and whose affluent members take care of the less fortunate. In order to bring into existence a God-oriented, moral, and just society, the Qur'an institutes a comprehensive program of action that includes, on the one hand, ritual (daily prayers, a monthlong annual fast, pilgrimage to Mecca) and virtuous practice (truthfulness in speech and conduct, kindness and generosity to strangers as well as to relatives, fulfillment of obligations toward others), and, on the other hand, a set of guidelines in several spheres—legal (marriage, divorce, inheritance), economic (approved and proscribed ways of earning and spending money, banning of usury or interest, zakat or mandatory charity), and political (electing qualified people to office and observing the principle of shura or consultation in important matters).

Interpretation

Classical sources lay down several principles of interpretation. The foremost is the principle of inner-Qur'an exegesis: the Qur'an often treats the same subjects in different places in different ways, one part of it thus throwing light on another. Muhammad is regarded as the most authoritative exponent of the Qur'an, and so his statements and observations (Hadith), which pertain explicitly or implicitly to the Qur'an, constitute the definitive interpretation of scripture. The views and opinions of early authorities are also highly valued. Many classical commentaries deal with almost every aspect of the text—explaining the background of verses, discussing the meanings of words and grammatical constructions, and expounding the doctrinal and practical aspects of the Qur'anic message—though literary, theological, or juridical emphases are noticeable in individual works. Modern exegesis (critical interpretation), aiming to reach a broad audience, generally avoids discussion of grammatical and other technical matters, focusing on issues that have a direct theoretical or practical relevance in modern contexts. While all tafsir, or exegesis, seeks to remain faithful to the Qur'anic text, a broad distinction between exoteric and esoteric interpretation can be made. Exoteric interpretation, which is the dominant strain, is based on a more literal and more readily accessible—though not necessarily superficial—understanding of the text, whereas in esoteric interpretation an attempt is made to see, usually on subjective bases, meanings hidden behind the words. Sectarian tafsir also exists.

Translations

Owing probably to the view that the Arabic Qur'an is the only true Qur'an, Muslims for a very long time were opposed to translating the Qur'an into other languages. The imperative need to make the scripture accessible to the non-Arab believers in the United States and elsewhere eventually outweighed theological objections or reservations. Today translations of the Qur'an exist in many languages, including English, and new ones keep appearing. Typically, however, they are made by individuals rather than by sponsored committees, and little theoretical work exists to guide the translators or to evaluate their work in light of sound critical principles. Consequently, most translations fall short of the mark, and the beauty and grandeur of the original Arabic greatly suffers in them. Among the translations in common use are those by Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall, Abdullah Yusuf Ali, A. J. Arberry, and Muhammad Asad.

Role in Muslim Life

The Qur'an has made a truly revolutionary impact on the lives of Muslims. From the very beginning it has served as the religious charter and constitution of Muslims, who have tried to engage with it on several levels and in different sets of circumstances. Besides being the basic text for liturgy and serving as a source of inspiration and solace, the Qur'an has provided a strong impetus to cultural and intellectual activity. The rise of all the major Islamic disciplines of knowledge, for example, is directly or indirectly attributable to the Qur'an. Sound knowledge of the Qur'an is a basic qualification for all religious scholarship in Islam, and scholars of the Qur'an earn respect in society. The highly developed Islamic art of calligraphy revolves around the Qur'an: the arches, domes, and walls of mosques are often decorated with beautifully written Qur'anic verses. The equally refined art of Qur'an recitation is exhibited at the highly popular competitions where renowned reciters—both male and female—display skills mastered over the years. Muslims in the West try to maintain contact with the Qur'an. Children are encouraged to complete their first reading of the Qur'an at an early age, and such readings, when completed, are usually celebrated with fanfare. In several states in the United States where there are large Muslim populations—for example, New York, New Jersey, and California—there are boarding schools where, by arrangement with public schools, children memorize the Qur'an under expert guidance while continuing their other education.

Qur'an and Bible

The Qur'an is similar to the Bible in some respects and different in others. The essential theme of the right relationship between God and human beings is central to both, as are the attendant themes of prophecy, salvation, and the moral life. The Qur'an generally accepts the Biblical historical tradition. The Qur'an is different from the Bible in scope and structure: its focus is on the struggle of one man—the Prophet Muhammad—and his followers during a certain, much shorter period to establish Islam in the Arabian Peninsula. In addition, theme rather than chronology is its main organizing principle. Comparative study of the two scriptures—from an objective viewpoint—is a promising but still undeveloped area.

See alsoAllah; Bible; Islam; Mecca.