Magnetic Resonance Imaging

views updated Jun 11 2018

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Definition

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the newest, and perhaps most versatile, medical imaging technology available. Doctors can get highly refined images of the body's interior without surgery, using MRI. By using strong magnets and pulses of radio waves to manipulate the natural magnetic properties in the body, this technique makes better images of organs and soft tissues than those of other scanning technologies. MRI is particularly useful for imaging the brain and spine, as well as the soft tissues of joints and the interior structure of bones. The entire body is visible to the technique, which poses few known health risks.

Purpose

MRI was developed in the 1980s. The latest additions to MRI technology are angiography (MRA) and spectroscopy (MRS). MRA was developed to study blood flow, while MRS can identify the chemical composition of diseased tissue and produce color images of brain function. The many advantages of MRI include:

  • Detail. MRI creates precise images of the body based on the varying proportions of magnetic elements in different tissues. Very minor fluctuations in chemical composition can be determined. MRI images have greater natural contrast than standard x rays, computed tomography scan (CT scan), or ultrasound, all of which depend on the differing physical properties of tissues. This sensitivity lets MRI distinguish fine variations in tissues deep within the body. It also is particularly useful for spotting and distinguishing diseased tissues (tumors and other lesions) early in their development. Often, doctors prescribe an MRI scan to more fully investigate earlier findings of the other imaging techniques.
  • Scope. The entire body can be scanned, from head to toe and from the skin to the deepest recesses of the brain. Moreover, MRI scans are not obstructed by bone, gas, or body waste, which can hinder other imaging techniques. (Although the scans can be degraded by motion such as breathing, heartbeat, and normal bowel activity.) The MRI process produces cross-sectional images of the body that are as sharp in the middle as on the edges, even of the brain through the skull. A close series of these two-dimensional images can provide a three-dimensional view of a targeted area.
  • Safety. MRI does not depend on potentially harmful ionizing radiation, as do standard x-ray and CT scans. There are no known risks specific to the procedure, other than for people who might have metal objects in their bodies.

MRI is being used increasingly during operations, particularly those involving very small structures in the head and neck, as well as for preoperative assessment and planning. Intraoperative MRIs have shown themselves to be safe as well as feasible, and to improve the surgeon's ability to remove the entire tumor or other abnormality.

Given all the advantages, doctors would undoubtedly prescribe MRI as frequently as ultrasound scanning, but the MRI process is complex and costly. The process requires large, expensive, and complicated equipment; a highly trained operator; and a doctor specializing in radiology. Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms and/or negative results from other tests indicate a need. Many times another test is appropriate for the type of diagnosis needed.

Doctors may prescribe an MRI scan of different areas of the body.

  • Brain and head. MRI technology was developed because of the need for brain imaging. It is one of the few imaging tools that can see through bone (the skull) and deliver high quality pictures of the brain's delicate soft tissue structures. MRI may be needed for patients with symptoms of a brain tumor, stroke, or infection (like meningitis ). MRI also may be needed when cognitive and/or psychological symptoms suggest brain disease (like Alzheimer's or Huntington's diseases, or multiple sclerosis ), or when developmental retardation suggests a birth defect. MRI can also provide pictures of the sinuses and other areas of the head beneath the face. Recent refinements in MRI technology may make this form of diagnostic imaging even more useful in evaluating patients with brain cancer, stroke, schizophrenia, or epilepsy. In particular, a new 3-D approach to MRI imaging known as diffusion tensor imaging, or DTI, measures the flow of water within brain tissue, allowing the radiologist to tell where the normal flow of fluid is disrupted, and to distinguish more clearly between cancerous and normal brain tissue. The introduction of DTI has led to a technique known as fiber tracking, which allows the neurosurgeon to tell whether a space-occupying brain tumor has damaged or displaced the nerve pathways in the white matter of the brain. This information in turn improves the surgeon's accuracy during the actual operation.
  • Spine. Spinal problems can create a host of seemingly unrelated symptoms. MRI is particularly useful for identifying and evaluating degenerated or herniated spinal discs. It can also be used to determine the condition of nerve tissue within the spinal cord.
  • Joint. MRI scanning is most commonly used to diagnose and assess joint problems. MRI can provide clear images of the bone, cartilage, ligament, and tendon that comprise a joint. MRI can be used to diagnose joint injuries due to sports, advancing age, or arthritis. MRI can also be used to diagnose shoulder problems, like a torn rotator cuff. MRI can also detect the presence of an otherwise hidden tumor or infection in a joint, and can be used to diagnose the nature of developmental joint abnormalities in children.
  • Skeleton. The properties of MRI that allow it to see through the skull also allow it to view the inside of bones. It can be used to detect bone cancer, inspect the marrow for leukemia and other diseases, assess bone loss (osteoporosis ), and examine complex fractures.
  • The rest of the body. While CT and ultrasound satisfy most chest, abdominal, and general body imaging needs, MRI may be needed in certain circumstances to provide better pictures or when repeated scanning is required. The progress of some therapies, like liver cancer therapy, needs to be monitored, and the effect of repeated x-ray exposure is a concern.

Precautions

MRI scanning should not be used when there is the potential for an interaction between the strong MRI magnet and metal objects that might be imbedded in a patient's body. The force of magnetic attraction on certain types of metal objects (including surgical steel) could move them within the body and cause serious injury. Metal may be imbedded in a person's body for several reasons.

  • Medical. People with implanted cardiac pacemakers, metal aneurysm clips, or who have had broken bones repaired with metal pins, screws, rods, or plates must tell their radiologist prior to having an MRI scan. In some cases (like a metal rod in a reconstructed leg) the difficulty may be overcome.
  • Injury. Patients must tell their doctors if they have bullet fragments or other metal pieces in their body from old wounds. The suspected presence of metal, whether from an old or recent wound, should be confirmed before scanning.
  • Occupational. People with significant work exposure to metal particles (working with a metal grinder, for example) should discuss this with their doctor and radiologist. The patient may need prescan testing-usually a single, regular x ray of the eyes to see if any metal is present.

Chemical agents designed to improve the picture and/or allow for the imaging of blood or other fluid flow during MRA may be injected. In rare cases, patients may be allergic to or intolerant of these agents, and these patients should not receive them. If these chemical agents are to be used, patients should discuss any concerns they have with their doctor and radiologist.

The potential side effects of magnetic and electric fields on human health remain a source of debate. In particular, the possible effects on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

As with all medical imaging techniques, obesity greatly interferes with the quality of MRI.

Description

In essence, MRI produces a map of hydrogen distribution in the body. Hydrogen is the simplest element known, the most abundant in biological tissue, and one that can be magnetized. It will align itself within a strong magnetic field, like the needle of a compass. The earth's magnetic field is not strong enough to keep a person's hydrogen atoms pointing in the same direction, but the superconducting magnet of an MRI machine can. This comprises the "magnetic" part of MRI.

Once a patient's hydrogen atoms have been aligned in the magnet, pulses of very specific radio wave frequencies are used to knock them back out of alignment. The hydrogen atoms alternately absorb and emit radio wave energy, vibrating back and forth between their resting (magnetized) state and their agitated (radio pulse) state. This comprises the "resonance" part of MRI.

The MRI equipment records the duration, strength, and source location of the signals emitted by the atoms as they relax and translates the data into an image on a television monitor. The state of hydrogen in diseased tissue differs from healthy tissue of the same type, making MRI particularly good at identifying tumors and other lesions. In some cases, chemical agents such as gadolinium can be injected to improve the contrast between healthy and diseased tissue.

A single MRI exposure produces a two-dimensional image of a slice through the entire target area. A series of these image slices closely spaced (usually less than half an inch) makes a virtual three-dimensional view of the area.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is different from MRI because MRS uses a continuous band of radio wave frequencies to excite hydrogen atoms in a variety of chemical compounds other than water. These compounds absorb and emit radio energy at characteristic frequencies, or spectra, which can be used to identify them. Generally, a color image is created by assigning a color to each distinctive spectral emission. This comprises the "spectroscopy" part of MRS. MRS is still experimental and is available in only a few research centers.

Doctors primarily use MRS to study the brain and disorders, like epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, brain tumors, and the effects of drugs on brain growth and metabolism. The technique is also useful in evaluating metabolic disorders of the muscles and nervous system.

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is another variation on standard MRI. MRA, like other types of angiography, looks specifically at fluid flow within the blood (vascular) system, but does so without the injection of dyes or radioactive tracers. Standard MRI cannot make a good picture of flowing blood, but MRA uses specific radio pulse sequences to capture usable signals. The technique is generally used in combination with MRI to obtain images that show both vascular structure and flow within the brain and head in cases of stroke, or when a blood clot or aneurysm is suspected.

Regardless of the exact type of MRI planned, or area of the body targeted, the procedure involved is basically the same and occurs in a special MRI suite. The patient lies back on a narrow table and is made as comfortable as possible. Transmitters are positioned on the body and the cushioned table that the patient is lying on moves into a long tube that houses the magnet. The tube is as long as an average adult lying down, and the tube is narrow and open at both ends. Once the area to be examined has been properly positioned, a radio pulse is applied. Then a two-dimensional image corresponding to one slice through the area is made. The table then moves a fraction of an inch and the next image is made. Each image exposure takes several seconds and the entire exam will last anywhere from 30-90 minutes. During this time, the patient is not allowed to move. If the patient moves during the scan, the picture will not be clear.

Depending on the area to be imaged, the radio-wave transmitters will be positioned in different locations.

  • For the head and neck, a helmet-like hat is worn.
  • For the spine, chest, and abdomen, the patient will be lying on the transmitters.
  • For the knee, shoulder, or other joint, the transmitters will be applied directly to the joint.

Additional probes will monitor vital signs (like pulse, respiration, etc.).

The process is very noisy and confining. The patient hears a thumping sound for the duration of the procedure. Since the procedure is noisy, music supplied via earphones is often provided. Some patients get anxious or panic because they are in the small, enclosed tube. This is why vital signs are monitored and the patient and medical team can communicate between each other. If the chest or abdomen are to be imaged, the patient will be asked to hold his/her breath as each exposure is made. Other instructions may be given to the patient, as needed. In many cases, the entire examination will be performed by an MRI operator who is not a doctor. However, the supervising radiologist should be available to consult as necessary during the exam, and will view and interpret the results sometime later.

Preparation

In some cases (such as for MRI brain scanning or an MRA), a chemical designed to increase image contrast may be given by the radiologist immediately before the exam. If a patient suffers from anxiety or claustrophobia, drugs may be given to help the patient relax.

The patient must remove all metal objects (watches, jewelry, eye glasses, hair clips, etc). Any magnetized objects (like credit and bank machine cards, audio tapes, etc.) should be kept far away from the MRI equipment because they can be erased. The patient cannnot bring their wallet or keys into the MRI machine. The patient may be asked to wear clothing without metal snaps, buckles, or zippers, unless a medical gown is worn during the procedure. The patient may be asked to remove any hair spray, hair gel, or cosmetics that may interfere with the scan.

Aftercare

No aftercare is necessary, unless the patient received medication or had a reaction to a contrast agent. Normally, patients can immediately return to their daily activities. If the exam reveals a serious condition that requires more testing and/or treatment, appropriate information and counseling will be needed.

Risks

MRI poses no known health risks to the patient and produces no physical side effects. Again, the potential effects of MRI on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant, should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

Normal results

A normal MRI, MRA, or MRS result is one that shows the patient's physical condition to fall within normal ranges for the target area scanned.

Abnormal results

Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms and/or negative results from other tests indicate a need. There often exists strong evidence of a condition that the scan is designed to detect and assess. Thus, the results will often be abnormal, confirming the earlier diagnosis. At that point, further testing and appropriate medical treatment is needed. For example, if the MRI indicates the presence of a brain tumor, an MRS may be prescribed to determine the type of tumor so that aggressive treatment can begin immediately without the need for a surgical biopsy.

KEY TERMS

Angiography Any of the different methods for investigating the condition of blood vessels, usually via a combination of radiological imaging and injections of chemical tracing and contrasting agents.

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) A refinement of magnetic resonance imaging that allows the doctor to measure the flow of water and track the pathways of white matter in the brain. DTI is able to detect abnormalities in the brain that do not show up on standard MRI scans.

Gadolinium A very rare metallic element useful for its sensitivity to electromagnetic resonance, among other things. Traces of it can be injected into the body to enhance the MRI pictures.

Hydrogen The simplest, most common element known in the universe. It is composed of a single electron (negatively charged particle) circling a nucleus consisting of a single proton (positively charged particle). It is the nuclear proton of hydrogen that makes MRI possible by reacting resonantly to radio waves while aligned in a magnetic field.

Ionizing radiation Electromagnetic radiation that can damage living tissue by disrupting and destroying individual cells. All types of nuclear decay radiation (including x rays) are potentially ionizing. Radio waves do not damage organic tissues they pass through.

Magnetic field The three-dimensional area surrounding a magnet, in which its force is active. During MRI, the patient's body is permeated by the force field of a superconducting magnet.

Radio waves Electromagnetic energy of the frequency range corresponding to that used in radio communications, usually 10,000 cycles per second to 300 billion cycles per second. Radio waves are the same as visible light, x rays, and all other types of electromagnetic radiation, but are of a higher frequency.

Resources

PERIODICALS

Clark, C. A., T. R. Barrick, M. M. Murphy, and B. A. Bell. "White Matter Fiber Tracking in Patients with Space-Occupying Lesions of the Brain: A New Technique for Neurosurgical Planning?" Neuroimage 20 (November 2003): 1601-1608.

Hendler, T., P. Pianka, M. Sigal, et al. "Delineating Gray and White Matter Involvement in Brain Lesions: Three-dimensional Alignment of Functional Magnetic Resonance and Diffusion-Tensor Imaging." Journal of Neurosurgery 99 (December 2003): 1018-1027.

Kubicki, M., C. F. Westin, P. G. Nestor, et al. "Cingulate Fasciculus Integrity Disruption in Schizophrenia: A Magnetic Resonance Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study." Biological Psychiatry 54 (December 1, 2003): 1171-1180.

Mahmoud-Ghoneim, D., G. Toussaint, J. M. Constans, and J. D. de Certaines. "Three-Dimensional Texture Analysis in MRI: A Preliminary Evaluation in Gliomas." Magnetic Resonance Imaging 21 (November 2003): 983-987.

Rees, J. "Advances in Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Brain Tumours." Current Opinion in Neurology 16 (December 2003): 643-650.

Satoh, T., K. Onoda, and S. Tsuchimoto. "Intraoperative Evaluation of Aneurysmal Architecture: Comparative Study with Transluminal Images of 3D MR and CT Angiograms." American Journal of Neuroradiology 24 (November-December 2003): 1975-1981.

ORGANIZATIONS

American College of Radiology. 1891 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 22091. (800) 227-5463. http://www.acr.org.

American Society of Radiologic Technologists. 15000 Central Ave. SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. (505) 298-4500. http://www.asrt.org.

Center for Devices and Radiological Health. United States Food and Drug Administration. 1901 Chapman Ave., Rockville, MD 20857. (301) 443-4109. http://www.fda.gov/cdrh.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

views updated Jun 27 2018

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Definition
Purpose
Precautions
Description
Preparation
Aftercare
Risks
Normal results
Abnormal results
Morbidity and mortality rates
Alternatives Resources
Precautions
Side effects

Definition

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the newest, and perhaps most versatile, medical imaging technology available. Doctors can get highly refined images of the body’s interior without surgery, using MRI. By using strong magnets and pulses of radio waves to manipulate the natural magnetic properties in the body, this technique makes better images of organs and soft tissues than those of other scanning technologies. MRI is particularly

useful for imaging the brain and spine, as well as the soft tissues of joints and the interior structure of bones. The entire body is visible to the technique, which poses few known health risks.

Purpose

MRI was developed in the 1980s. The latest additions to MRI technology are angiography (MRA) and spectroscopy (MRS). MRA was developed to study blood flow, while MRS can identify the chemical composition of diseased tissue and produce color images of brain function. The many advantages of MRI include:

  • Detail. MRI creates precise images of the body based on the varying proportions of magnetic elements in different tissues. Very minor fluctuations in chemical composition can be determined. MRI images have greater natural contrast than standard x rays, computed tomography scan (CT scan), or ultrasound, all of which depend on the differing physical properties of tissues. This sensitivity lets MRI distinguish fine variations in tissues deep within the body. It also is particularly useful for spotting and distinguishing diseased tissues (tumors and other lesions) early in their development. Often, doctors prescribe an MRI scan to more fully investigate earlier findings of the other imaging techniques.
  • Scope. The entire body can be scanned, from head to toe and from the skin to the deepest recesses of the brain. Moreover, MRI scans are not obstructed by bone, gas, or body waste, which can hinder other imaging techniques. (Although the scans can be degraded by motion such as breathing, heartbeat, and normal bowel activity.) The MRI process produces cross-sectional images of the body that are as sharp in the middle as on the edges, even of the brain through the skull. A close series of these two-dimensional images can provide a three-dimensional view of a targeted area.
  • Safety. MRI does not depend on potentially harmful ionizing radiation, as do standard x-ray and CT scans. There are no known risks specific to the procedure, other than for people who might have metal objects in their bodies.

MRI is being used increasingly during operations, particularly those involving very small structures in the head and neck, as well as for preoperative assessment and planning. Intraoperative MRIs have shown themselves to be safe as well as feasible, and to improve the surgeon’s ability to remove the entire tumor or other abnormality.

Given all the advantages, doctors would undoubtedly prescribe MRI as frequently as ultrasound scanning, but the MRI process is complex and costly. The process requires large, expensive, and complicated equipment; a highly trained operator; and a doctor specializing in radiology. Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms and/or negative results from other tests indicate a need. Many times another test is appropriate for the type of diagnosis needed.

Doctors may prescribe an MRI scan of different areas of the body.

  • Brain and head. MRI technology was developed because of the need for brain imaging. It is one of the few imaging tools that can see through bone (the skull) and deliver high quality pictures of the brain’s delicate soft tissue structures. MRI may be needed for patients with symptoms of a brain tumor, stroke, or infection (like meningitis). MRI also may be needed when cognitive and/or psychological symptoms suggest brain disease (like Alzheimer’s or Huntington’s diseases, or multiple sclerosis), or when developmental retardation suggests a birth defect. MRI can also provide pictures of the sinuses and other areas of the head beneath the face. Recent refinements in MRI technology may make this form of diagnostic imaging even more useful in evaluating patients with brain cancer, stroke, schizophrenia, or epilepsy. In particular, a new 3-D approach to MRI imaging known as diffusion tensor imaging, or DTI, measures the flow of water within brain tissue, allowing the radiologist to tell where the normal flow of fluid is disrupted, and to distinguish more clearly between cancerous and normal brain tissue. The introduction of DTI has led to a technique known as fiber tracking, which allows the neurosurgeon to tell whether a space-occupying brain tumor has damaged or displaced the nerve pathways in the white matter of the brain. This information in turn improves the surgeon’s accuracy during the actual operation.
  • Spine. Spinal problems can create a host of seemingly unrelated symptoms. MRI is particularly useful for identifying and evaluating degenerated or herniated spinal discs. It can also be used to determine the condition of nerve tissue within the spinal cord.
  • Joint. MRI scanning is most commonly used to diagnose and assess joint problems. MRI can provide clear images of the bone, cartilage, ligament, and tendon that comprise a joint. MRI can be used to diagnose joint injuries due to sports, advancing age, or arthritis. MRI can also be used to diagnose shoulder problems, like a torn rotator cuff. MRI can also detect the presence of an otherwise hidden tumor or infection in a joint, and can be used to diagnose the nature of developmental joint abnormalities in children.
  • Skeleton. The properties of MRI that allow it to see through the skull also allow it to view the inside of bones. It can be used to detect bone cancer, inspect the marrow for leukemia and other diseases, assess bone loss (osteoporosis), and examine complex fractures.
  • The rest of the body. While CT and ultrasound satisfy most chest, abdominal, and general body imaging needs, MRI may be needed in certain circumstances to provide better pictures or when repeated scanning is required. The progress of some therapies, like liver cancer therapy, needs to be monitored, and the effect of repeated x-ray exposure is a concern.

Precautions

MRI scanning should not be used when there is the potential for an interaction between the strong MRI magnet and metal objects that might be imbedded in a patient’s body. The force of magnetic attraction on certain types of metal objects (including surgical steel) could move them within the body and cause serious injury. Metal may be imbedded in a person’s body for several reasons.

  • Medical. People with implanted cardiac pacemakers, metal aneurysm clips, or who have had broken bones repaired with metal pins, screws, rods, or plates must tell their radiologist prior to having an MRI scan. In some cases (like a metal rod in a reconstructed leg) the difficulty may be overcome.
  • Injury. Patients must tell their doctors if they have bullet fragments or other metal pieces in their body from old wounds. The suspected presence of metal, whether from an old or recent wound, should be confirmed before scanning.
  • Occupational. People with significant work exposure to metal particles (working with a metal grinder, for example) should discuss this with their doctor and radiologist. The patient may need pre-scan testing—usually a single, regular x ray of the eyes to see if any metal is present.

Chemical agents designed to improve the picture and/or allow for the imaging of blood or other fluid flow during MRA may be injected. In rare cases, patients may be allergic to or intolerant of these agents, and these patients should not receive them. If these chemical agents are to be used, patients should discuss any concerns they have with their doctor and radiologist.

The potential side effects of magnetic and electric fields on human health remain a source of debate. In particular, the possible effects on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

As with all medical imaging techniques, obesity greatly interferes with the quality of MRI.

Description

In essence, MRI produces a map of hydrogen distribution in the body. Hydrogen is the simplest element known, the most abundant in biological tissue, and one that can be magnetized. It will align itself within a strong magnetic field, like the needle of a compass. The earth’s magnetic field is not strong enough to keep a person’s hydrogen atoms pointing in the same direction, but the superconducting magnet of an MRI machine can. This comprises the “magnetic” part of MRI.

Once a patient’s hydrogen atoms have been aligned in the magnet, pulses of very specific radio wave frequencies are used to knock them back out of alignment. The hydrogen atoms alternately absorb and emit radio wave energy, vibrating back and forth between their resting (magnetized) state and their agitated (radio pulse) state. This comprises the “resonance” part of MRI.

The MRI equipment records the duration, strength, and source location of the signals emitted by the atoms as they relax and translates the data into an image on a television monitor. The state of hydrogen in diseased tissue differs from healthy tissue of the same type, making MRI particularly good at identifying tumors and other lesions. In some cases, chemical agents such as gadolinium can be injected to improve the contrast between healthy and diseased tissue.

A single MRI exposure produces a two-dimensional image of a slice through the entire target area. A series of these image slices closely spaced (usually less than half an inch) makes a virtual three-dimensional view of the area.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is different from MRI because MRS uses a continuous band of radio wave frequencies to excite hydrogen atoms in a variety of chemical compounds other than water. These compounds absorb and emit radio energy at characteristic frequencies, or spectra, which can be used to identify them. Generally, a color image is created by assigning a color to each distinctive spectral emission. This comprises the “spectroscopy” part of MRS. MRS is still experimental and is available in only a few research centers.

Doctors primarily use MRS to study the brain and disorders, like epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, brain tumors, and the effects of drugs on brain growth and metabolism. The technique is also useful in evaluating metabolic disorders of the muscles and nervous system.

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is another variation on standard MRI. MRA, like other types of angiography, looks specifically at fluid flow within the blood (vascular) system, but does so without the injection of dyes or radioactive tracers. Standard MRI cannot make a good picture of flowing blood, but MRA uses specific radio pulse sequences to capture usable signals. The technique is generally used in combination with MRI to obtain images that show both vascular structure and flow within the brain and head in cases of stroke, or when a blood clot or aneurysm is suspected.

Regardless of the exact type of MRI planned, or area of the body targeted, the procedure involved is basically the same and occurs in a special MRI suite. The patient lies back on a narrow table and is made as comfortable as possible. Transmitters are positioned on the body and the cushioned table that the patient is lying on moves into a long tube that houses the magnet. The tube is as long as an average adult lying down, and the tube is narrow and open at both ends. Once the area to be examined has been properly positioned, a radio pulse is applied. Then a two-dimensional image corresponding to one slice through the area is made. The table then moves a fraction of an inch and the next image is made. Each image exposure takes several seconds and the entire exam will last anywhere from 30-90 minutes. During this time, the patient is not allowed to move. If the patient moves during the scan, the picture will not be clear.

Depending on the area to be imaged, the radio-wave transmitters will be positioned in different locations.

  • For the head and neck, a helmet-like hat is worn.
  • For the spine, chest, and abdomen, the patient will be lying on the transmitters.
  • For the knee, shoulder, or other joint, the transmitters will be applied directly to the joint.

Additional probes will monitor vital signs (like pulse, respiration, etc.).

The process is very noisy and confining. The patient hears a thumping sound for the duration of the procedure. Since the procedure is noisy, music supplied via earphones is often provided. Some patients get anxious or panic because they are in the small, enclosed tube. This is why vital signs are monitored and the patient and medical team can communicate between each other. If the chest or abdomen are to be imaged, the patient will be asked to hold his/her breath as each exposure is made. Other instructions may be given to the patient, as needed. In many cases, the entire examination will be performed by an MRI operator who is not a doctor. However, the supervising radiologist should be available to consult as necessary during the exam, and will view and interpret the results sometime later.

Preparation

In some cases (such as for MRI brain scanning or an MRA), a chemical designed to increase image contrast may be given by the radiologist immediately before the exam. If a patient suffers from anxiety or claustrophobia, drugs may be given to help the patient relax.

The patient must remove all metal objects (watches, jewelry, eye glasses, hair clips, etc). Any magnetized objects (like credit and bank machine cards, audio tapes, etc.) should be kept far away from the MRI equipment because they can be erased. Patients cannot bring their wallet or keys into the MRI machine. The patient may be asked to wear clothing without metal snaps, buckles, or zippers, unless a medical gown is worn during the procedure. The patient may be asked to remove any hair spray, hair gel, or cosmetics that may interfere with the scan.

Aftercare

No aftercare is necessary, unless the patient received medication or had a reaction to a contrast agent. Normally, patients can immediately return to their daily activities. If the exam reveals a serious condition that requires more testing and/or treatment, appropriate information and counseling will be needed.

Risks

MRI poses no known health risks to the patient and produces no physical side effects. Again, the potential effects of MRI on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant,

KEY TERMS

Angiography— Any of the different methods for investigating the condition of blood vessels, usually via a combination of radiological imaging and injections of chemical tracing and contrasting agents.

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)— A refinement of magnetic resonance imaging that allows the doctor to measure the flow of water and track the pathways of white matter in the brain. DTI is able to detect abnormalities in the brain that do not show up on standard MRI scans.

Gadolinium— A very rare metallic element useful for its sensitivity to electromagnetic resonance, among other things. Traces of it can be injected into the body to enhance the MRI pictures.

Hydrogen— The simplest, most common element known in the universe. It is composed of a single electron (negatively charged particle) circling a nucleus consisting of a single proton (positively charged particle). It is the nuclear proton of hydrogen that makes MRI possible by reacting resonantly to radio waves while aligned in a magnetic field.

Ionizing radiation— Electromagnetic radiation that can damage living tissue by disrupting and destroying individual cells. All types of nuclear decay radiation (including x rays) are potentially ionizing. Radio waves do not damage organic tissues they pass through.

Magnetic field— The three-dimensional area surrounding a magnet, in which its force is active. During MRI, the patient’s body is permeated by the force field of a superconducting magnet.

Radio waves Electromagnetic energy of the frequency range corresponding to that used in radio communications, usually 10,000 cycles per second to 300 billion cycles per second. Radio waves are the same as visible light, x rays, and all other types of electromagnetic radiation, but are of a higher frequency.

should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

Normal results

A normal MRI, MRA, or MRS result is one that shows the patient’s physical condition to fall within normal ranges for the target area scanned.

Abnormal results

Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms and/or negative results from other tests indicate a need. There often exists strong evidence of a condition that the scan is designed to detect and assess. Thus, the results will often be abnormal, confirming the earlier diagnosis. At that point, further testing and appropriate medical treatment is needed. For example, if the MRI indicates the presence of a brain tumor, an MRS may be prescribed to determine the type of tumor so that aggressive treatment can begin immediately without the need for a surgical biopsy.

Morbidity and mortality rates

Morbidity rates are excessively miniscule. The most common problems are minor bleeding and bruising at the site of contrast injection. Since neither are reportable events, morbidity can only be estimated. Occasionally, an unknown allergy to seafood is discovered after injecting contrast. No deaths have been reported from MRI tests.

Alternatives Resources

Alternative resources include traditional x-rays and computed axial tomography (CT) scans.

Precautions

The main precaution needed is to clean the venipuncture site with alcohol before injecting contrast. Persons with claustrophobia should be given adequate medication to sedate them.

Side effects

The most common side effects of MRI are mild feelings of discomfort due to being enclosed during the test.

Resources

BOOKS

Culbreth, L. J., and C. Watson. Magnetic Resonance Imaging Technology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Kastler, B. Understanding MRI. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2008.

McRobbie, D. W., E. A. Moore, M. J. Graves, and M. R. Prince. MRI from Picture to Proton. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Weishaupt, D., V. D. Koechli, and B. Marincek. How does MRI work?: An Introduction to the Physics and Function of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2008.

PERIODICALS

Hara, H., T. Akisue, T. Fujimoto et al. “Magnetic resonance imaging of medullary bone infarction in the early stage.” Clinical Imaging 32, no. 2 (2008): 147–151.

Rumboldt, Z. “Imaging of topographic viral CNS infections.” Neuroimaging Clinics of North America 18, no. 1 (2002): 85–92.

Wada, R., and W. Kucharczyk. “Prion infections of the brain.” Neuroimaging Clinics of North America 18, no. 1 (2008): 183–191.

Zhao, W., J. H. Choi, G. R. Hon, and M. A. Vannan. “Left ventricular relaxation.” Heart Failure Clinics 4, no. 1 (2008): 37–46.

ORGANIZATIONS

American College of Radiology. 1891 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 22091. (800) 227-5463. http://www.acr.org.

American Society of Radiologic Technologists. 15000 Central Ave. SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. (505) 298-4500. http://www.asrt.org.

Center for Devices and Radiological Health. United States Food and Drug Administration. 1901 Chapman Ave., Rockville, MD 20857. (301) 443-4109. http://www.fda.gov/cdrh.

OTHER

How Stuff Works. Information about MRI imaging. 2008 [cited February 24, 2008]. http://www.howstuffworks.com/mri.htm.

International Society for Magnetic Imaging in Medicine. Information about MRI tests. 2008 [cited February 25, 2008]. http://www.ismrm.org/.

National Library of Medicine. Information about MRI imaging. 2008 [cited February 24, 2008]. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003335.htm.

Radiology Info. Information about MRI imaging. 2008 [cited February 22, 2008]. http://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info.cfm?pg=bodymr&bhcp=1.

Kurt Richard Sternlof

L. Fleming Fallon, Jr, MD, DrPH

Rosalyn Carson-DeWitt, MD

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy seeMagnetic resonance imaging

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

views updated May 14 2018

Magnetic resonance imaging

Definition

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a unique and versatile medical imaging modality. Doctors can obtain highly refined images of the body's interior using MRI. By using strong magnetic fields and pulses of radio waves to manipulate the natural magnetic properties in the body, this technique produces images not possible with other diagnostic imaging methods. MRI is particularly useful for imaging the brain and spine, as well as the soft tissues of joints and the interior structure of bones. The entire body can be imaged using MRI, and the technology poses few known health risks.

Purpose

MRI was developed in the 1980s. The latest additions to MRI technology are angiography (MRA) and spectroscopy (MRS). MRA was developed to study blood flow, while MRS can identify the chemical composition of diseased tissue and produce color images of brain function. The many advantages of MRI include:

  • Detail. MRI creates precise images of the body based on the varying proportions of magnetically polarizable elements in different tissues. Very minor fluctuations in chemical composition can be determined. MRI images have greater subject contrast than those produced with standard x rays, computed tomography (CT), or ultra-sound, all of which depend on the differing physical properties of tissues. This contrast sensitivity lets MRI distinguish fine variations in tissues deep within the body. It also is particularly useful for spotting and distinguishing diseased tissues (tumors and other lesions) early in their development. Often, doctors prescribe an MRI scan to more fully investigate earlier findings of the other imaging techniques.
  • Scope. The entire body can be scanned, from head to toe and from the skin to the deepest recesses of the brain. Moreover, MRI scans are not adversely affected by bone, gas, or body waste, which can hinder other imaging techniques. (Although the scans can be degraded by motion such as breathing, heartbeat, and normal bowel activity.) MRI process produces cross-sectional images of the body that are as sharp in the middle as on the edges, even of the brain through the skull . A close series of these two-dimensional images can provide a three-dimensional view of a targeted area.
  • Safety. MRI does not depend on potentially harmful ionizing radiation, as do standard x-ray and CT scans . There are no known risks specific to the procedure, other than for people who might have metal objects in their bodies.

Given all the advantages, doctors would undoubtedly prescribe MRI as frequently as ultrasound scanning, but the MRI process is complex and costly. The process requires large, expensive, and complicated equipment; a highly trained operator; and a doctor specializing in radiology. Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms and/or negative results from other tests indicate a need. Many times an alternative imaging procedure is more appropriate for the type of diagnosis needed.

Doctors may prescribe an MRI scan of different areas of the body.

  • Brain and head. MRI technology was developed because of the need for brain imaging. It is one of the few imaging tools that can see through bone (the skull) and deliver high quality pictures of the brain's delicate soft tissue structures. MRI may be needed for patients with symptoms of a brain tumor , stroke, or infection (like meningitis ). MRI also may be needed when cognitive and/or psychological symptoms suggest brain disease (like Alzheimer's or Huntington's diseases, or multiple sclerosis ), or when developmental retardation suggests a birth defect. MRI can also provide pictures of the sinuses and other areas of the head beneath the face.
  • Spine. Spinal problems can create a host of seemingly unrelated symptoms. MRI is particularly useful for identifying and evaluating degenerated or herniated intervertebral discs. It can also be used to determine the condition of nerve tissue within the spinal cord .
  • Joint. MRI scanning is often used to diagnose and assess joint problems. MRI can provide clear images of the bone, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons that comprise a joint. MRI can be used to diagnose joint injuries due to sports, advancing age, or arthritis. It can also be used to diagnose shoulder problems, like a torn rotator cuff. MRI can detect the presence of an otherwise hidden tumor or infection in a joint, and can be used to diagnose the nature of developmental joint abnormalities in children.
  • Skeleton. The properties of MRI that allow it to see though the skull also allow it to view the interior of bones. It can be used to detect bone cancer , inspect the marrow for leukemia and other diseases, assess bone loss (osteoporosis ), and examine complex fractures .
  • The rest of the body. While CT and ultrasound satisfy most chest, abdominal, and general body imaging needs, MRI may be needed in certain circumstances to provide more detailed images or when repeated scanning is required. The progress of some therapies, like liver cancer therapy, need to be monitored, and the effect of repeated x-ray exposure is a concern.

Precautions

MRI scanning should not be used when there is the potential for an interaction between the strong MRI magnetic

field and metal objects that might be imbedded in a patient's body. The force of magnetic attraction on certain types of metal objects (including surgical steel and clips used to pinch off blood vessels ) could move them within the body and cause serious injury. The movement would occur when the patient is moved into and out of the magnetic field. Metal may be imbedded in a person's body for several reasons.

  • Medical. People with implanted cardiac pacemakers , metal aneurysm clips, or who have had broken bones repaired with metal pins, screws, rods, or plates must tell their radiologist prior to having an MRI scan. In some cases (like a metal rod in a reconstructed leg) the difficulty may be overcome.
  • Injury. Patients must tell their doctors if they have bullet fragments or other metal pieces in their body from old wounds . The suspected presence of metal, whether from an old or recent wound, should be confirmed before scanning.
  • Occupational. People with significant work exposure to metal particles (working with a metal grinder, for example) should discuss this with their doctor and radiologist. The patient may need prescan testing—usually a single, standard x ray of the eyes to see if any metal is present.

Chemical agents designed to improve the image and/or allow for the imaging of blood or other fluid flow during MRA may be injected. In rare cases, patients may be allergic to or intolerant of these agents, and these patients should not receive them. If these chemical agents are to be used, patients should discuss any concerns they have with their doctor and radiologist.

The potential side effects of magnetic and electric fields on human health remain a source of debate. In particular, the possible effects on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

As with all medical imaging techniques, obesity greatly interferes with the quality of MRI.

Description

In essence, MRI produces a map of hydrogen atoms distributed in the body. Hydrogen is the simplest element known, the most abundant in biological tissue, and one that can be magnetically polarized. It will align itself within a strong magnetic field, like the needle of a compass. The earth's magnetic field is not strong enough to polarize a person's hydrogen atoms, but the superconducting magnet of an MRI machine can. The strength of the Earth's magnetic field is approximately 1 gauss. Typical field strength of an MRI unit, with a superconducting magnet is 1,500 gauss expressed as 1.5 kilogauss or 1.5 Tesla units. This comprises the "magnetic" part of MRI.

Once a patient's hydrogen atoms have been aligned in the magnet, pulses of very specific radio wave frequencies are used to jolt them out of alignment. The hydrogen atoms alternately absorb and emit radio wave energy, vibrating back and forth between their resting (polarized) state and their agitated (radio pulse) state. This comprises the "resonance" part of MRI.

The MRI equipment detects the duration, strength, and source location of the signals emitted by the atoms as they relax and translates the data into an image on a television monitor. The amount of hydrogen in diseased tissue differs from the amount in healthy tissue of the same type, making MRI particularly good at identifying tumors and other lesions. In some cases, chemical agents such as gadolinium can be injected to improve the contrast between healthy and diseased tissue.

A single MRI exposure produces a two-dimensional image of a slice through the entire target area. A series of these image slices closely spaced (usually less than half an inch) makes a virtual three-dimensional view of the area.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is different from MRI because MRS uses a continuous band of radio wave frequencies to excite hydrogen atoms in a variety of chemical compounds other than water. These compounds absorb and emit radio energy at characteristic frequencies, or spectra, which can be used to identify them. Generally, a color image is created by assigning a color to each distinctive spectral emission. This comprises the "spectroscopy" part of MRS. MRS is still experimental and is available in only a few research centers.

Doctors primarily use MRS to study the brain and disorders, like epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease , brain tumors, and the effects of drugs on brain growth and metabolism . The technique is also useful in evaluating metabolic disorders of the muscles and nervous system.

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is a variation on standard MRI. MRA, like other types of angiography, looks specifically at blood flow within vascular system, but does so without the injection of contrast agents or radioactive tracers. Standard MRI cannot detect blood flow, but MRA uses specific radio pulse sequences to capture usable signals. The technique is generally used in combination with MRI to obtain images that show both vascular structure and flow within the brain and head in cases of stroke, or when a blood clot or aneurysm is suspected.

Regardless of the exact type of MRI planned, or area of the body targeted, the procedure involved is basically the same and occurs in a special MRI suite. The patient lies back on a narrow table and is made as comfortable as possible. Transmitters are positioned on the body and the cushioned table that the patient is lying on moves into a long tube that houses the magnet. The tube is as long as an average adult lying down, and the tube is narrow and open at both ends. Once the area to be examined has been properly positioned, a radio pulse is applied. Then a twodimensional image corresponding to one slice through the area is made. The table then moves a fraction of an inch and the next image is made. Each image exposure takes several seconds and the entire exam will last anywhere from 30-90 minutes. During this time, the patient is not allowed to move. If the patient moves during the scan, the picture will not be clear.

Depending on the area to be imaged, the radio-wave transmitters will be positioned in different locations.

  • For the head and neck, a helmet-like hat is worn.
  • For the spine, chest, and abdomen, the patient will be lying on the transmitters.
  • For the knee, shoulder, or other joint, the transmitters will be applied directly to the joint.

Additional probes will monitor vital signs (like pulse, respiration, etc.).

The process is very noisy and confining. The patient hears a thumping sound for the duration of the procedure. Since the procedure is noisy, music supplied via earphones is often provided. Some patients get anxious or panic because they are in the small, enclosed tube. This is why vital signs are monitored and the patient and medical team can communicate between each other. If the chest or abdomen are to be imaged, the patient will be asked to hold his/her breath as each exposure is made. Other instructions may be given to the patient, as needed. In many cases, the entire examination will be performed by an MRI operator who is not a doctor. However, the supervising radiologist should be available to consult as necessary during the exam, and will view and interpret the results sometime later.

Open MRI units

Many adult patients and, especially children, become extremely claustrophobic when placed inside the confines of a full strength (1.5 Tesla) superconducting


KEY TERMS


Angiography —Any of the different methods for investigating the condition of blood vessels, usually via a combination of radiological imaging and injections of chemical tracing and contrasting agents.

Gadolinium —A very rare metallic element useful for its sensitivity to electromagnetic resonance, among other things. Traces of it can be injected into the body to enhance the MRI pictures.

Hydrogen —The simplest, most common element known in the universe. It is composed of a single electron (negatively charged particle) circling a nucleus consisting of a single proton (positively charged particle). It is the nuclear proton of hydrogen that makes MRI possible by reacting resonantly to radio waves while aligned in a magnetic field.

Ionizing radiation —Electromagnetic radiation that can damage living tissue by disrupting and destroying individual cells. All types of nuclear decay radiation (including x rays) are potentially ionizing. Radio waves do not damage organic tissues they pass through.

Magnetic field —The three-dimensional area surrounding a magnet, in which its force is active. During MRI, the patient's body is permeated by the force field of a superconducting magnet.

Radio waves —Electromagnetic energy of the frequency range corresponding to that used in radio communications, usually 10,000 cycles per second to 300 billion cycles per second. Radio waves are the same as visible light, x rays, and all other types of electromagnetic radiation, but are of a higher frequency.


magnet. This problem is often severe enough to prevent them from having an MRI scan performed. An alternative design, to the standard MRI unit is one where the magnet is comprised of two opposed halves with a large space in between. Units designed this way are known as open MRI machines. The advantage is, they can be used for patients who are claustrophobic. The disadvantage is, the field strength of the magnets is lower than with standard full strength machines, usually somewhere in the range of 0.2–0.5 Tesla. Lower strength magnetic fields require more time for image acquisition increasing the risks of motion artifacts because patients need to remain still for longer periods of time.

Preparation

In some cases (such as for MRI brain scanning or an MRA), a chemical designed to increase image contrast may be given by the radiologist immediately before the exam. If a patient suffers from anxiety or claustrophobia, drugs may be given to help the patient relax.

The patient must remove all metal objects (watches, jewelry, eye glasses , hair clips, etc). Any magnetized objects (like credit and bank machine cards, audio tapes, etc.) should be kept far away from the MRI equipment because they can be erased. The patient cannnot bring their wallet or keys into the MRI machine. The patient may be asked to wear clothing without metal snaps, buckles, or zippers, unless a medical gown is worn during the procedure. The patient may be asked to remove any hair spray, hair gel, or cosmetics that may interfere with the scan.

Aftercare

No aftercare is necessary, unless the patient received medication or had a reaction to a contrast agent. Normally, patients can immediately return to their daily activities. If the exam reveals a serious condition that requires more testing and/or treatment, appropriate information and counseling will be needed.

Complications

MRI poses no known health risks to the patient and produces no physical side effects. Again, the potential effects of MRI on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant, should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

Results

A normal MRI, MRA, or MRS result is one that shows the patient's physical condition to fall within normal ranges for the target area scanned.

Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms and/or negative results from other tests indicate a need. There often exists strong evidence of a condition that the scan is designed to detect and assess. Thus, the results will often be abnormal, confirming the earlier diagnosis. At that point, further testing and appropriate medical treatment is needed. For example, if the MRI indicates the presence of a brain tumor, an MRS may be prescribed to determine the type of tumor so that aggressive treatment can begin immediately without the need for a surgical biopsy.

Health care team roles

The MRI examination is conducted by an MRI technologist and a radiologist. The MRI technologist is responsible for preparing the patient for the examination by making sure that all metallic objects have been removed and that the patient does not have any metallic implants that will be affected by the examination. It is recommended that a prescreening MRI questionnaire be developed and that all patients be required to complete the form prior to having an MRI. If necessary for the area being imaged, an intravenous contrast agent will be administered by either the technologist or a nurse. Nursing staff may also be present during the examination, depending on the medical condition of the patient. The radiologist oversees the selection of MRI imaging sequences and protocols and reviews the acquired images to be sure image quality is appropriate for diagnosis. The radiologist also provides the final interpretation of images and provides a report for any referring physicians.

Resources

BOOKS

Haaga, John R., et al., eds. Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Whole Body. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1994.

Kevles, Bettyann Holtzmann. Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997.

Zaret, Barry L., et al., eds. The Patient's Guide to Medical Tests. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997.

PERIODICALS

The Basics of MRI. Joseph P. Hornak, Ph.D., http//www.cis.rit.edu/htbooks/mri/.

Brief Introduction to FMRI. Copyright 1998, Steve Smith, FMRIB, <http://www.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fmri_intro/>.

Kevles, Bettyann. "Body Imaging." Newsweek (Winter 97/98 Extra Millennium Issue): 74-76.

ORGANIZATIONS

American College of Radiology. 1891 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 22091. (703) 648-8900. <http://www.acr.org.>.

American Society of Radiologic Technologists. 15000 Central Ave. SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. (505) 298-4500. <http://www.asrt.org>.

Center for Devices and Radiological Health. United States Food and Drug Administration. 1901 Chapman Ave., Rockville, MD 20857. (301) 443-4109. <http://www.fda.gov/cdrh>.

Stephen John Hage, AAAS, RT-R, FAHRA

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

views updated May 23 2018

Magnetic resonance imaging

Definition

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one of the newest, and perhaps most versatile, medical imaging technology available. Doctors can get highly refined images of the body's interior without surgery using MRI. By using strong magnets and pulses of radio waves to manipulate the natural magnetic properties in the body, this technique makes better images of organs and soft tissues than those of other brain scanning technologies. MRI is particularly useful for imaging the brain and spine, as well as the soft tissues of joints and the interior structure of bones, as well as the liver. The entire body is visible with MRI, and the technique poses few known health risks.

Purpose

MRI was developed in the 1980s. Its technology has been developed for use in magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), and, more recently, magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP). MRA was developed to study blood flow, whereas MRS can identify the chemical composition of diseased tissue and produce color images of brain function. MRCP is evolving into a potential noninvasive alternative for the diagnostic procedure endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP).

Advantages

DETAIL. MRI creates precise images of the body based on the varying proportions of magnetic elements in different tissues. Very minor fluctuations in chemical composition can be determined. MRI images have greater natural contrast than standard x rays, computed tomography scan (CT scan), or ultrasound, all of which depend on the differing physical properties of tissues. This sensitivity allows MRI to distinguish fine variations in tissues deep within the body. It is also particularly useful for spotting and distinguishing diseased tissues (tumors and other lesions) early in their development. Often, doctors prescribe an MRI scan to more fully investigate earlier findings of other imaging techniques.

SCOPE.

The entire body can be scanned, from head to toe and from the skin to the deepest recesses of the brain. Moreover, MRI scans are not obstructed by bone, gas, or body waste, which can hinder other imaging techniques. (Although the scans can be degraded by motion such as breathing, heartbeat, and bowel activity.) The MRI process produces cross-sectional images of the body that are as sharp in the middle as on the edges, even of the brain through the skull. A close series of these two-dimensional images can provide a three-dimensional view of the targeted area. Along with images from the cross-sectional plane, the MRI can also provide images sagitally (from one side of the body to the other, from left to right for example), allowing for a better three-dimensional interpretation, which is sometimes very important for planning a surgical approach.

SAFETY.

MRI does not depend on potentially harmful ionizing radiation, as do standard x ray and computer tomography scans. There are no known risks specific to the procedure, other than for people who might have metal objects in their bodies.

Despite its many advantages, MRI is not routinely used because it is a somewhat complex and costly procedure. MRI requires large, expensive, and complicated equipment; a highly trained operator; and a doctor specializing in radiology. Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms or negative results from other tests indicate a need. Many times another test is appropriate for the type of diagnosis needed.

Uses

Doctors may prescribe an MRI scan of different areas of the body.

BRAIN AND HEAD.

MRI technology was developed because of the need for brain imaging. It is one of the few imaging tools that can see through bone (the skull) and deliver high quality pictures of the brain's delicate soft tissue structures. MRI may be needed for patients with symptoms of a brain tumor, stroke, or infection (like meningitis). MRI may also be needed when cognitive or psychological symptoms suggest brain disease (like Alzheimer's or Huntington's diseases, or multiple sclerosis), or when developmental retardation suggests a birth defect. MRI can also provide pictures of the sinuses and other areas of the head beneath the face. In adult and pediatric patients, MRI may be better able to detect abnormalities than compared to computed tomography scanning.

SPINE.

Spinal problems can create a host of seemingly unrelated symptoms. MRI is particularly useful for identifying and evaluating degenerated or herniated spinal discs. It can also be used to determine the condition of nerve tissue within the spinal cord.

JOINT.

MRI scanning is most commonly used to diagnose and assess joint problems. MRI can provide clear images of the bone, cartilage, ligament, and tendon that comprise a joint. MRI can be used to diagnose joint injuries due to sports, advancing age, or arthritis. MRI can also be used to diagnose shoulder problems, such as a torn rotator cuff. MRI can also detect the presence of an otherwise hidden tumor or infection in a joint, and can be used to diagnose the nature of developmental joint abnormalities in children.

SKELETON.

The properties of MRI that allow it to see through the skull also allow it to view the inside of bones. Accordingly, it can be used to detect bone cancer, inspect the marrow for leukemia and other diseases, assess bone loss (osteoporosis), and examine complex fractures.

HEART AND CIRCULATION.

MRI technology can be used to evaluate the circulatory system. The heart and blood flow provides a good natural contrast medium that allows structures of the heart to be clearly distinguished.

THE REST OF THE BODY.

Whereas computed tomography and ultrasound scans satisfy most chest, abdominal, and general body imaging needs, MRI may be needed in certain circumstances to provide better pictures or when repeated scanning is required. The progress of some therapies, like liver cancer therapy, needs to be monitored, and the effect of repeated x-ray exposure is a concern.

Precautions

MRI scans and metal

MRI scanning should not be used when there is the potential for an interaction between the strong MRI magnet and metal objects that might be imbedded in a patient's body. The force of magnetic attraction on certain types of metal objects (including surgical steel) could move them within the body and cause serious injury. Metal may be imbedded in a person's body for several reasons.

MEDICAL.

People with implanted cardiac pacemakers, metal aneurysm clips, or who have broken bones repaired with metal pins, screws, rods, or plates must tell their radiologist prior to having an MRI scan. In some cases (like a metal rod in a reconstructed leg), the difficulty may be overcome.

INJURY.

Patients must tell their doctor if they have bullet fragments or other metal pieces in their body from old wounds. The suspected presence of metal, whether from an old or recent wound, should be confirmed before scanning.

OCCUPATIONAL.

People with significant work exposure to metal particles (e.g., working with a metal grinder) should discuss this with their doctor and radiologist. The patient may need prescan testingusually a single, regular x ray of the eyes to see if any metal is present.

Chemical agents

Chemical agents designed to improve the picture or allow for the imaging of blood or other fluid flow during MRA may be injected. In rare cases, patients may be allergic to, or intolerant of, these agents, and these patients should not receive them. If these chemical agents are to be used, patients should discuss any concerns they have with their doctor and radiologist.

Side effects

The potential side effects of magnetic and electric fields on human health remain a source of debate. In particular, the possible effects on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant, should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

As with all medical imaging techniques, obesity greatly interferes with the quality of MRI.

Description

In essence, MRI produces a map of hydrogen distribution in the body. Hydrogen is the simplest element known, the most abundant in biological tissue, and one that can be magnetized. It will align itself within a strong magnetic field, like the needle of a compass. The earth's magnetic field is not strong enough to keep a person's hydrogen atoms pointing in the same direction, but the superconducting magnet of an MRI machine can. This comprises the magnetic part of MRI.

Once a patient's hydrogen atoms have been aligned in the magnet, pulses of very specific radio wave frequencies are used to knock them back out of alignment. The hydrogen atoms alternately absorb and emit radio wave energy, vibrating back and forth between their resting (magnetized) state and their agitated (radio pulse) state. This comprises the resonance part of MRI.

The MRI equipment records the duration, strength, and source location of the signals emitted by the atoms as they relax and translates the data into an image on a television monitor. The state of hydrogen in diseased tissue differs from healthy tissue of the same type, making MRI particularly good at identifying tumors and other lesions. In some cases, chemical agents such as gadolinium can be injected to improve the contrast between healthy and diseased tissue.

A single MRI exposure produces a two-dimensional image of a slice through the entire target area. A series of these image slices closely spaced (usually less than half an inch) makes a virtual three-dimensional view of the area.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is different from MRI because MRS uses a continuous band of radio wave frequencies to excite hydrogen atoms in a variety of chemical compounds other than water. These compounds absorb and emit radio energy at characteristic frequencies, or spectra, which can be used to identify them. Generally, a color image is created by assigning a color to each distinctive spectral emission. This comprises the spectroscopy part of MRS. MRS is still experimental and is available only in a few research centers.

Doctors primarily use MRS to study the brain and disorders like epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, brain tumors, and the effects of drugs on brain growth and metabolism. The technique is also useful in evaluating metabolic disorders of the muscles and nervous system.

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is another variation on standard MRI. MRA, like other types of angiography, looks specifically at fluid flow within the blood (vascular) system, but does so without the injection of dyes or radioactive tracers. Standard MRI cannot make a good picture of flowing blood, but MRA uses specific radio pulse sequences to capture usable signals. The technique is generally used in combination with MRI to obtain images that show both vascular structure and flow within the brain and head in cases of stroke, or when a blood clot or aneurysm is suspected.

MRI technology is also being applied in the evaluation of the pancreatic and biliary ducts in a new study called magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP). MRCP produces images similar to that of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), but in a non-invasive manner. Because MRCP is new and still very expensive, it is not readily available in most hospitals and imaging centers.

Regardless of the exact type of MRI planned, or area of the body targeted, the procedure involved is basically the same. In a special MRI suite, the patient lies down on a narrow table and is made as comfortable as possible. Transmitters are positioned on the body and the table moves into a long tube that houses the magnet. The tube is as long as an average adult lying down, and is open at both ends. Once the area to be examined has been properly positioned, a radio pulse is applied. Then a two-dimensional image corresponding to one slice through the area is made. The table then moves a fraction of an inch and the next image is made. Each image exposure takes several seconds and the entire exam will last anywhere from 30 to 90 minutes. During this time, the patient must remain still as movement can distort the pictures produced.

Depending on the area to be imaged, the radio-wave transmitters will be positioned in different locations.

  • For the head and neck, a helmet-like covering is worn on the head.
  • For the spine, chest, and abdomen, the patient will be lying on the transmitters.
  • For the knee, shoulder, or other joint, the transmitters will be applied directly to the joint.

Additional probes will monitor vital signs (like pulse, respiration, etc.) throughout the test.

The procedure is somewhat noisy and can feel confining to many patients. As the patient moves through the tube, the patient hears a thumping sound. Sometimes, music is supplied via earphones to drown out the noise. Some patients may become anxious or feel claustrophobic while in the small, enclosed tube. Patients may be reassured to know that throughout the study, they can communicate with medical personnel through an intercom-like system.

Recently, open MRIs have become available. Instead of a tube open only at the ends, an open MRI also has opening at the sides. Open MRIs are preferable for patients who have a fear of closed spaces and become anxious in traditional MRI machines. Open MRIs can also better accommodate obese patients, and allow parents to accompany their children during testing.

If the chest or abdomen is to be imaged, the patient will be asked to hold his to her breath as each exposure is made. Other instructions may be given to the patient as needed. In many cases, the entire examination will be performed by an MRI operator who is not a doctor. However, the supervising radiologist should be available to consult as necessary during the exam, and will view and interpret the results sometime later.

Preparation

In some cases (such as for MRI brain scanning or MRA), a chemical designed to increase image contrast may be given immediately before the exam. If a patient suffers from anxiety or claustrophobia, drugs may be given to help the patient relax.

The patient must remove all metal objects (watches, jewelry, eye glasses, hair clips, etc.). Any magnetized objects (like credit and bank machine cards, audio tapes, etc.) should be kept far away from the MRI equipment because they can be erased. The patient cannot bring any personal items such as a wallet or keys into the MRI machine. The patient may be asked to wear clothing without metal snaps, buckles, or zippers, unless a medical gown is worn during the procedure. The patient may be asked not to use hair spray, hair gel, or cosmetics that could interfere with the scan.

Aftercare

No aftercare is necessary, unless the patient received medication or had a reaction to a contrast agent. Normally, patients can immediately return to their daily activities. If the exam reveals a serious condition that requires more testing or treatment, appropriate information and counseling will be needed.

Risks

MRI poses no known health risks to the patient and produces no physical side effects. Again, the potential effects of MRI on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant, should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

Normal results

A normal MRI, MRA, MRS, or MRCP result is one that shows the patient's physical condition to fall within normal ranges for the target area scanned.

Abnormal results

Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms or negative results from other tests indicate a need. There often exists strong evidence of a condition that the scan is designed to detect and assess. Thus, the results will often be abnormal, confirming the earlier diagnosis. At that point, further testing and appropriate medical treatment is needed. For example, if the MRI indicates the presence of a brain tumor, an MRS may be prescribed to determine the type of tumor so that aggressive treatment can begin immediately without the need for a surgical biospy.

Resources

BOOKS

Faulkner, William H. Tech's Guide to MRI: Basic Physics, Instrumentation and Quality Control. Malden: Blackwell Science, 2001.

Fischbach, F. T. Manual of Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests, 6th Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1999: pp2016-2018.

Goldman, L., and Claude Bennett, eds. Cecil Textbook of Medi cine, 21st Edition. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 2000: pp977-970.

Kevles, Bettyann Holtzmann. Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century. New Brunswick, NJ:Rutgers University Press, 1997.

Roth, Carolyn K. Tech's Guide to MRI: Imaging Procedures, Patient Care and Safety. Malden: Blackwell Science, 2001.

Zaret, Barry L., et al., eds. The Patient's Guide to Medical Tests. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997.

PERIODICALS

Carr-Locke, D., et al., "Technology Status Evaluation: Magnetic Resonance Cholangiopancreatography." Gastrointesti nal Endoscopy (June 1999): 858-61.

ORGANIZATION

American College of Radiology. 1891 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 22091. (703) 648-8900. <http://www.acr.org>.

American Society of Radiologic Technologists. 15000 Central Avenue SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. (505)298-4500. <http://www.asrt.org>.

Kurt Richard Sternlof

KEY TERMS

Angiography

Any of the different methods for investigating the condition of blood vessels, usually via a combination of radiological imaging and injections of chemical tracing and contrast agents.

Gadolinium

A very rare metallic element useful for its sensitivity to electromagnetic resonance, among other things. Traces of it can be injected into the body to enhance the MRI pictures.

Hydrogen

The simplest, most common element known in the universe. It is composed of a single electron (negatively charged particle). It is the nuclear proton of hydrogen that makes MRI possible by reacting resonantly to radio waves while aligned in a magnetic field.

Ionizing radiation

Electromagnetic radiation that can damage living tissue by disrupting and destroying individual cells. All types of nuclear decay radiation (including x rays) are potentially ionizing. Radio waves do not damage organic tissues they pass through.

Magnetic field

the three-dimensional area surrounding a magnet, in which its force is active. During MRI, the patient's body is permeated by the force field of a superconducting magnet.

Radio waves

Electromagnetic energy of the frequency range corresponding to that used in radio communications, usually 10, 000 cycles per second to 300 billion cycles per second. Radio waves are the same as visible light, x rays, and all other types of electromagnetic radiation, but are of a higher frequency.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

views updated May 14 2018

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Definition

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a unique and versatile medical imaging modality. Doctors can obtain highly refined images of the body's interior using MRI. By using strong magnetic fields and pulses of radio waves to manipulate the natural magnetic properties in the body, this technique produces images not possible with other diagnostic imaging methods. MRI is particularly useful for imaging the brain and spine, as well as the soft tissues of joints and the interior structure of bones. The entire body can be imaged using MRI, and the technology poses few known health risks.

Purpose

MRI was developed in the 1980s. The latest additions to MRI technology are angiography (MRA) and spectroscopy (MRS). MRA was developed to study blood flow, while MRS can identify the chemical composition of diseased tissue and produce color images of brain function. The many advantages of MRI include:

  • Detail. MRI creates precise images of the body based on the varying proportions of magnetically polarizable elements in different tissues. Very minor fluctuations in chemical composition can be determined. MRI images have greater subject contrast than those produced with standard x rays, computed tomography (CT), or ultrasound, all of which depend on the differing physical properties of tissues. This contrast sensitivity lets MRI distinguish fine variations in tissues deep within the body. It also is particularly useful for spotting and distinguishing diseased tissues (tumors and other lesions) early in their development. Often, doctors prescribe an MRI scan to more fully investigate earlier findings of the other imaging techniques.
  • Scope. The entire body can be scanned, from head to toe and from the skin to the deepest recesses of the brain. Moreover, MRI scans are not adversely affected by bone, gas, or body waste, which can hinder other imaging techniques. (Although the scans can be degraded by motion such as breathing, heartbeat, and normal bowel activity.) MRI process produces cross-sectional images of the body that are as sharp in the middle as on the edges, even of the brain through the skull. A close series of these two-dimensional images can provide a three-dimensional view of a targeted area.
  • Safety. MRI does not depend on potentially harmful ionizing radiation, as do standard x-ray and CT scans. There are no known risks specific to the procedure, other than for people who might have metal objects in their bodies.

Given all the advantages, doctors would undoubtedly prescribe MRI as frequently as ultrasound scanning, but the MRI process is complex and costly. The process requires large, expensive, and complicated equipment; a highly trained operator; and a doctor specializing in radiology. Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms and/or negative results from other tests indicate a need. Many times an alternative imaging procedure is more appropriate for the type of diagnosis needed.

Doctors may prescribe an MRI scan of different areas of the body.

  • Brain and head. MRI technology was developed because of the need for brain imaging. It is one of the few imaging tools that can see through bone (the skull) and deliver high quality pictures of the brain's delicate soft tissue structures. MRI may be needed for patients with symptoms of a brain tumor, stroke, or infection (like meningitis ). MRI also may be needed when cognitive and/or psychological symptoms suggest brain disease (like Alzheimer's or Huntington's diseases, or multiple sclerosis ), or when developmental retardation suggests a birth defect. MRI can also provide pictures of the sinuses and other areas of the head beneath the face.
  • Spine. Spinal problems can create a host of seemingly unrelated symptoms. MRI is particularly useful for identifying and evaluating degenerated or herniated intervertebral discs. It can also be used to determine the condition of nerve tissue within the spinal cord.
  • Joint. MRI scanning is often used to diagnose and assess joint problems. MRI can provide clear images of the bone, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons that comprise a joint. MRI can be used to diagnose joint injuries due to sports, advancing age, or arthritis. It can also be used to diagnose shoulder problems, like a torn rotator cuff. MRI can detect the presence of an otherwise hidden tumor or infection in a joint, and can be used to diagnose the nature of developmental joint abnormalities in children.
  • Skeleton. The properties of MRI that allow it to see though the skull also allow it to view the interior of bones. It can be used to detect bone cancer, inspect the marrow for leukemia and other diseases, assess bone loss (osteoporosis ), and examine complex fractures.
  • The rest of the body. While CT and ultrasound satisfy most chest, abdominal, and general body imaging needs, MRI may be needed in certain circumstances to provide more detailed images or when repeated scanning is required. The progress of some therapies, like liver cancer therapy, need to be monitored, and the effect of repeated x-ray exposure is a concern.

Precautions

MRI scanning should not be used when there is the potential for an interaction between the strong MRI magnetic field and metal objects that might be imbedded in a patient's body. The force of magnetic attraction on certain types of metal objects (including surgical steel and clips used to pinch off blood vessels ) could move them within the body and cause serious injury. The movement would occur when the patient is moved into and out of the magnetic field. Metal may be imbedded in a person's body for several reasons.

  • Medical. People with implanted cardiac pacemakers, metal aneurysm clips, or who have had broken bones repaired with metal pins, screws, rods, or plates must tell their radiologist prior to having an MRI scan. In some cases (like a metal rod in a reconstructed leg) the difficulty may be overcome.
  • Injury. Patients must tell their doctors if they have bullet fragments or other metal pieces in their body from old wounds. The suspected presence of metal, whether from an old or recent wound, should be confirmed before scanning.
  • Occupational. People with significant work exposure to metal particles (working with a metal grinder, for example) should discuss this with their doctor and radiologist. The patient may need prescan testing—usually a single, standard x ray of the eyes to see if any metal is present.

Chemical agents designed to improve the image and/or allow for the imaging of blood or other fluid flow during MRA may be injected. In rare cases, patients may be allergic to or intolerant of these agents, and these patients should not receive them. If these chemical agents are to be used, patients should discuss any concerns they have with their doctor and radiologist.

The potential side effects of magnetic and electric fields on human health remain a source of debate. In particular, the possible effects on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

As with all medical imaging techniques, obesity greatly interferes with the quality of MRI.

Description

In essence, MRI produces a map of hydrogen atoms distributed in the body. Hydrogen is the simplest element known, the most abundant in biological tissue, and one that can be magnetically polarized. It will align itself within a strong magnetic field, like the needle of a compass. The earth's magnetic field is not strong enough to polarize a person's hydrogen atoms, but the superconducting magnet of an MRI machine can. The strength of the Earth's magnetic field is approximately 1 gauss. Typical field strength of an MRI unit, with a superconducting magnet is 1,500 gauss expressed as 1.5 kilogauss or 1.5 Tesla units. This comprises the "magnetic" part of MRI.

Once a patient's hydrogen atoms have been aligned in the magnet, pulses of very specific radio wave frequencies are used to jolt them out of alignment. The hydrogen atoms alternately absorb and emit radio wave energy, vibrating back and forth between their resting (polarized) state and their agitated (radio pulse) state. This comprises the "resonance" part of MRI.

The MRI equipment detects the duration, strength, and source location of the signals emitted by the atoms as they relax and translates the data into an image on a television monitor. The amount of hydrogen in diseased tissue differs from the amount in healthy tissue of the same type, making MRI particularly good at identifying tumors and other lesions. In some cases, chemical agents such as gadolinium can be injected to improve the contrast between healthy and diseased tissue.

A single MRI exposure produces a two-dimensional image of a slice through the entire target area. A series of these image slices closely spaced (usually less than half an inch) makes a virtual three-dimensional view of the area.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is different from MRI because MRS uses a continuous band of radio wave frequencies to excite hydrogen atoms in a variety of chemical compounds other than water. These compounds absorb and emit radio energy at characteristic frequencies, or spectra, which can be used to identify them. Generally, a color image is created by assigning a color to each distinctive spectral emission. This comprises the "spectroscopy" part of MRS. MRS is still experimental and is available in only a few research centers.

Doctors primarily use MRS to study the brain and disorders, like epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, brain tumors, and the effects of drugs on brain growth and metabolism. The technique is also useful in evaluating metabolic disorders of the muscles and nervous system.

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is a variation on standard MRI. MRA, like other types of angiography, looks specifically at blood flow within vascular system, but does so without the injection of contrast agents or radioactive tracers. Standard MRI cannot detect blood flow, but MRA uses specific radio pulse sequences to capture usable signals. The technique is generally used in combination with MRI to obtain images that show both vascular structure and flow within the brain and head in cases of stroke, or when a blood clot or aneurysm is suspected.

Regardless of the exact type of MRI planned, or area of the body targeted, the procedure involved is basically the same and occurs in a special MRI suite. The patient lies back on a narrow table and is made as comfortable as possible. Transmitters are positioned on the body and the cushioned table that the patient is lying on moves into a long tube that houses the magnet. The tube is as long as an average adult lying down, and the tube is narrow and open at both ends. Once the area to be examined has been properly positioned, a radio pulse is applied. Then a two-dimensional image corresponding to one slice through the area is made. The table then moves a fraction of an inch and the next image is made. Each image exposure takes several seconds and the entire exam will last anywhere from 30-90 minutes. During this time, the patient is not allowed to move. If the patient moves during the scan, the picture will not be clear.

Depending on the area to be imaged, the radio-wave transmitters will be positioned in different locations.

  • For the head and neck, a helmet-like hat is worn.
  • For the spine, chest, and abdomen, the patient will be lying on the transmitters.
  • For the knee, shoulder, or other joint, the transmitters will be applied directly to the joint.

Additional probes will monitor vital signs (like pulse, respiration, etc.).

The process is very noisy and confining. The patient hears a thumping sound for the duration of the procedure. Since the procedure is noisy, music supplied via earphones is often provided. Some patients get anxious or panic because they are in the small, enclosed tube. This is why vital signs are monitored and the patient and medical team can communicate between each other. If the chest or abdomen are to be imaged, the patient will be asked to hold his/her breath as each exposure is made. Other instructions may be given to the patient, as needed. In many cases, the entire examination will be performed by an MRI operator who is not a doctor. However, the supervising radiologist should be available to consult as necessary during the exam, and will view and interpret the results sometime later.

Open MRI units

Many adult patients and, especially children, become extremely claustrophobic when placed inside the confines of a full strength (1.5 Tesla) superconducting magnet. This problem is often severe enough to prevent them from having an MRI scan performed. An alternative design, to the standard MRI unit is one where the magnet is comprised of two opposed halves with a large space in between. Units designed this way are known as open MRI machines. The advantage is, they can be used for patients who are claustrophobic. The disadvantage is, the field strength of the magnets is lower than with standard full strength machines, usually somewhere in the range of 0.2-0.5 Tesla. Lower strength magnetic fields require more time for image acquisition increasing the risks of motion artifacts because patients need to remain still for longer periods of time.

Preparation

In some cases (such as for MRI brain scanning or an MRA), a chemical designed to increase image contrast may be given by the radiologist immediately before the exam. If a patient suffers from anxiety or claustrophobia, drugs may be given to help the patient relax.

The patient must remove all metal objects (watches, jewelry, eye glasses, hair clips, etc). Any magnetized objects (like credit and bank machine cards, audio tapes, etc.) should be kept far away from the MRI equipment because they can be erased. The patient cannnot bring their wallet or keys into the MRI machine. The patient may be asked to wear clothing without metal snaps, buckles, or zippers, unless a medical gown is worn during the procedure. The patient may be asked to remove any hair spray, hair gel, or cosmetics that may interfere with the scan.

Aftercare

No aftercare is necessary, unless the patient received medication or had a reaction to a contrast agent. Normally, patients can immediately return to their daily activities. If the exam reveals a serious condition that requires more testing and/or treatment, appropriate information and counseling will be needed.

Complications

MRI poses no known health risks to the patient and produces no physical side effects. Again, the potential effects of MRI on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant, should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

Results

A normal MRI, MRA, or MRS result is one that shows the patient's physical condition to fall within normal ranges for the target area scanned.

Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms and/or negative results from other tests indicate a need. There often exists strong evidence of a condition that the scan is designed to detect and assess. Thus, the results will often be abnormal, confirming the earlier diagnosis. At that point, further testing and appropriate medical treatment is needed. For example, if the MRI indicates the presence of a brain tumor, an MRS may be prescribed to determine the type of tumor so that aggressive treatment can begin immediately without the need for a surgical biopsy.

Health care team roles

The MRI examination is conducted by an MRI technologist and a radiologist. The MRI technologist is responsible for preparing the patient for the examination by making sure that all metallic objects have been removed and that the patient does not have any metallic implants that will be affected by the examination. It is recommended that a prescreening MRI questionnaire be developed and that all patients be required to complete the form prior to having an MRI. If necessary for the area being imaged, an intravenous contrast agent will be administered by either the technologist or a nurse. Nursing staff may also be present during the examination, depending on the medical condition of the patient. The radiologist oversees the selection of MRI imaging sequences and protocols and reviews the acquired images to be sure image quality is appropriate for diagnosis. The radiologist also provides the final interpretation of images and provides a report for any referring physicians.

KEY TERMS

Angiography— Any of the different methods for investigating the condition of blood vessels, usually via a combination of radiological imaging and injections of chemical tracing and contrasting agents.

Gadolinium— A very rare metallic element useful for its sensitivity to electromagnetic resonance, among other things. Traces of it can be injected into the body to enhance the MRI pictures.

Hydrogen— The simplest, most common element known in the universe. It is composed of a single electron (negatively charged particle) circling a nucleus consisting of a single proton (positively charged particle). It is the nuclear proton of hydrogen that makes MRI possible by reacting resonantly to radio waves while aligned in a magnetic field.

Ionizing radiation— Electromagnetic radiation that can damage living tissue by disrupting and destroying individual cells. All types of nuclear decay radiation (including x rays) are potentially ionizing. Radio waves do not damage organic tissues they pass through.

Magnetic field— The three-dimensional area surrounding a magnet, in which its force is active. During MRI, the patient's body is permeated by the force field of a superconducting magnet.

Radio waves Electromagnetic energy of the frequency range corresponding to that used in radio communications, usually 10,000 cycles per second to 300 billion cycles per second. Radio waves are the same as visible light, x rays, and all other types of electromagnetic radiation, but are of a higher frequency.

Resources

BOOKS

Haaga, John R., et al., eds. Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Whole Body. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1994.

Hornak, Joseph P. The Basics of MRI:〈http://www.cis.rit.edu/htbooks/mri〉.

Kevles, Bettyann Holtzmann. Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997.

Smith, steve. Introduction to FMRI. 〈http://www.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fmri_intro/〉.

Zaret, Barry L., et al., eds. The Patient's Guide to Medical Tests. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997.

PERIODICALS

Kevles, Bettyann. "Body Imaging." Newsweek (Winter 97/98 Extra Millennium Issue): 74-76.

ORGANIZATIONS

American College of Radiology. 1891 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 22091. (703) 648-8900. 〈http://www.acr.org.〉.

American Society of Radiologic Technologists. 15000 Central Ave. SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. (505) 298-4500. 〈http://www.asrt.org〉.

Center for Devices and Radiological Health. United States Food and Drug Administration. 1901 Chapman Ave., Rockville, MD 20857. (301) 443-4109. 〈http://www.fda.gov/cdrh〉.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

views updated Jun 08 2018

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Definition

Purpose

Precautions

Description

Preparation

Aftercare

Risks

Normal results

Abnormal results

Resources

Definition

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one of the newest diagnostic medical imaging technologies that uses strong magnets and pulses of radio waves to manipulate the natural magnetic properties in the body to generate a visible image. In the field of mental health, an MRI scan may be used when a patient seeks medical help for symptoms that could possibly be caused by a brain tumor. These symptoms may include headaches, emotional abnormalities, or intellectual or memory problems. In these cases, an MRI scan may be performed to “rule out” a tumor, so that other tests can be performed in order to establish an accurate diagnosis .

Purpose

MRI was developed in the 1980s. Its technology has been developed for use in magnetic resonance angiogra-phy (MRA), magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), and, more recently, magnetic resonance cholangiopan-creatography (MRCP). MRA was developed to study blood flow, whereas MRS can identify the chemical composition of diseased tissue and produce color images of brain function. MRCP is evolving into a non-invasive potential alternative for the diagnostic procedure endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP).

Advantages

DETAIL

MRI creates precise images of the body based on the varying proportions of magnetic elements in different tissues. Very minor fluctuations in chemical composition can be determined. MRI images have greater natural contrast than standard x rays, computed tomography scan (CT scan), or ultrasound, all of which depend on the differing physical properties of tissues. This sensitivity allows MRI to distinguish fine variations in tissues deep within the body. It is also particularly useful for spotting and distinguishing diseased tissues (tumors and other lesions) early in their development. Often, doctors prescribe an MRI scan to investigate more fully earlier findings of other imaging techniques.

SCOPE

The entire body can be scanned, from head to toe and from the skin to the deepest recesses of the brain. Moreover, MRI scans are not obstructed by bone, gas, or body waste, which can hinder other imaging techniques. (Although the scans can be degraded by motion such as breathing, heartbeat, and bowel activity.) The MRI process produces cross-sectional images of the body that are as sharp in the middle as on the edges, even of the brain through the skull. A close series of these two-dimensional images can provide a three-dimensional view of the targeted area. Along with images from the cross-sectional plane, the MRI can also provide images sagi-tally (from one side of the body to the other, from left to right for example), allowing for a better three-dimensional interpretation, which is sometimes very important for planning a surgical approach.

SAFETY

MRI does not depend on potentially harmful ionizing radiation, as do standard x ray and computed tomography scans. There are no known risks specific to the procedure, other than for people who might have metal objects in their bodies.

Despite its many advantages, MRI is not routinely used because it is a somewhat complex and costly procedure. MRI requires large, expensive, and complicated equipment; a highly trained operator; and a doctor specializing in radiology. Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms or negative results from other tests indicate a need. Many times another test is appropriate for the type of diagnosis needed.

Uses

Doctors may prescribe an MRI scan of different areas of the body.

BRAIN AND HEAD

MRI technology was developed because of the need for brain imaging. It is one of the few imaging tools that can see through bone (the skull) and deliver high-quality pictures of the brain’s delicate soft tissue structures. MRI may be needed for patients with symptoms of a brain tumor, stroke , or infection (like meningitis). MRI may also be needed when cognitive or psychological symptoms suggest brain disease (like Alzheimer’s or Huntington’s diseases, or multiple sclerosis), or when developmental retardation suggests a birth defect. MRI can also provide pictures of the sinuses and other areas of the head beneath the face. In adult and pediatric patients, MRI may be better able to detect abnormalities than compared to computed tomography scanning.

SPINE

Spinal problems can create a host of seemingly unrelated symptoms. MRI is particularly useful for identifying and evaluating degenerated or herni-ated spinal discs. It can also be used to determine the condition of nerve tissue within the spinal cord.

JOINT

MRI scanning is most commonly used to diagnose and assess joint problems. MRI can provide clear images of the bone, cartilage, ligament, and tendon that comprise a joint. MRI can be used to diagnose joint injuries due to sports, advancing age, or arthritis. MRI can also be used to diagnose shoulder problems, such as a torn rotator cuff. MRI can also detect the presence of an otherwise hidden tumor or infection in a joint, and can be used to diagnose the nature of developmental joint abnormalities in children.

SKELETON

The properties of MRI that allow it to see through the skull also allow it to view the inside of bones. Accordingly, it can be used to detect bone cancer, inspect the marrow for leukemia and other diseases, assess bone loss (osteoporosis), and examine complex fractures.

HEART AND CIRCULATION

MRI technology can be used to evaluate the circulatory system. The heart and blood flow provides a good natural contrast medium that allows structures of the heart to be clearly distinguished.

THE REST OF THE BODY

Whereas computed tomography and ultrasound scans satisfy most chest, abdominal, and general body imaging needs, MRI may be needed in certain circumstances to provide better pictures or when repeated scanning is required. The progress of some therapies, like liver cancer therapy, needs to be monitored, and the effect of repeated x-ray exposure is a concern.

Precautions

MRI scans and metal

MRI scanning should not be used when there is the potential for an interaction between the strong MRI magnet and metal objects that might be imbedded in a patient’s body. The force of magnetic attraction on certain types of metal objects (including surgical steel) could move them within the body and cause serious injury. Metal may be imbedded in a person’s body for several reasons.

MEDICAL

People with implanted cardiac pacemakers, metal aneurysm clips, or who have broken bones repaired with metal pins, screws, rods, or plates must tell their radiologist prior to having an MRI scan. In some cases (like a metal rod in a reconstructed leg), the difficulty may be overcome.

INJURY

Patients must tell their doctor if they have bullet fragments or other metal pieces in their body from old wounds. The suspected presence of metal, whether from an old or recent wound, should be confirmed before scanning.

OCCUPATIONAL

People with significant work exposure to metal particles (working with a metal grinder, for example) should discuss this with their doctor and radiologist. The patient may need prescan testing—usually a single, regular x ray of the eyes to see if any metal is present.

Chemical agents

Chemical agents designed to improve the picture or allow for the imaging of blood or other fluid flow during MRA may be injected. In rare cases, patients may be allergic to, or intolerant of, these agents, and these patients should not receive them. If these chemical agents are to be used, patients should discuss any concerns they have with their doctor and radiologist.

General

The potential side effects of magnetic and electric fields on human health remain a source of debate. In particular, the possible effects on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant, should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

As with all medical imaging techniques, obesity greatly interferes with the quality of MRI.

Description

In essence, MRI produces a map of hydrogen distribution in the body. Hydrogen is the simplest element known, the most abundant in biological tissue, and one that can be magnetized. It will align itself within a strong magnetic field, like the needle of a compass. The earth’s magnetic field is not strong enough to keep a person’s hydrogen atoms pointing in the same direction, but the superconducting magnet of an MRI machine can. This comprises the magnetic part of MRI.

Once a patient’s hydrogen atoms have been aligned in the magnet, pulses of very specific radio wave frequencies are used to knock them back out of alignment. The hydrogen atoms alternately absorb and emit radio wave energy, vibrating back and forth between their resting (magnetized) state and their agitated (radio pulse) state. This comprises the resonance part of MRI.

The MRI equipment records the duration, strength, and source location of the signals emitted by the atoms as they relax and translates the data into an image on a television monitor. The state of hydrogen in diseased tissue differs from healthy tissue of the same type, making MRI particularly good at identifying tumors and other lesions. In some cases, chemical agents such as gadolinium can be injected to improve the contrast between healthy and diseased tissue.

A single MRI exposure produces a two-dimensional image of a slice through the entire target area. A series of these image slices closely spaced (usually less than half an inch) makes a virtual three-dimensional view of the area.

Regardless of the exact type of MRI planned, or area of the body targeted, the procedure involved is basically the same. In a special MRI suite, the patient lies down on a narrow table and is made as comfortable as possible. Transmitters are positioned on the body and the table moves into a long tube that houses the magnet. The tube is as long as an average adult lying down, and is open at both ends. Once the area to be examined has been properly positioned, a radio pulse is applied. Then a two-dimensional image corresponding to one slice through the area is made. The table then moves a fraction of an inch and the next image is made. Each image exposure takes several seconds and the entire exam will last anywhere from 30 to 90 minutes. During this time, the patient must remain still as movement can distort the pictures produced.

Depending on the area to be imaged, the radio-wave transmitters will be positioned in different locations.

  • For the head and neck, a helmet-like covering is worn on the head.
  • For the spine, chest, and abdomen, the patient will be lying on the transmitters.
  • For the knee, shoulder, or other joint, the transmitters will be applied directly to the joint.

Additional probes will monitor vital signs (like pulse, respiration, etc.) throughout the test.

The procedure is somewhat noisy and can feel confining to many patients. As the patient moves through the tube, the patient hears a thumping sound. Sometimes, music is supplied via earphones to drown out the noise. Some patients may become anxious or feel claustrophobic while in the small, enclosed tube. Patients may be reassured to know that throughout the study, they can communicate with medical personnel through an intercom-like system.

Recently, open MRIs have become available. Instead of a tube open only at the ends, an open MRI also has opening at the sides. Open MRIs are preferable for patients who have a fear of closed spaces and become anxious in traditional MRI machines. Open MRIs can also better accommodate obese patients, and allow parents to accompany their children during testing.

If the chest or abdomen is to be imaged, the patient will be asked to hold his to her breath as each exposure is made. Other instructions may be given to the patient as needed. In many cases, the entire examination will be performed by an MRI operator who is not a doctor. However, the supervising radiologist should be available to consult as necessary during the exam, and will view and interpret the results sometime later.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is different from MRI because MRS uses a continuous band of radio wave frequencies to excite hydrogen atoms in a variety of chemical compounds other than water. These compounds absorb and emit radio energy at characteristic frequencies, or spectra, which can be used to identify them. Generally, a color image is created by assigning a color to each distinctive spectral emission. This comprises the spectroscopy part of MRS. MRS is still experimental and is available only in a few research centers.

Doctors primarily use MRS to study the brain and disorders like epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, brain tumors, and the effects of drugs on brain growth and metabolism. The technique is also useful in evaluating metabolic disorders of the muscles and nervous system.

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is another variation on standard MRI. MRA, like other types of angiography, looks specifically at fluid flow within the blood (vascular) system, but does so without the injection of dyes or radioactive tracers. Standard MRI cannot make a good picture of flowing blood, but MRA uses specific radio pulse sequences to capture usable signals. The technique is generally used in combination with MRI to obtain images that show both vascular structure and flow within the brain and head in cases of stroke, or when a blood clot or aneurysm is suspected.

MRI technology is also being applied in the evaluation of the pancreatic and biliary ducts in a new study called magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatog-raphy (MRCP). MRCP produces images similar to that of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatogra-phy (ERCP), but in a non-invasive manner. Because MRCP is new and still very expensive, it is not readily available in most hospitals and imaging centers.

Preparation

In some cases (such as for MRI brain scanning or MRA), a chemical designed to increase image contrast may be given immediately before the exam. If a patient suffers from anxiety or claustrophobia, drugs may be given to help the patient relax.

The patient must remove all metal objects (watches, jewelry, eye glasses, hair clips, etc.). Any magnetized objects (like credit and bank machine cards, audio tapes, etc.) should be kept far away from the MRI equipment because they can be erased. The patient cannot bring any personal items such as a wallet or keys into the MRI machine. The patient may be asked to wear clothing without metal snaps, buckles, or zippers, unless a medical gown is worn

KEY TERMS

Angiography —A procedure in which a contrast medium is injected into the bloodstream (through an artery in the neck) and its progress through the brain is tracked. This illustrates where a blockage or hemorrhage has occurred.

Gadolinium —A very rare metallic element useful for its sensitivity to electromagnetic resonance, among other things. Traces of it can be injected into the body to enhance the MRI pictures.

Hydrogen —The simplest, most common element known in the universe. It is composed of a single electron (negatively charged particle). It is the nuclear proton of hydrogen that makes MRI possible by reacting resonantly to radio waves while aligned in a magnetic field.

Ionizing radiation —Electromagnetic radiation that can damage living tissue by disrupting and destroying individual cells. All types of nuclear decay radiation (including x rays) are potentially ionizing. Radio waves do not damage organic tissues they pass through.

Magnetic field —The three-dimensional area surrounding a magnet, in which its force is active. During MRI, the patient’s body is permeated by the force field of a superconducting magnet.

Radio waves —Electromagnetic energy of the frequency range corresponding to that used in radio communications, usually 10,000 cycles per second to 300 billion cycles per second. Radio waves are the same as visible light, x rays, and all other types of electromagnetic radiation, but are of a higher frequency.

during the procedure. The patient may be asked not to use hair spray, hair gel, or cosmetics that could interfere with the scan.

Aftercare

No aftercare is necessary, unless the patient received medication or had a reaction to a contrast agent. Normally, patients can immediately return to their daily activities. If the exam reveals a serious condition that requires more testing or treatment, appropriate information and counseling will be needed.

Risks

MRI poses no known health risks to the patient and produces no physical side effects. Again, the potential effects of MRI on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant, should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

Normal results

A normal MRI, MRA, MRS, or MRCP result is one that shows the patient’s physical condition to fall within normal ranges for the target area scanned.

Abnormal results

Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms or negative results from other tests indicate a need. There often exists strong evidence of a condition that the scan is designed to detect and assess. Thus, the results will often be abnormal, confirming the earlier diagnosis. At that point, further testing and appropriate medical treatment is needed. For example, if the MRI indicates the presence of a brain tumor, an MRS may be prescribed to determine the type of tumor so that aggressive treatment can begin immediately without the need for a surgical biospy.

Resources

BOOKS

Faulkner, William H. Tech’s Guide to MRI: Basic Physics, Instrumentation and Quality Control. Malden: Black-well Science, 2001.

Fischbach, F. T. A Manual of Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests. 6th Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1999.

Goldman, L., and Claude Bennett, eds. Cecil Textbook of Medicine. 21st Edition. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 2000: pp 977–970.

Kevles, Bettyann Holtzmann. Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997.

Roth, Carolyn K. Tech’s Guide to MRI: Imaging Procedures, Patient Care and Safety. Malden: Blackwell Science, 2001.

Zaret, Barry L., and others, eds. The Patient’s Guide to Medical Tests. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997.

PERIODICALS

Carr-Locke, D., and others, “Technology Status Evaluation: Magnetic Resonance Cholangiopancreatogra-phy.” Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (June 1999): 858–61.

ORGANIZATIONS

American College of Radiology. 1891 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 22091. (800) ACR-LINE. <http://www.acr.org>

American Society of Radiologic Technologists. 15000 Central Avenue SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123–3917. (505) 298–4500. <http://www.asrt.org>

Kurt Richard Sternlof

Laith Farid Gulli, M.D.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

views updated May 14 2018

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Definition

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the newest, and perhaps most versatile, medical imaging technology available. Doctors can get highly refined images of the body's interior without surgery, using MRI. By using strong magnets and pulses of radio waves to manipulate the natural magnetic properties in the body, this technique makes better images of organs and soft tissues than those of other scanning technologies. MRI is particularly useful for imaging the brain and spine, as well as the soft tissues of joints and the interior structure of bones. The entire body is visible to the technique, which poses few known health risks.

Purpose

MRI was developed in the 1980s. The latest additions to MRI technology are angiography (MRA) and spectroscopy (MRS). MRA was developed to study blood flow, while MRS can identify the chemical composition of diseased tissue and produce color images of brain function. The many advantages of MRI include:

  • Detail. MRI creates precise images of the body based on the varying proportions of magnetic elements in different tissues. Very minor fluctuations in chemical composition can be determined. MRI images have greater natural contrast than standard x rays, computed tomography scan (CT scan), or ultrasound, all of which depend on the differing physical properties of tissues. This sensitivity lets MRI distinguish fine variations in tissues deep within the body. It also is particularly useful for spotting and distinguishing diseased tissues (tumors and other lesions) early in their development. Often, doctors prescribe an MRI scan to more fully investigate earlier findings of the other imaging techniques.
  • Scope. The entire body can be scanned, from head to toe and from the skin to the deepest recesses of the brain. Moreover, MRI scans are not obstructed by bone, gas, or body waste, which can hinder other imaging techniques. (Although the scans can be degraded by motion such as breathing, heartbeat, and normal bowel activity.) The MRI process produces cross-sectional images of the body that are as sharp in the middle as on the edges, even of the brain through the skull. A close series of these two-dimensional images can provide a three-dimensional view of a targeted area.
  • Safety. MRI does not depend on potentially harmful ionizing radiation, as do standard x-ray and CT scans. There are no known risks specific to the procedure, other than for people who might have metal objects in their bodies.

MRI is being used increasingly during operations, particularly those involving very small structures in the head and neck, as well as for preoperative assessment and planning. Intraoperative MRIs have shown themselves to be safe as well as feasible, and to improve the surgeon's ability to remove the entire tumor or other abnormality.

Given all the advantages, doctors would undoubtedly prescribe MRI as frequently as ultrasound scanning, but the MRI process is complex and costly. The process requires large, expensive, and complicated equipment; a highly trained operator; and a doctor specializing in radiology. Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms and/or negative results from other tests indicate a need.

Many times another test is appropriate for the type of diagnosis needed.

Doctors may prescribe an MRI scan of different areas of the body.

  • Brain and head. MRI technology was developed because of the need for brain imaging. It is one of the few imaging tools that can see through bone (the skull) and deliver high quality pictures of the brain's delicate soft tissue structures. MRI may be needed for patients with symptoms of a brain tumor, stroke, or infection (like meningitis). MRI also may be needed when cognitive and/or psychological symptoms suggest brain disease (like Alzheimer's or Huntington's diseases, or multiple sclerosis), or when developmental retardation suggests a birth defect. MRI can also provide pictures of the sinuses and other areas of the head beneath the face. Recent refinements in MRI technology may make this form of diagnostic imaging even more useful in evaluating patients with brain cancer, stroke, schizophrenia, or epilepsy. In particular, a new 3-D approach to MRI imaging known as diffusion tensor imaging, or DTI, measures the flow of water within brain tissue, allowing the radiologist to tell where the normal flow of fluid is disrupted, and to distinguish more clearly between cancerous and normal brain tissue. The introduction of DTI has led to a technique known as fiber tracking, which allows the neurosurgeon to tell whether a space-occupying brain tumor has damaged or displaced the nerve pathways in the white matter of the brain. This information in turn improves the surgeon's accuracy during the actual operation.
  • Spine. Spinal problems can create a host of seemingly unrelated symptoms. MRI is particularly useful for identifying and evaluating degenerated or herniated spinal discs. It can also be used to determine the condition of nerve tissue within the spinal cord.
  • Joint. MRI scanning is most commonly used to diagnose and assess joint problems. MRI can provide clear images of the bone, cartilage, ligament, and tendon that comprise a joint. MRI can be used to diagnose joint injuries due to sports, advancing age, or arthritis. MRI can also be used to diagnose shoulder problems, like a torn rotator cuff. MRI can also detect the presence of an otherwise hidden tumor or infection in a joint, and can be used to diagnose the nature of developmental joint abnormalities in children.
  • Skeleton. The properties of MRI that allow it to see through the skull also allow it to view the inside of bones. It can be used to detect bone cancer, inspect the marrow for leukemia and other diseases, assess bone loss (osteoporosis), and examine complex fractures.
  • The rest of the body. While CT and ultrasound satisfy most chest, abdominal, and general body imaging needs, MRI may be needed in certain circumstances to provide better pictures or when repeated scanning is required. The progress of some therapies, like liver cancer therapy, needs to be monitored, and the effect of repeated x-ray exposure is a concern.

Precautions

MRI scanning should not be used when there is the potential for an interaction between the strong MRI magnet and metal objects that might be imbedded in a patient's body. The force of magnetic attraction on certain types of metal objects (including surgical steel) could move them within the body and cause serious injury. Metal may be imbedded in a person's body for several reasons.

  • Medical. People with implanted cardiac pacemakers, metal aneurysm clips, or who have had broken bones repaired with metal pins, screws, rods, or plates must tell their radiologist prior to having an MRI scan. In some cases (like a metal rod in a reconstructed leg) the difficulty may be overcome.
  • Injury. Patients must tell their doctors if they have bullet fragments or other metal pieces in their body from old wounds. The suspected presence of metal, whether from an old or recent wound, should be confirmed before scanning.
  • Occupational. People with significant work exposure to metal particles (working with a metal grinder, for example) should discuss this with their doctor and radiologist. The patient may need prescan testing—usually a single, regular x ray of the eyes to see if any metal is present.

Chemical agents designed to improve the picture and/or allow for the imaging of blood or other fluid flow during MRA may be injected. In rare cases, patients may be allergic to or intolerant of these agents, and these patients should not receive them. If these chemical agents are to be used, patients should discuss any concerns they have with their doctor and radiologist.

The potential side effects of magnetic and electric fields on human health remain a source of debate.

As with all medical imaging techniques, obesity greatly interferes with the quality of MRI.

Description

In essence, MRI produces a map of hydrogen distribution in the body. Hydrogen is the simplest element known, the most abundant in biological tissue, and one that can be magnetized. It will align itself within a strong magnetic field, like the needle of a compass. The earth's magnetic field is not strong enough to keep a person's hydrogen atoms pointing in the same direction, but the superconducting magnet of an MRI machine can. This comprises the “magnetic” part of MRI.

Once a patient's hydrogen atoms have been aligned in the magnet, pulses of very specific radio wave frequencies are used to knock them back out of alignment. The hydrogen atoms alternately absorb and emit radio wave energy, vibrating back and forth between their resting (magnetized) state and their agitated (radio pulse) state. This comprises the “resonance” part of MRI.

The MRI equipment records the duration, strength, and source location of the signals emitted by the atoms as they relax and translates the data into an image on a television monitor. The state of hydrogen in diseased tissue differs from healthy tissue of the same type, making MRI particularly good at identifying tumors and other lesions. In some cases, chemical agents such as gadolinium can be injected to improve the contrast between healthy and diseased tissue.

A single MRI exposure produces a two-dimensional image of a slice through the entire target area. A series of these image slices closely spaced (usually less than half an inch) makes a virtual three-dimensional view of the area.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is different from MRI because MRS uses a continuous band of radio wave frequencies to excite hydrogen atoms in a variety of chemical compounds other than water. These compounds absorb and emit radio energy at characteristic frequencies, or spectra, which can be used to identify them. Generally, a color image is created by assigning a color to each distinctive spectral emission. This comprises the “spectroscopy” part of MRS. MRS is still experimental and is available in only a few research centers.

Doctors primarily use MRS to study the brain and disorders, like epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, brain tumors , and the effects of drugs on brain growth and metabolism. The technique is also useful in evaluating metabolic disorders of the muscles and nervous system. Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is another variation on standard MRI. MRA, like other types of angiography, looks specifically at fluid flow within the blood (vascular) system, but does so without the injection of dyes or radioactive tracers. Standard MRI cannot make a good picture of flowing blood, but MRA uses specific radio pulse sequences to capture usable signals. The technique is generally used in combination with MRI to obtain images that show both vascular structure and flow within the brain and head in cases of stroke , or when a blood clot or aneurysm is suspected.

Regardless of the exact type of MRI planned, or area of the body targeted, the procedure involved is basically the same and occurs in a special MRI suite. The patient lies back on a narrow table and is made as comfortable as possible. Transmitters are positioned on the body and the cushioned table that the patient is lying on moves into a long tube that houses the magnet. The tube is as long as an average adult lying down, and the tube is narrow and open at both ends. Once the area to be examined has been properly positioned, a radio pulse is applied. Then a two-dimensional image corresponding to one slice through the area is made. The table then moves a fraction of an inch and the next image is made. Each image exposure takes several seconds and the entire exam will last anywhere from 30–90 minutes. During this time, the patient is not allowed to move. If the patient moves during the scan, the picture will not be clear.

Depending on the area to be imaged, the radio-wave transmitters will be positioned in different locations.

  • For the head and neck, a helmet-like hat is worn.
  • For the spine, chest, and abdomen, the patient will be lying on the transmitters.
  • For the knee, shoulder, or other joint, the transmitters will be applied directly to the joint.

Additional probes will monitor vital signs (like pulse, respiration, etc.).

The process is very noisy and confining. The patient hears a thumping sound for the duration of the procedure. Since the procedure is noisy, music supplied via earphones is often provided. Some patients get anxious or panic because they are in the small, enclosed tube. This is why vital signs are monitored and the patient and medical team can communicate between each other. If the chest or abdomen are to be imaged, the patient will be asked to hold his/her breath as each exposure is made. Other instructions may be given to the patient, as needed. In many cases, the entire examination will be performed by an MRI operator who is not a doctor. However, the supervising radiologist should be available to consult as necessary during the exam, and will view and interpret the results sometime later.

Preparation

In some cases (such as for MRI brain scanning or an MRA), a chemical designed to increase image contrast may be given by the radiologist immediately before the exam. If a patient suffers from anxiety or claustrophobia, drugs may be given to help the patient relax.

The patient must remove all metal objects (watches, jewelry, eye glasses , hair clips, etc). Any magnetized objects (like credit and bank machine cards, audio tapes, etc.) should be kept far away from the MRI equipment because they can be erased. The patient cannnot bring their wallet or keys into the MRI machine. The patient may be asked to wear clothing without metal snaps, buckles, or zippers, unless a medical gown is worn during the procedure. The patient may be asked to remove any hair spray, hair gel, or cosmetics that may interfere with the scan.

Aftercare

No aftercare is necessary, unless the patient received medication or had a reaction to a contrast agent. Normally, patients can immediately return to their daily activities. If the exam reveals a serious condition that requires more testing and/or treatment, appropriate information and counseling will be needed.

Risks

MRI poses no known health risks to the patient and produces no physical side effects. Again, the potential effects of MRI on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant, should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

Results

A normal MRI, MRA, or MRS result is one that shows the patient's physical condition to fall within normal ranges for the target area scanned. Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms and/or negative results from other tests indicate a need. There often exists strong evidence of a condition that the scan is designed to detect and assess. Thus, the results will often be abnormal, confirming the earlier diagnosis. At that point, further testing and appropriate medical treatment is needed. For example, if the MRI indicates the presence of a brain tumor, an MRS may be prescribed to determine the type of tumor so that aggressive treatment can begin immediately without the need for a surgical biopsy.

KEY TERMS

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) —A refinement of magnetic resonance imaging that allows the doctor to measure the flow of water and track the pathways of white matter in the brain. DTI is able to detect abnormalities in the brain that do not show up on standard MRI scans.

Gadolinium —A very rare metallic element useful for its sensitivity to electromagnetic resonance, among other things. Traces of it can be injected into the body to enhance the MRI pictures.

Hydrogen —The simplest, most common element known in the universe. It is composed of a single electron (negatively charged particle) circling a nucleus consisting of a single proton (positively charged particle). It is the nuclear proton of hydrogen that makes MRI possible by reacting resonantly to radio waves while aligned in a magnetic field.

Ionizing radiation —Electromagnetic radiation that can damage living tissue by disrupting and destroying individual cells. All types of nuclear decay radiation (including x rays) are potentially ionizing. Radio waves do not damage organic tissues they pass through.

Magnetic field —The three-dimensional area surrounding a magnet, in which its force is active. During MRI, the patient's body is permeated by the force field of a superconducting magnet.

Radio waves —Electromagnetic energy of the frequency range corresponding to that used in radio communications, usually 10,000 cycles per second to 300 billion cycles per second. Radio waves are the same as visible light, x rays, and all other types of electromagnetic radiation, but are of a higher frequency.

Resources

PERIODICALS

Clark, C. A., T. R. Barrick, M. M. Murphy, and B. A. Bell. “White Matter Fiber Tracking in Patients with Space Occupying Lesions of the Brain: A New Technique for Neurosurgical Planning?” Neuroimage 20 (November 2003): 1601–1608.

Hendler, T., P. Pianka, M. Sigal, et al. “Delineating Gray and White Matter Involvement in Brain Lesions: Three-dimensional Alignment of Functional Magnetic Resonance and Diffusion-Tensor Imaging.” Journal of Neurosurgery 99 (December 2003): 1018–1027.

Kubicki, M., C. F. Westin, P. G. Nestor, et al. “Cingulate Fasciculus Integrity Disruption in Schizophrenia: A Magnetic Resonance Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study.” Biological Psychiatry 54 (December 1, 2003):1171–1180.

Mahmoud-Ghoneim, D., G. Toussaint, J. M. Constans, and J. D. de Certaines. “Three-Dimensional Texture Analysis in MRI: A Preliminary Evaluation in Gliomas.” Magnetic Resonance Imaging 21 (November 2003): 983–987.

Rees, J. “Advances in Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Brain Tumours.” Current Opinion in Neurology 16 (December 2003): 643–650.

Satoh, T., K. Onoda, and S. Tsuchimoto. “Intraoperative Evaluation of Aneurysmal Architecture: Comparative Study with Transluminal Images of 3D MR and CT Angiograms.” American Journal of Neuroradiology 24 (November-December 2003): 1975–1981.

ORGANIZATIONS

American College of Radiology. 1891 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 22091. (800) 227-5463. http://www.acr.org.

American Society of Radiologic Technologists. 15000 Central Ave. SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. (505) 298-4500. http://www.asrt.org.

Center for Devices and Radiological Health. United States Food and Drug Administration. 1901 Chapman Ave., Rockville, MD 20857. (301) 443-4109. http://www.fda.gov/cdrh.

Kurt Richard Sternlof

Rebecca J. Frey Ph.D.

Magnetic resonance imaging

views updated Jun 27 2018

Magnetic resonance imaging

Definition

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one of the newest diagnostic medical imaging technologies that uses strong magnets and pulses of radio waves to manipulate the natural magnetic properties in the body to generate a visible image. In the field of mental health, an MRI scan may be used when a patient seeks medical help for symptoms that could possibly be caused by a brain tumor. These symptoms may include headaches, emotional abnormalities, or intellectual or memory problems. In these cases, an MRI scan may be performed to "rule out" a tumor, so that other tests can be performed in order to establish an accurate diagnosis .

Purpose

MRI was developed in the 1980s. Its technology has been developed for use in magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), and, more recently, magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP). MRA was developed to study blood flow, whereas MRS can identify the chemical composition of diseased tissue and produce color images of brain function. MRCP is evolving into a non-invasive potential alternative for the diagnostic procedure endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP).

Advantages

DETAIL. MRI creates precise images of the body based on the varying proportions of magnetic elements in different tissues. Very minor fluctuations in chemical composition can be determined. MRI images have greater natural contrast than standard x rays, computed tomography scan (CT scan), or ultrasound, all of which depend on the differing physical properties of tissues. This sensitivity allows MRI to distinguish fine variations in tissues deep within the body. It is also particularly useful for spotting and distinguishing diseased tissues (tumors and other lesions) early in their development. Often, doctors prescribe an MRI scan to investigate more fully earlier findings of other imaging techniques.

SCOPE. The entire body can be scanned, from head to toe and from the skin to the deepest recesses of the brain. Moreover, MRI scans are not obstructed by bone, gas, or body waste, which can hinder other imaging techniques. (Although the scans can be degraded by motion such as breathing, heartbeat, and bowel activity.) The MRI process produces cross-sectional images of the body that are as sharp in the middle as on the edges, even of the brain through the skull. A close series of these twodimensional images can provide a three-dimensional view of the targeted area. Along with images from the cross-sectional plane, the MRI can also provide images sagitally (from one side of the body to the other, from left to right for example), allowing for a better three-dimensional interpretation, which is sometimes very important for planning a surgical approach.

SAFETY. MRI does not depend on potentially harmful ionizing radiation, as do standard x ray and computed tomography scans. There are no known risks specific to the procedure, other than for people who might have metal objects in their bodies.

Despite its many advantages, MRI is not routinely used because it is a somewhat complex and costly procedure. MRI requires large, expensive, and complicated equipment, a highly trained operator, and a doctor specializing in radiology. Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms or negative results from other tests indicate a need. Many times another test is appropriate for the type of diagnosis needed.

Uses

Doctors may prescribe an MRI scan of different areas of the body.

BRAIN AND HEAD. MRI technology was developed because of the need for brain imaging. It is one of the few imaging tools that can see through bone (the skull) and deliver high-quality pictures of the brain's delicate soft tissue structures. MRI may be needed for patients with symptoms of a brain tumor, stroke , or infection (like meningitis). MRI may also be needed when cognitive or psychological symptoms suggest brain disease (like Alzheimer's or Huntington's diseases, or multiple sclerosis), or when developmental retardation suggests a birth defect. MRI can also provide pictures of the sinuses and other areas of the head beneath the face. In adult and pediatric patients, MRI may be better able to detect abnormalities than compared to computed tomography scanning.

SPINE. Spinal problems can create a host of seemingly unrelated symptoms. MRI is particularly useful for identifying and evaluating degenerated or herniated spinal discs. It can also be used to determine the condition of nerve tissue within the spinal cord.

JOINT. MRI scanning is most commonly used to diagnose and assess joint problems. MRI can provide clear images of the bone, cartilage, ligament, and tendon that comprise a joint. MRI can be used to diagnose joint injuries due to sports, advancing age, or arthritis. MRI can also be used to diagnose shoulder problems, such as a torn rotator cuff. MRI can also detect the presence of an otherwise hidden tumor or infection in a joint, and can be used to diagnose the nature of developmental joint abnormalities in children.

SKELETON. The properties of MRI that allow it to see through the skull also allow it to view the inside of bones. Accordingly, it can be used to detect bone cancer, inspect the marrow for leukemia and other diseases, assess bone loss (osteoporosis), and examine complex fractures.

HEART AND CIRCULATION. MRI technology can be used to evaluate the circulatory system. The heart and blood flow provides a good natural contrast medium that allows structures of the heart to be clearly distinguished.

THE REST OF THE BODY. Whereas computed tomography and ultrasound scans satisfy most chest, abdominal, and general body imaging needs, MRI may be needed in certain circumstances to provide better pictures or when repeated scanning is required. The progress of some therapies, like liver cancer therapy, needs to be monitored, and the effect of repeated x-ray exposure is a concern.

Precautions

MRI scans and metal

MRI scanning should not be used when there is the potential for an interaction between the strong MRI magnet and metal objects that might be embedded in a patient's body. The force of magnetic attraction on certain types of metal objects (including surgical steel) could move them within the body and cause serious injury. Metal may be embedded in a person's body for several reasons.

MEDICAL. People with implanted cardiac pacemakers, metal aneurysm clips, or who have broken bones repaired with metal pins, screws, rods, or plates must tell their radiologist prior to having an MRI scan. In some cases (like a metal rod in a reconstructed leg), the difficulty may be overcome.

INJURY. Patients must tell their doctor if they have bullet fragments or other metal pieces in their body from old wounds. The suspected presence of metal, whether from an old or recent wound, should be confirmed before scanning.

OCCUPATIONAL. People with significant work exposure to metal particles (working with a metal grinder, for example) should discuss this with their doctor and radiologist. The patient may need prescan testingusually a single, regular x ray of the eyes to see if any metal is present.

Chemical agents

Chemical agents designed to improve the picture or allow for the imaging of blood or other fluid flow during MRA may be injected. In rare cases, patients may be allergic to, or intolerant of, these agents, and these patients should not receive them. If these chemical agents are to be used, patients should discuss any concerns they have with their doctor and radiologist.

General

The potential side effects of magnetic and electric fields on human health remain a source of debate. In particular, the possible effects on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant, should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

As with all medical imaging techniques, obesity greatly interferes with the quality of MRI.

Description

In essence, MRI produces a map of hydrogen distribution in the body. Hydrogen is the simplest element known, the most abundant in biological tissue, and one that can be magnetized. It will align itself within a strong magnetic field, like the needle of a compass. The earth's magnetic field is not strong enough to keep a person's hydrogen atoms pointing in the same direction, but the superconducting magnet of an MRI machine can. This comprises the magnetic part of MRI.

Once a patient's hydrogen atoms have been aligned in the magnet, pulses of very specific radio wave frequencies are used to knock them back out of alignment. The hydrogen atoms alternately absorb and emit radio wave energy, vibrating back and forth between their resting (magnetized) state and their agitated (radio pulse) state. This comprises the resonance part of MRI.

The MRI equipment records the duration, strength, and source location of the signals emitted by the atoms as they relax and translates the data into an image on a television monitor. The state of hydrogen in diseased tissue differs from healthy tissue of the same type, making MRI particularly good at identifying tumors and other lesions. In some cases, chemical agents such as gadolinium can be injected to improve the contrast between healthy and diseased tissue.

A single MRI exposure produces a two-dimensional image of a slice through the entire target area. A series of these image slices closely spaced (usually less than half an inch) makes a virtual three-dimensional view of the area.

Regardless of the exact type of MRI planned, or area of the body targeted, the procedure involved is basically the same. In a special MRI suite, the patient lies down on a narrow table and is made as comfortable as possible. Transmitters are positioned on the body and the table moves into a long tube that houses the magnet. The tube is as long as an average adult lying down, and is open at both ends. Once the area to be examined has been properly positioned, a radio pulse is applied. Then a twodimensional image corresponding to one slice through the area is made. The table then moves a fraction of an inch and the next image is made. Each image exposure takes several seconds and the entire exam will last anywhere from 30 to 90 minutes. During this time, the patient must remain still as movement can distort the pictures produced.

Depending on the area to be imaged, the radio-wave transmitters will be positioned in different locations.

  • For the head and neck, a helmet-like covering is worn on the head.
  • For the spine, chest, and abdomen, the patient will be lying on the transmitters.
  • For the knee, shoulder, or other joint, the transmitters will be applied directly to the joint.

Additional probes will monitor vital signs (like pulse, respiration, etc.) throughout the test.

The procedure is somewhat noisy and can feel confining to many patients. As the patient moves through the tube, the patient hears a thumping sound. Sometimes, music is supplied via earphones to drown out the noise. Some patients may become anxious or feel claustrophobic while in the small, enclosed tube. Patients may be reassured to know that throughout the study, they can communicate with medical personnel through an intercom-like system.

Recently, open MRIs have become available. Instead of a tube open only at the ends, an open MRI also has opening at the sides. Open MRIs are preferable for patients who have a fear of closed spaces and become anxious in traditional MRI machines. Open MRIs can also better accommodate obese patients, and allow parents to accompany their children during testing.

If the chest or abdomen is to be imaged, the patient will be asked to hold his to her breath as each exposure is made. Other instructions may be given to the patient as needed. In many cases, the entire examination will be performed by an MRI operator who is not a doctor. However, the supervising radiologist should be available to consult as necessary during the exam, and will view and interpret the results sometime later.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is different from MRI because MRS uses a continuous band of radio wave frequencies to excite hydrogen atoms in a variety of chemical compounds other than water. These compounds absorb and emit radio energy at characteristic frequencies, or spectra, which can be used to identify them. Generally, a color image is created by assigning a color to each distinctive spectral emission. This comprises the spectroscopy part of MRS. MRS is still experimental and is available only in a few research centers.

Doctors primarily use MRS to study the brain and disorders like epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease , brain tumors, and the effects of drugs on brain growth and metabolism. The technique is also useful in evaluating metabolic disorders of the muscles and nervous system.

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is another variation on standard MRI. MRA, like other types of angiography, looks specifically at fluid flow within the blood (vascular) system, but does so without the injection of dyes or radioactive tracers. Standard MRI cannot make a good picture of flowing blood, but MRA uses specific radio pulse sequences to capture usable signals. The technique is generally used in combination with MRI to obtain images that show both vascular structure and flow within the brain and head in cases of stroke, or when a blood clot or aneurysm is suspected.

MRI technology is also being applied in the evaluation of the pancreatic and biliary ducts in a new study called magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP). MRCP produces images similar to that of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), but in a non-invasive manner. Because MRCP is new and still very expensive, it is not readily available in most hospitals and imaging centers.

Preparation

In some cases (such as for MRI brain scanning or MRA), a chemical designed to increase image contrast may be given immediately before the exam. If a patient suffers from anxiety or claustrophobia, drugs may be given to help the patient relax.

The patient must remove all metal objects (watches, jewelry, eye glasses, hair clips, etc.). Any magnetized objects (like credit and bank machine cards, audio tapes, etc.) should be kept far away from the MRI equipment because they can be erased. The patient cannot bring any personal items such as a wallet or keys into the MRI machine. The patient may be asked to wear clothing without metal snaps, buckles, or zippers, unless a medical gown is worn during the procedure. The patient may be asked not to use hair spray, hair gel, or cosmetics that could interfere with the scan.

Aftercare

No aftercare is necessary, unless the patient received medication or had a reaction to a contrast agent. Normally, patients can immediately return to their daily activities. If the exam reveals a serious condition that requires more testing or treatment, appropriate information and counseling will be needed.

Risks

MRI poses no known health risks to the patient and produces no physical side effects. Again, the potential effects of MRI on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant, should carefully discuss this issue with her doctor and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

Normal results

A normal MRI, MRA, MRS, or MRCP result is one that shows the patient's physical condition to fall within normal ranges for the target area scanned.

Abnormal results

Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms or negative results from other tests indicate a need. There often exists strong evidence of a condition that the scan is designed to detect and assess. Thus, the results will often be abnormal, confirming the earlier diagnosis. At that point, further testing and appropriate medical treatment is needed. For example, if the MRI indicates the presence of a brain tumor, an MRS may be prescribed to determine the type of tumor so that aggressive treatment can begin immediately without the need for a surgical biospy.

Resources

BOOKS

Faulkner, William H. Tech's Guide to MRI: Basic Physics, Instrumentation and Quality Control. Malden: Blackwell Science, 2001.

Fischbach, F. T. A Manual of Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests. 6th Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1999.

Goldman, L., and Claude Bennett, eds. Cecil Textbook of Medicine. 21st Edition. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 2000: pp 977970.

Kevles, Bettyann Holtzmann. Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997.

Roth, Carolyn K. Tech's Guide to MRI: Imaging Procedures, Patient Care and Safety. Malden: Blackwell Science,2001.

Zaret, Barry L., and others, eds. The Patient's Guide to Medical Tests. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,1997.

PERIODICALS

Carr-Locke, D., and others, "Technology Status Evaluation: Magnetic Resonance Cholangiopancreatography." Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (June 1999): 85861.

ORGANIZATIONS

American College of Radiology. 1891 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 22091. (800) ACR-LINE. <http://www.acr.org>.

American Society of Radiologic Technologists. 15000 Central Avenue SE, Albuquerque, NM 871233917. (505) 2984500. <http://www.asrt.org>.

Kurt Richard Sternlof Laith Farid Gulli, M.D.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

views updated May 29 2018

Magnetic resonance imaging

Definition

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a unique and versatile medical imaging diagnostic tool. Using MRI, physicians obtain highly refined images of the body's interior. Strong magnetic fields and pulses of radio waves manipulate the body's natural magnetic, producing images not possible with other diagnostic imaging methods. MRI is particularly useful for imaging the brain and spine, as well as the soft tissues of joints and the interior structure of bones. The entire body can be imaged using MRI, and the technology poses few known health risks.


Purpose

MRI was developed in the 1980s. The latest additions to MRI technology are magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). MRA studies blood flow, while MRS identifies the chemical composition of diseased tissue and produces color images of brain function. The many advantages of MRI include:

  • Detail. MRI creates precise images of the body based on the varying proportions of magnetically polarizable elements in different tissues. Very minor fluctuations in chemical composition can be determined. MRI images have greater subject contrast than those produced with standard x rays, computed tomography (CT), or ultrasound, all of which depend on the differing physical properties of tissues. This contrast sensitivity lets MRI distinguish fine variations in tissues deep within the body. It is particularly useful for spotting and distinguishing diseased tissues (tumors and other lesions) early in their development. Often, physicians prescribe an MRI scan to more fully investigate earlier findings from other imaging techniques.
  • Scope. All body parts can be imaged using MRI. Moreover, MRI scans are not adversely affected by bone, gas, or body waste, which can hinder other imaging techniques. (The scans can, however, be degraded by motion such as breathing, heartbeat, and normal bowel activity.) A close series of two-dimensional images can provide a three-dimensional view of a targeted area. Unlike other techniques, MRI can provide images in multiple planes.
  • Safety. MRI does not depend on potentially harmful ionizing radiation, as do standard x rays and CT scans . There are no known risks specific to the procedure, other than for people who have metal objects in their bodies.

Physicians sometimes choose other imaging techniques, such as ultrasound scanning, because the MRI process is complex, time-consuming, and costly. The process requires large, expensive, and complicated equipment; a highly trained operator; and a physician specializing in radiology. Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms or negative results from other tests indicate a need. In many cases, an alternative imaging procedure is more appropriate for the type of diagnosis needed. However, some diseases such as multiple sclerosis are best imaged by MRI.

Physicians may prescribe an MRI scan of different areas of the body.

  • Brain and head. MRI technology was developed because of the need for brain imaging. It is one of the few imaging tools that can see through bone (the skull) and deliver high quality pictures of the brain's delicate soft tissue structures. MRI may be needed for patients with symptoms of a brain tumor, stroke, or infection (such as meningitis). MRI also may be needed when cognitive or psychological symptoms suggest brain disease (such as Alzheimer's or Huntington's diseases, or multiple sclerosis), or when developmental retardation suggests a birth defect. MRI can also provide pictures of the sinuses and other areas of the head beneath the face.
  • Spine. Spinal problems can cause neck or back pain, or numbness or weakness in the arm or leg. MRI is particularly useful for identifying and evaluating degenerated or herniated intervertebral discs. It can also be used to determine the condition of nerve tissue within the spinal cord.
  • Joints. MRI scanning is often used to diagnose and assess joint problems. MRI can provide clear images of the bone, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons that comprise a joint. MRI can be used to diagnose joint damage due to sports, advancing age, or arthritis. It can also be used to diagnose shoulder problems, such as a torn rotator cuff. MRI can detect the presence of an otherwise hidden tumor or infection in a joint, and can be used to diagnose the nature of developmental joint abnormalities in children.
  • Skeleton. The properties of MRI that allow it to see though the skull also allow it to view the interior of bones. It can be used to detect bone cancer, inspect the marrow for leukemia and other diseases, assess bone loss (osteoporosis), and examine complex fractures.
  • The rest of the body. While CT and ultrasound satisfy most chest, abdominal, and general body imaging needs, MRI may be required to provide more detailed images in certain circumstances, or when repeated scanning is necessary. MRI is also used in cases when the progress of therapy, such as liver cancer treatment, needs to be monitored, and the effect of repeated x ray exposure is a concern.

Description

Magnetic resonance imaging

MRI produces a map of hydrogen atoms distributed in the body. Hydrogen is the simplest element known, the most abundant in biological tissue, and one that can be magnetically polarized. It will align itself within a strong magnetic field, like the needle of a compass. The earth's magnetic field is not strong enough to polarize a person's hydrogen atoms, but the superconducting magnet of an MRI machine can do this. The strength of the earth's magnetic field is approximately 1 gauss. Typical field strength of an MRI unit, with a superconducting magnet, is 1,500 gauss, expressed as 1.5 kilogauss or 1.5 Tesla units. This comprises the "magnetic" part of MRI. There are also low field units with 0.5 Tesla strength, often with open MRI units.

Once a patient's hydrogen atoms have been aligned in the magnet, pulses of very specific radio wave frequencies jolt them out of alignment. The hydrogen atoms alternately absorb and emit radio wave energy, vibrating back and forth between their resting (polarized) state and their agitated (radio pulse) state. This comprises the "resonance" part of MRI. The patient does not detect this process.

The MRI equipment detects the duration, strength, and source location of the signals emitted by the atoms as they relax. This data is translated into an image on a television monitor. The amount of hydrogen in diseased tissue differs from the amount in healthy tissue of the same type, making MRI particularly effective at identifying tumors and other lesions. In some cases, chemical agents such as gadolinium can be injected to improve the contrast between healthy and diseased tissue.

A single MRI exposure produces a two-dimensional image of a slice through the entire target area. A series of these image slices closely spaced (usually less than half an inch [1.25 cm]) provides a virtual three-dimensional view of the area.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is different from MRI because MRS uses a continuous band of radio wave frequencies to excite hydrogen atoms in a variety of chemical compounds other than water. These compounds absorb and emit radio energy at characteristic frequencies, or spectra, that can be used to identify them. Generally, a color image is created by assigning a hue to each distinctive spectral emission. This comprises the "spectroscopy" part of MRS. MRS is still experimental, and is available in only a few research centers.

Physicians mainly use MRS to study the brain and disorders such as epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, brain tumors, and the effects of drugs on brain growth and metabolism. The technique is also useful in evaluating metabolic disorders of the muscles and nervous system.


Magnetic resonance angiography

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is a variation on standard MRI. MRA, like other types of angiography, looks specifically at blood flow within the vascular system, without the injection of contrast agents (dye) or radioactive tracers. Standard MRI cannot detect blood flow, but MRA uses specific radio pulse sequences to capture usable signals. The technique is generally used in combination with MRI to obtain images that show both the structure of blood vessels and flow within the brain and head in cases of stroke, suspected blood clot, or aneurysm. In general, MRA is performed without contrast when examining the brain. Intravenous contrast is usually administered when other blood vessels, such as those in the neck, chest, or abdomen are studied.


Procedure

Regardless of the type of MRI planned, or area of the body targeted, the procedure involved is basically the same, and occurs in a special MRI suite. The patient lies back on a narrow table and is made as comfortable as possible. Transmitters are positioned on the body and the cushioned table that the patient is lying on moves into a long tube that houses the magnet. The tube is the length of an average adult lying down, and the tube is narrow and open at both ends. Once the area to be examined has been properly positioned, a radio pulse is applied. Then a two-dimensional image corresponding to one slice through the area is made. The table then moves a fraction of an inch and the next image is made, and so on. Each image exposure takes several seconds, and the entire exam lasts 3090 minutes. During this time, the patient is not allowed to move. Movement during the scan results in an unclear image.

Depending on the area to be imaged, the radio-wave transmitters are positioned in different locations.

  • For the head and neck, a helmet-like hat is worn.
  • For the spine, chest, and abdomen, the patient lies down on transmitters known as coils.
  • For the knee, shoulder, or other joint, the transmitters are applied directly to the joint.

Additional probes will monitor such vital signs as pulse and respiration.

The process is very noisy and confining. The patient hears a thumping sound for the duration of the procedure. To increase comfort, music supplied via earphones is often provided. Some patients become anxious, or they may panic because they are inside a small, enclosed tube. This is why vital signs are monitored, and the patient and medical team communicate with each other. If a patient has claustrophobia, the physician may prescribe an anti-anxiety drug prior to the procedure. If the chest or abdomen is to be imaged, the patient is asked to hold his or her breath for each exposure. Other instructions may be given as needed.

In many cases, the entire examination will be performed by an MRI operator who is not a physician. However, the supervising radiologist should be available to consult as necessary during the exam, and will view and interpret the results at a later time.


Open MRI units

Many adult patients and, especially children, become extremely claustrophobic when placed inside the confines of a full strength (1.5 Tesla) superconducting magnet. This problem is often severe enough to prevent them from having an MRI scan. In an alternative design, the magnet is comprised of two opposed halves with a large space in between. These units are known as open MRI machines. The advantage is that they can be used for patients who are claustrophobic. The disadvantage is that the field strength of the magnets is lower (usually 0.20.5 Tesla) than with standard full-strength machines. Lower strength magnetic fields require more time for image acquisition, increasing the risk of image problems because patients may have difficulty remaining still for longer periods of time.


Preparation

In some cases (such as for MRI brain scanning or MRA), a chemical designed to increase image contrast may be given by the radiologist immediately before the exam. If a patient suffers from anxiety or claustrophobia, drugs may be given to help the patient relax.

The patient must remove all metal objects (i.e., watches, jewelry, eyeglasses, hair clips). Any magnetized objects, such as credit and bank machine cards or audio tapes, should be kept far away from the MRI equipment because they can be erased. The patient cannnot bring a wallet or keys into the MRI machine. He or she may be asked to wear clothing without metal snaps, buckles, or zippers, unless a medical gown is provided. The patient may also be asked to remove any hair spray, hair gel, or cosmetics that could interfere with the scan.


Side effects

The potential side effects of magnetic and electric fields on human health remain a source of debate. In particular, the possible effects on an unborn baby are not well known. Any woman who is, or may be, pregnant should carefully discuss this issue with her physician and radiologist before undergoing a scan.

Chemical agents may be injected to improve the image or allow for the imaging of blood or other fluid flow during MRA. In rare cases, patients may be allergic to or intolerant of these agents, and should not receive them. If chemical agents are to be used, patients should discuss any concerns they have with their physician and radiologist.

As in other medical imaging techniques, obesity greatly interferes with the quality of MRI.


Aftercare

No aftercare is necessary, unless the patient received medication or had a reaction to a contrast agent. Normally, patients can return to their daily activities immediately. If the exam reveals a serious condition that requires more testing or treatment, appropriate information and counseling will be needed.


Precautions

MRI scanning should not be used when there is the potential for an interaction between the strong MRI magnetic field and metal objects that might be imbedded in a patient's body. The force of magnetic attraction on certain types of metal objects (including surgical steel and clips used to pinch off blood vessels) could move them within the body and cause serious injury. The movement would occur when the patient is placed into and out of the magnetic field. Metal may be imbedded in a person's body for several reasons:

  • Medical. People with implanted cardiac pacemakers , metal aneurysm clips, or who have had broken bones repaired with metal pins, screws, rods, or plates must inform their radiologist prior to having an MRI scan. Generally, a joint replacement or other orthopedic hardware is not a problem if another part of the body is being scanned.
  • Injury. Patients must tell their physicians if they have bullet fragments or other metal pieces in their body from old wounds. The suspected presence of metal, whether from an old or recent wound, should be confirmed before scanning.
  • Occupational. People with significant work exposure to metal particles (working with a metal grinder, for example) should discuss this with their physician and radiologist. The patient may need prescan testingusually a single, standard x ray of the eyes to see if any metal is present.

Normal results

A normal MRI, MRA, or MRS result is one that shows that the patient's physical condition falls within the normal range for the target area scanned.

Generally, MRI is prescribed only when serious symptoms or negative results from other tests indicate a need. There often exists strong evidence of a condition that the scan is designed to detect and assess. Thus, the results will often be abnormal, confirming the earlier diagnosis. At that point, further testing and appropriate medical treatment are needed. For example, if the MRI indicates the presence of a brain tumor, an MRS may be prescribed to determine the type of tumor so that aggressive treatment can begin immediately without the need for a surgical biopsy.


Resources

books

Haaga, John R., et al., eds. Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Whole Body. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1994.

Hornak, Ph.D., P. Joseph. The Basics of MRI. <http//www.cis.rit.edu/htbooks/mri/>.

Zaret, Barry L., et al., eds. The Patient's Guide to Medical Tests. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997.

periodicals

Jung, H. "Discrimination of Metastatic from Acute Osteoporotic Compression Spinal Fractures with MR Imaging." Radiographics 179 (January/February 2003).

Kevles, Bettyann "Body Imaging." Newsweek Extra Millennium Issue (Winter 97/98): 746.

organizations

American College of Radiology. 1891 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 22091. (703) 648-8900. <http://www.acr.org.>.

American Society of Radiologic Technologists. 15000 Central Ave. SE, Albuquerque, NM 87123-3917. (505) 298-4500. <http://www.asrt.org>.

Center for Devices and Radiological Health. United States Food and Drug Administration. 1901 Chapman Ave., Rockville, MD 20857. (301) 443-4109. <http://www.fda.gov/cdrh>.

other

Smith, Steve. "Brief Introduction to FMRI." FMRIB. 1998. <http://www.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fmri_intro/>.


Stephen John Hage, AAAS, RT-R, FAHRA
Lee A. Shratter, M.D.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

views updated May 23 2018

Magnetic resonance imaging

Definition

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a diagnostic imaging procedure that uses radio waves, a magnetic field, and a computer to generate images of the anatomy.

Purpose

MRI is used to visualize the body to assist doctors in their efforts to diagnose certain diseases or conditions and to evaluate injuries. For pediatric imaging, MRI is used for a variety of purposes, including the following:

  • diagnosing diseases of the central nervous system, including the brain and spine
  • detecting musculoskeletal disorders and injuries
  • identifying complications of infectious diseases, such as those associated with Lyme disease or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
  • imaging the cardiovascular system
  • detecting congenital heart defects in neonates
  • determining the stage of certain types of cancer
  • evaluating bone marrow disease
  • assessing blood vessels in the brain for stroke and other abnormalities
  • assisting in the planning of surgery and cancer treatment
  • evaluating the urinary tract

MRI provides images with excellent contrast that allow clinicians to clearly see details of soft tissue, bone, joints, and ligaments. MRI angiography is an imaging technique used to evaluate the blood vessels, for example, to detect aneurysms or cardiovascular problems. Because MRI does not use ionizing radiation to produce images, like x ray and CT, it is often the examination of choice for pediatric imaging and for imaging the male and female reproductive systems, pelvis and hips, and urinary tract and bladder.

MRI can also be used to evaluate brain function for assessing language, senses, neurologic disorders, and pain . This technique, called functional MRI, involves rapid imaging to display changes in the brain's blood flow in response to tasks or visual and auditory stimuli. Functional MRI is being researched to image neurologic disorders, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), delayed cognitive development , and epilepsy.

MRI spectroscopy is another emerging imaging technique for evaluating pediatric brain disorders. In MRI spectroscopy, chemicals in the brain are measured and brain tissue is imaged. This technique is being investigated to evaluate traumatic brain injury, speech delay, creatine deficiency syndromes, and mood disorders in young children.

Interventional and intraoperative MRI is another developing field that involves performing interventional procedures, primarily brain surgeries, using a specially designed MRI unit in an operating room.

Description

MRI is performed using a specialized scanner, a patient table, systems that generate radio waves and magnetic fields, and a computer workstation. The scanner, which is usually shaped like a large rectangle with a hole in the center, contains the systems that generate the magnetic field. A motorized and computer-controlled patient table moves into the scanner's center hole during the scan. A technologist operates the MRI scanner from an adjacent control room that contains a computer system and an intercom system for communicating with the patient during the scan.

In most MRI scanners, the patient opening is like a long tube, and some patients may become claustrophobic. To be more patient-friendly, different types of MRI scanners have been developed. Newer MRI scanners have shorter patient openings that allows the patient's head to remain outside the machine during body scans. Open MRI scanners are available with columns and open sides to alleviate claustrophobia.

Depending on the body area being scanned, special body coils may be used to enhance the images. These coils are foam and plastic braces or wraparound pads that are placed on the body part being imaged. For head imaging, the coil may be shaped like a head or neck rest.

Children undergoing an MRI scan are appropriately positioned on the patient table by the technologist. For some scans, an injected contrast material may be used and is administered using an intravenous catheter. Once the patient is positioned, the technologist goes to an adjacent control room to operate the scanner. The technologist uses an intercom system to instruct the child to hold their breath or remain still at certain times during the scan. Scans range from 30 minutes to 90 minutes, depending on the type of scan. When the MRI machine is scanning, the child hears loud clanging and whirring noises. To alleviate fear or stress related to hearing this noise and being in the small scanning tube, the child may be offered earplugs or specially designed head phones for listening to music. Centers that specialize in pediatric imaging often also have special video goggles so that the child can watch a cartoon or movie during the scan. For infants, neonatal noise guardsspecial padded ear shieldsare available.

MRI scans are performed in a hospital radiology department for inpatients and emergency cases. For scans requested by a physician, the MRI examination can be performed in the hospital radiology department on an outpatient basis or in an imaging center. Hospitals that do not have their own MRI systems may schedule MRI scans by contracting with a company that brings an MRI scanner in a specially designed mobile trailer. Mobile MRI services are frequently used in rural areas. For some conditions, such as orthopedic disorders or injuries, an MRI may be performed in a physician's office using a small MRI unit called an extremity MRI scanner. These scanners are designed to image only the joints or the head. During this type of scan, only the body part to be scanned is placed in the smaller scanner while the patient lies on a couch or sits in a chair.

The images from an MRI examination are called slices, because they are acquired in very small (millimeter-size) sections of the body. The image slices are displayed on a computer monitor for viewing or printed as a film. A specialist called a radiologist interprets the images produced during the MRI examination. For emergency scans, images are interpreted immediately so that the child can be treated quickly. For non-urgent outpatient MRI scans, the radiologist interprets the images and sends a report to the referring physician within a few days.

Precautions

MRI is a safe procedure that does not involve radiation. However, the magnetic field generated during an MRI examination is so strong that metal objects or objects with metal in them, such as jewelry, eyeglasses , oxygen canisters, and even wheelchairs, will be pulled toward the machine. Therefore, MRI staff must take special precautions to ensure that no metallic objects enter the MRI suite. MRI technologists inspect patient clothing and accessories to make sure there are no metals on them during the scan.

Preparation

Prior to any MRI scan, patients are required to remove all metal objects and remove any clothing with metal on them (zippers, snaps). In most cases, parents have to complete a survey regarding their child's past surgical procedures and medical history to indicate whether the child has any metallic implants. Metallic implants include artificial joints, pacemakers, aneurysm clips, metal plates, pins or screws, and surgical staples. Children with metallic implants are likely to undergo a computed tomography (CT) examination instead of an MRI.

Unlike CT, no fasting or laxatives are required prior to an MRI scan. Only one type of MRI scan, called a magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP), which scans the bile ducts, requires that the child not eat or drink anything for two to three hours prior to the scan.

During the examination, the child must lie still. The MRI scanner does make loud noises throughout the examination, which can be frightening for some children. Before the examination, the procedure should be explained to the child, and it should be emphasized that the examination is painless. Most facilities have specially designed music systems so that patients can wear headsets and listen to music during the scan; some facilities even have special video goggles so children can watch a cartoon or movie during the scan.

KEY TERMS

Anaphylaxis Also called anaphylactic shock; a severe allergic reaction characterized by airway constriction, tissue swelling, and lowered blood pressure.

Cholangiopancreatography An examination of the bile ducts and pancreas.

Claustrophobia Fear of small, enclosed spaces.

Computed tomography (CT) An imaging technique in which cross-sectional x rays of the body are compiled to create a three-dimensional image of the body's internal structures; also called computed axial tomography.

Intravenous Into a vein; a needle is inserted into a vein in the back of the hand, inside the elbow, or some other location on the body. Fluids, nutrients, and drugs can be injected. Commonly called IV.

Radiography Examination of any part of the body through the use of x rays. The process produces an image of shadows and contrasts on film.

Radiologist A medical doctor specially trained in radiology, the branch of medicine concerned with radioactive substances and their use for the diagnosis and treatment of disease.

Aftercare

No special aftercare is required following MRI scans, unless sedation or general anesthesia was used during the scan. Then children are required to remain in a supervised recovery area for an hour or more following the procedure to monitor for reactions to anesthesia. If injected contrast material is used, some minor first aid (small bandage, pain relief) for the injection site may be necessary.

Risks

MRIs present no radiation exposure. Magnetic fields used in MRI have no side effects for the patient. The contrast material used in MRI contains a material called gadolinium, that is much less likely to cause severe anaphylactic (allergic) reactions than the iodinated material used for CT scans.

Because the MRI examination is long and the patient opening in the machine is small, some children and adolescents may feel claustrophobic. Light sedation or relaxants may be administered, or an MRI scanner with a more open design may be used. For younger infants and children that require sedation or anesthesia to complete the examination, reactions to the anesthesia are possible, including headaches and vomiting .

Parental concerns

Younger children may be frightened of the MRI scanner, and a parent or other family member may be required to be present in the scanning room. To help alleviate fear, taking the child into the MRI room to see the equipment prior to the procedure may be helpful. Anyone remaining in the scanning room during the MRI examination must remove any metal objects, including jewelry and eyeglasses.

Resources

BOOKS

Medical Tests: A Practical Guide to Common Tests. Boston, MA: Harvard Health Publications, 2004.

PERIODICALS

Harvey, D. "Evaluating Pediatric Trauma: Imaging vs. Lab Tests." Radiology Today 5 (August 2, 2004): 1416.

Panigrahy, A., et al. "Advances in Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Pediatric Congenital Heart Disease." Applied Radiology. Supplement (June 2002): 10311.

Surface, D. "MRI Spectroscopy and Pediatric Brain Disorders." Radiology Today 4 (August 4, 2003): 68.

ORGANIZATIONS

American College of Radiology. 1891 Preston White Dr., Reston, VA 20190. Web site: <www.acr.org>.

Radiological Society of North America. 820 Jorie Blvd., Oak Brook, IL 605232251. Web site: <www.rsna.org>.

WEB SITES

"Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)." eMedicine Consumer Health, July 13, 2004. Available online at <www.emedicinehealth.com/Articles/6622-1.asp> (accessed November 29, 2004).

"MR Imaging (MRI)Body." Radiology Info: The Radiology Information Source for Patients, August 2004. Available online at <www.radiologyinfo.com/content/mr%5Fof%5Fthe%5Fbody.htm> (accessed November 29, 2004).

Jennifer Sisk, MA

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