Spain

Spain is located in the southwest of Europe. Its territory extends to most of the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, and several minor enclaves in North Africa, including the cities of Ceuta and Melilla.

Spain is one of the largest Western European countries (505,998 square kilometers; 195,362 square miles), but it is not very densely populated (41.8 million inhabitants, i.e., less than 83 inhabitants per square kilometer, according to the official estimate of 2002). Most of the population lives in the coastal areas, where the climate is mild, even if rather hot in spring and summer in the east and south. Extreme weather conditions prevail in the plateau that makes most of the interior of the peninsula. Thus, it is sparsely populated, with the only exception of the capital city of Madrid (3 million inhabitants).

Spain's geography has rendered communications with continental Europe difficult; the numerous mountainous systems have hampered internal communications. Despite the steady process of deforestation that has occurred in the last centuries, over 33 percent of the Spanish territory is occupied by forests, still one of the highest percentages in Europe.

history

The territory of Spain has been inhabited since remote times. Under Roman, Visigothic, and Arab rules, the Iberian Peninsula came to be regarded as a geographical and cultural unit. The marriage of the monarchs of Castille and Aragón in 1469 was the first step in the road to political unification. But it was only during the War of Independence against the Napoleonic army (1808–1814) that Spain emerged as a modern nation-state .

The chronic weakness of central governments in the nineteenth century prevented the completion of the nation-making process. Political instability and a relatively poor economic performance made Spain one of the more backward countries in Europe. The process of social and economic modernization only took firm roots in the early years of the twentieth century. The proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1936) is generally considered as a first (and missed) attempt at political and social convergence with Western Europe. But social instability led to a failed coup d'etat in 1936, which marked the beginning of the Civil War (1936–1939), in which a fraction of the army actively supported

by Nazi Germany and fascist Italy defeated the Republicans. The leader of the army rebels, General Francisco Franco (1892–1975), established a personal dictatorship in the war's aftermath. The regime characterized itself as "totalitarian " and "national-syndicalist," by which it expressed its ideological affinity with fascism and Nazism. But after 1943, with the collapse of Benito Mussolini's (1883–1945) fascist regime in Italy, and even more so after 1945, Franco was forced to soften the fascist dimensions of his regime, and after 1959 to abandon his self-sufficient conception of the economy, which had hampered economic growth for two decades. Structural reforms led to rather high and sustained rates of economic growth in the 1960s and early 1970s.

The death of Franco in November 1975 marked the beginning of the transition to democracy. The nomination of Adolfo Suárez (b. 1932) as prime minister in 1976 resulted in the dismantling of the basic institutions of the dictatorship and democratic general elections in July 1977. The Unión de Centro Democrático, a coalition of center-of-the-right parties led by Suárez himself, obtained a short but decisive victory. The new government committed itself to drafting a new constitution and making Spain a member of the European Communities.

The new constitution was approved in December 1978, after a national referendum . Suárez obtained a second (and larger) electoral victory in early 1979. However, the stability of the new government was undermined by rapidly growing unemployment rates. Suárez resigned in early 1981. A failed coup d'etat took place before Calvo Sotelo, also a member of UCD, could replace Suárez as prime minister. The economy's worsening performance increased instability and social unrest. In the general elections of 1982, the Social Democrats (Partido Socialista Obrero Español) obtained a landslide victory. Felipe González (b. 1942) became the first socialist prime minister in half a century. His government implemented a program of economic modernization that resulted in dramatic increases of productivity, but also in even higher levels of unemployment. The bases of a mature welfare state were established by making taxation and public expenditure levels converge with those prevailing in Western Europe (the tax burden moved from under 20% of GDP in 1976 to over 32% in 1995). Spain became a member of the European Communities in 1986. This opened a cycle of sustained economic growth. González renewed his parliamentary majorities in 1986, 1989, and 1993.

It was only in 1996 that the Partido Popular (PP or Popular Party) managed to win a general election. The deterioration of the economic climate after 1992, and the involvement of former socialist officials in the dirty war against terrorism in the early 1980s, heavily influenced the result. José María Aznar (b. 1953), the leader of the Popular Party, became prime minister of a minoritarian government supported by the main Basque and Catalan nationalist parties. The new government applied a rigorous economic policy, which made it possible for Spain to become a founding member of the European Monetary Union in 1998. However, sustained economic growth and decreasing unemployment rates came hand in hand with a marked increased in economic inequality. Economic growth fueled the landslide victory of the Popular Party in the general elections of 2000, which resulted in its absolute majority in Parliament. Aznar emphasized his defense of a Spanish communitarian national identity and aligned his foreign policy with that of U.S. President George W. Bush after 2001. The defeat of the Popular Party in the elections of 2004 might indicate that such choices were bound to be deeply controversial in one of the most pro-European member states of the Union. As a result, the Social Democrats returned to power with a comfortable majority, with José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (b. 1960) as prime minister.

socioeconomic conditions and quality of life

Spain is one of the most developed countries in the world according to the United Nations (UN) Human Development Index (it ranks nineteenth in the 2002 index). Spaniards generally live beyond seventy-nine years, one of the highest life expectancies in the world.

Since the mid-1980s Spain has experienced sustained economic growth. In 2001 GDP per head was 19.200 euros (approximately $23,000), 83 percent of the European Union (EU) average. Most workers are employed in the services sector, as is the case in all European countries. High numbers are employed in the construction sector (over 12% of the total workforce according to official 2003 data). The rate of unemployment has been cut in half during the last decade, but remains high at 10.6 percent of the working population (the European average is below 7.5%). Most new jobs are part-time or based on a short-term contract. The female unemployment rate is double the male rate (15.4 and 7.5%, respectively).

The basis of a European-style welfare state was established between 1982 and 1994. However, social expenditure has been sharply reduced in the last years. As of 2004, it stood at 20 percent of the GPD, the same level it reached in 1990. This has resulted in a process of social "de-convergence" with other European states. Health assistance to all residents continues to be provided by public institutions, with out-of-pocket payments limited to pharmaceutical expenses. However, waiting lists have increased and hospital care has deteriorated (in 1999 there were only 413 beds per 100,000 inhabitants). Family and child allowances are very low, while housing programs have been dramatically downsized. This has fostered the growth of regional and personal economic inequalities (Spain is, after Portugal and Greece, the country of the EU with the largest income disparities).

Immigration has resulted in the steep growth of the population in the last ten years (over 5%). In stark contrast, birth rates are among the lowest in the world (with 1 birth per 1,000 inhabitants per year).

the nature of government

Spain proclaims itself a democracy respectful of fundamental rights and freedoms. This aspiration is first and foremost reflected in the fundamental law, that is, the 1978 Constitution. Article 1 defines Spain as a democratic and social state based on the rule of law . The Bill of Rights is heavily indebted to the constitutional traditions common to member states of the EU.

The Constitution identifies Spain as a kingdom; however, the powers of the monarch are purely symbolic.

Spain is divided into seventeen states, made up of one or more of the fifty Spanish provinces. The Constitution lays the groundwork for a federal state but in name only. Vast powers can be (and, in fact, have been) devolved to the states, the Comunidades Autónomas (autonomous regions). States are granted full-blown legislative powers within their substantive powers. Two states (Basque Country and Navarre) obtained financial autonomy through the devolution of taxing powers in the early 1980s, while the others acquired similar autonomy in the late 1990s.

political life

The Constitution establishes a parliamentary system of government both at the federal and state level.

At the federal level legislative power rests with two houses of Parliament: the Congress and Senate. The first is elected according to a proportional system , while each province elects four senators.

The Presidente del Gobierno (the prime minister) is elected by, and accountable to, Congress. However, the mediating role of political parties has resulted in the executive dominance of Parliament.

State parliaments consist of one single chamber, which elects the Presidente de la Comunidad Autónoma (the state prime minister). Executive dominance can also be observed at the state level, perhaps with the exception of those regions where coalition governments are customary (such as is the case in the Basque Country).

The progressive devolution of powers to the states has transformed considerably the size and purpose of the federal administration. It increasingly focuses on a coordinating role of state bureaucracies, both internally and in their relationships with the EU. State bureaucracies grew rapidly in the 1980s and 1990s, as they progressively absorbed a good deal of the tasks and personnel of the central administration. Membership in the EU resulted in increased capabilities and a progressive, albeit slow, modernization of the bureaucracy .

The court system is based on jurisdictional specialization. Civil, penal, administrative, and labor courts exist. Their powers are established on the basis of the nature of the cases at hand.

States have assumed powers in the administration of justice. This means that, for most purposes, the Tribunales Superiores de Justicia (regional supreme courts) are the courts of last instance. Equality before the law is ensured by the possibility of further appeal to a federal Supreme Court, although under limited circumstances. There are special federal courts with exclusive powers in regard to certain crimes. Moreover, the supervision of judges lies in the hands of a federal institution, the Consejo General del Poder Judicial (the General Council of the Judiciary).

The Constitutional Court is the guardian of the constitutionality of federal and state statutes . It is expected to solve conflicts of authority between the federal state and the states. It also reviews the constitutionality of statutes on the basis of not only complaints from institutional parties, but also individual complaints if one fundamental constitutional right is at stake (the so-called recurso de amparo).

citizen participation, responsibilities, freedoms, rights, and liberties

All Spanish citizens over eighteen years of age have the right to vote. Voting is not compulsory. According to EU law, European citizens who are residents in Spain have the right to vote in local elections. Such a right is also granted, on a reciprocal basis, to the nationals of other countries.

Elections to national, regional, and local institutions are held every four years. Elections to the European Parliament are held every five years.

Turnout tends to be rather high throughout the country (ranging from 70–80% of those entitled to vote), with the only major exception being the elections to the European Parliament.

Political mobilization was high in the years following the establishment of democracy, but has declined since then. Affiliation with political parties and trade unions remains low, although an increasing number of Spaniards have become active in new types of political organizations, such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs).

It must also be said that mass mobilizations against the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 resulted in renewed political activism, especially among the young urban population. This might have been one of the causal factors behind the results of the 2004 general election.

The federal structure of Spain is reflected in its political party system. Three large national parties exist: Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE or the Spanish Socialist Workers Party) a mainstream Social Democratic party, with 164 of the 350 members of Congress (MPs) in 2004; Partido Popular (PP or Popular Party), the successor of a hard-line conservative party, refounded in 1993 as a Europeanized conservative party, 148 MPs in 2004; Izquierda Unida (IU or United Left), a coalition of left-wing parties, whose main partner is the Spanish Communist Party, 5 MPs in 2004.

Several regional parties flourish, with a strong presence in their states. The main five are Convergencia i Unió (CIU or Union and Convergence Party), a center-right party that ruled Catalonia for twenty-five years and was the key partner in national government coalitions from 1993 to 2000, 10 MPs in 2004; Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (ERC or Republican Catalonian Left), a left-wing party with historical roots that ruled Catalonia before the Civil War and has regained political ground in the last two years, 8 MPs in 2004; Partido Nacionalista Vasco (PNV-EAJ), the conservative and ruling party in the Basque Country since 1979, 7 MPs in 2004; and Eusko Alkartasuna (EA), the main government partner of the PNV, although with center-left leanings, 1MP in 2004.

The two main, and occasionally rival, trade unions are Comisiones Obreras (CCOO or Workers' Commissions), originally a communist union, and Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT or Workers' General Union), the historical counterpart of the PSOE. Employers are organized in the Confederación Española de Empresarios (CEOE or Confederation of Spanish Entrepreneurs). The CCOO, UGT, and CEOE play a central role in collective bargaining; the government usually consults with them before adopting any new labor laws.

Individual rights and personal freedoms are guaranteed by a three-tier system: the 1978 Spanish Constitution (with review powers entrusted to the Spanish Constitutional Court), the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (under the jurisdiction of the Court of Justice of the European Communities), and the European Convention of Human Rights (under the jurisdiction of the European Court of Human Rights).

Both the death penalty and life imprisonment are considered unconstitutional. However, there were several instances of severe violation of civic rights within the context of the fight against terrorism in the 1980s and 1990s. The European Committee for the Prevention of Torture also continues to assess in rather negative terms the living conditions in Spanish prisons, which are chronically overcrowded.

See also: Constitutional Courts; European Union; Parliamentary Systems.

bibliography

Carr, Raymond. Spain: A History. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Closa, Carlos and Paul M. Heywood. Spain and the European Union. Houndmills, UK: Palgrave, 2004.

Gunther, Richard, Giacomo Sani and Goldie Shabad. Spain After Franco: The Making of a Competitive Party System. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.

Heywood, Paul M. The Government and Politics of Spain. Houndmills, UK: Palgrave MacMillan, 1995.

Jones, Rachel. Beyond the Spanish State: Central Government, Domestic Actors and the EU. Houndmills, UK: Palgrave, 2001.

Maravall, José María. Regimes, Politics, and Markets: Democratization and Economic Change in Southern and Eastern Europe. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Ross, Christopher, J. Contemporary Spain: A Handbook, 2nd ed. London: Arnold, 2002.

Agustín José Menéndez