Turks

PRONUNCIATION: TURKS
LOCATION: Turkey
POPULATION: 70.6 million
LANGUAGE: Turkish
RELIGION: Islam (Sunni Muslim majority, Alevi Muslim minority)

INTRODUCTION

The Turks' pride in their country and their nationality is expressed in the popular slogan, first coined by the great Turkish nationalist leader Atatürk: Ne mutlu Türkum diyene ("How happy is he who can say he is a Turk"). Turkey is a land of opposites, belonging to both the East and the West. It is a Middle Eastern state and a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Historically, it has been a center of both Christianity and Islam. It has been variously regarded as both a first-world economy and a developing nation. In the 2000s, there are many oppositions at the forefront of events in Turkey. One is between the statist-secularist tradition begun by Atatürk in the 1920s and the liberal pro-Islam movement of Justice and Development Party of Prime Minister Erdo?an. Another opposition is between the Turkish state and many of Turkey's Kurds, who seek greater autonomy for the Kurdish-majority provinces of Eastern and Southeastern Turkey.

The land known today as Turkey has only been inhabited by Turkish peoples since the 11th century. Before that, it was home to many different groups, including the ancient Hittites, Greeks, Persians, and Romans. In 330 ce, present-day Istanbul, previously known as Byzantium, was named Constantinople by the Roman Emperor Constantine I and became the seat of the Byzantine Empire (and later of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, when it officially broke from Roman Catholicism). The ancestors of today's Turks, known as the Seljuk Turks, won control of the region from the Byzantines in 1071 ce.

By the 15th century, Turkish culture and the Turkish language had spread throughout Asia Minor (as the region was then called), although the Seljuks themselves had been driven from power in the Mongol invasion of 1243. Turkish power revived under the Ottomans, who conquered Constantinople in 1453, eventually building an empire of some 28 million inhabitants that included not only Asia Minor but stretched as far as North Africa and the Caucasus. The power of the Ottoman Empire reached its height during the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent in the 16th century, when the Ottoman armies made inroads into Europe, and the skylines of the empire's great cities, including Istanbul, Mecca, and Jerusalem, were transformed by the mosques and mausoleums of the architect Sinan under Süleyman's patronage.

Between the 17th and 19th centuries, the Ottoman empire suffered a gradual decline, eclipsed by the great European powers to the west. The defeat of the Turks in World War I, which they entered on the side of the Central Powers, signaled the final dissolution of their empire, by then known as "the sick man of Europe." The harsh conditions imposed on the Turks by the victorious Allied Powers helped instigate a nationalist uprising led by Mustafa Kemal (later known as Atatürk), who presided over the formation of a secular democratic republic in 1923 and, over the 15 years until his death in 1938, implemented many reforms to modernize and secularize the Turkish nation.

Turkey maintained a position of neutrality during most of World War II and became a charter member of the United Nations in 1945. Since the end of World War II, a backlash against Atatürk's secularization measures—known in Turkey as the "Reaction"—has consistently figured to some extent in the country's political life, often exploited by individual politicians for the purpose of gaining votes. Political rule has been marked by coups in 1960 and 1980, neither of which resulted in long-term military rule. In 1974 Turkey invaded Cyprus after a coup that overthrew that country's president, fearing that Greece would annex the island. Turkey's actions resulted in economic and arms embargoes by other nations.

In the wake of the 1991 Gulf War, Kurdish separatists intensified their terrorist activities, resulting in retaliation by the military and international condemnation of human rights abuses. Estimates in 2008 placed the number of Kurds displaced by the conflict at about 1 million. The late 1990s saw the rise of pro-Islam political parties in Turkey. The Welfare Party of Necmettin Erbakan briefly held power in 1997. Its rule was ended by a request from the secularist military that the party step down. Since 2001, the pro-Western, pro-Islam Justice and Development Party (AKP) of Recep Tayyip Erdo?an has held power in Turkey. Although more moderate than its Islamist predecessors, the party is facing closure by the Constitutional Court on the grounds that it seeks to overthrow Turkey's secular system.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

Turkey, lying partly in Europe and partly in Asia, has historically served as a bridge between the two continents. With a total area of 779,452 sq km (301,063 sq mi), Turkey is a relatively large country, bounded on the west by Greece, Bulgaria, and the Aegean Sea; on the east by Iran and the former Soviet Union; on the south by Iraq, Syria, and the Mediterranean Sea; and on the north by the Black Sea. It is slightly larger than the state of Texas but has three times the population of the American state. The European portion of Turkey, which is separated from Asian Turkey by the Bosphorus Strait, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles Strait, is commonly known as Thrace and occupies only 3% of the country's area; the Asian portion, called Anatolia or Asia Minor, accounts for the rest.

At the end of 2007 Turkey had a population of 70.6 million. Between 80% and 90% of the population is composed of ethnic Turks, with Kurds forming the country's largest ethnic minority (estimates of the Kurdish population range from 6 to 12 million). The precise number of Kurds is difficult to determine, as many Kurdish speakers identify as ethnic Turks and many monolingual Turkish speakers identify as ethnically Kurdish. Other minorities include Arabs, Greeks, Armenians, and three other groups who have their origins in the Caucasus Mountains: the Circassians, the Georgians, and the Laz.

LANGUAGE

More than 90% of Turkey's population speaks Turkish as a first language. In the 1920s the nationalist leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk instituted two major language reforms, replacing the Arabic script used during the Ottoman era with a modified Latin alphabet and attempting to eradicate loan words from Arabic, Persian, and other languages by substituting Turkish ones. Nevertheless, words with Arabic and Persian origins still remain part of the language. In addition, a number of modern words that had no Turkish equivalents were subsequently borrowed from European languages, such as the English-derived otomobil, tren, and taksi.

Turkish has no gender, so there are no distinct pronouns for he, she, and it, and there are no definite or indefinite articles. Turkish words are formed by adding suffixes denoting action, place, possession, and other qualities to a root that does not change. A root and its suffixes can become comprehensive enough to form an entire sentence, the most famous example being the following, which means "Weren't you one of the people whom we tried without success to make resemble the citizens of Afyonkarah?sar?":

Afyonkarahisarl?laturamad?klar?m?zdanmuymustiniz.

There are two forms of "goodbye": allaha?smarlad?k, said by the person who is leaving; and güle güle, said by the person who stays behind. There are also two common words for "no": hay?r, and the more emphatic (and less polite) yok, which literally means "there is none" and is often uttered with raised eyebrows and pursed lips.

FOLKLORE

The Turks have a rich tradition of folktales, some of which can take as long as 30 hours to recite. The most popular and numerous involve the legendary Nasrettin Hoca, a comic figure thought to have been a sage and teacher in Ak?ehir in the 13th century. The following are typical Hoca stories:

One day, the Hoca was sitting in his garden under the shade of a walnut tree. Looking around his garden, he wondered why Allah caused large, heavy watermelons to grow on spindly vines while little walnuts grew on tall trees. He mused that, if he had been the creator, he would have done just the reverse. Just then, a walnut fell from the tree, hitting him on the forehead, and the Hoca thanked Allah for arranging the world just as it was, grateful that he hadn't been struck by a watermelon instead.

When the Hoca lost his donkey, he prayed and thanked God. Asked why he was grateful for losing his donkey, he replied, "I'm fortunate that I wasn't riding him when he got lost, or I would be lost as well."

Other famous folktale heroes include Dedeh Horkut, whose exploits, dating back to the nomadic days of the Turkish people, appear in children's books, and Koro?lu, a Turkish version of Robin Hood. Following are several well-known Turkish proverbs:

    On a winter's day, the fireside is a bed of tulips.
    The only head free of worries is that of a scarecrow.
    Success depends on a man's reputation, not on his soul.
    If you dig a grave for your neighbor, measure it for yourself.

Other folktales include stories told using the shadow puppet characters Karagöz and Hacivat. Karagöz, whose name means "Black Eye," entertains the audience with his low-brow humor. Hacivat is the more dignified and educated of the two, but he is always outsmarted by Karagöz. Karagöz and Hacivat shadow plays are often performed during Ramadan.

RELIGION

More than 99% of Turks are Muslims. Most are HanafiSunni Muslims. Approximately 15%-25% of Turks subscribe to Allevi Islam, a form of Shia Islam. Allevis pray in prayer houses known as Cem Evis. Religious minorities include a small number of Jews whose ancestors fled the Spanish Inquisition in 1492 and found refuge among the Ottomans. There are also small numbers of Armenian, Syrian, and Greek Orthodox Christians. A unique group known as the Dönme are descended from Jews who were followers of the 17th-century false messiah, Shabbatai Zevi, who was ultimately forced to convert to Islam. The religion of the Dönme combines elements of Judaism and Islam.

Although the Turks as a people are Muslims, their country has been a secular state since shortly after World War I, when Atatürk established a democratic republic ruled by codes of law, ending the sovereignty of Islamic law in the country. Nevertheless, Islam is basic to the fabric of everyday life in Turkey. Many Turks interrupt all other activities five times a day for prayer sessions lasting about 10 minutes. The country's religious heritage is also very much in evidence in its legacy of beautiful mosques and minarets that distinguish the Turkish landscape.

Religion is a major point of contention in Turkish society. The leaders of Turkey's judiciary, military, and educational system are highly secularized and suspicious of overt displays of religious piety, such as the wearing of the Muslim headscarf. As of 2008, the popular AK Party of Prime Minister Erdo?an was locked in a struggle with Turkey's secular elite to create more space for the expression of religious beliefs in the public sphere.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

Turkey observes the following secular holidays: New Year's Day (January 1); Children's Day, also known as National Sovereignty Day, which commemorates the establishment of the country's Grand National Assembly in 1923 (April 23); Atatürk's birthday, also National Youth and Sports Day (May 19); Victory Day, commemorating liberation from Greece in 1922 (August 30); Republic Day (October 28 and 29); and the anniversary of Atatürk's death (November 10), a national day of mourning when all forms of entertainment are shut down and the nation observes a moment of silence at 9:05 pm, the hour of Atatürk's death.

The Turks also observe a number of Islamic holidays dated by the lunar calendar. These include Recep Kandili, commemorating the conception of the prophet Muhammad (first Friday of the month of Recep); Miraç Kandili, marking Muhammad's journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and his subsequent ascension to Heaven (26th day of Recep); Berat Kandili, a nighttime holiday similar to All Hallows' Eve in Christianity (14th and 15th days of Saban); and Kadir Gecesi, commemorating the night when the Quran was revealed to Muhammad and he received his calling as the Messenger of God (27th day of Ramazan).

In addition, the Turks, like Muslims in other countries, observe the holy month of Ramazan (called Ramadan in Arab countries), a period of fasting when Muslims do not eat or drink during daylight hours. (Irritability occasioned by this fasting is called Ramazan kafas?- "Ramazan head.") The end of Ramazan is marked by ?eker Bayram?, a three-day national holiday when families pay social calls and children go from door to door asking for sweets.

RITES OF PASSAGE

A number of popular traditional beliefs and superstitions still surround childbirth, including the use of magical formulas to ensure the birth of a son and the belief that a newborn child is especially vulnerable to evil spirits during the first 40 days of life. All male Turkish Muslims are circumcised, either at the age of seven or later as part of an initiation into adulthood.

For Turkish men, military service is another major rite of passage. All Turkish men are required to serve in the military. Before men leave for military service, they often perform a traditional dance with their families.

Wedding ceremonies are performed in the town or city hall and are followed by a private reception with food, dancing, and music. Dowries are still paid by the bride's family in some rural areas.

Funerals in Turkey, as in other Muslim countries, are attended only by men. Usually a mevlud (a poem in honor of the prophet Muhammad's birth) is recited. Like people elsewhere in the Islamic world, the Turks avoid ostentation in connection with death, both in the funeral service and in burial arrangements.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

The Turks are an exceptionally polite people, particularly to visitors, and they use many courteous phrases in everyday conversation. They have three different ways of saying "thank you": sa?ol, te?ekkür edermin, and the French-derived mersi. It is considered impolite to hug or kiss members of the opposite sex in public, and a handshake that is too firm is also considered a sign of bad manners. On the other hand, it is acceptable and customary for men to publicly display physical affection toward each other, embracing and kissing when they greet each other and walking down the street arm-in-arm or holding hands. Atatürk introduced the titles of Mr. and Mrs. (Bey and Hanim) to the country.

A commonly used gesture for "no" consists of raising one's chin and clicking one's tongue, sometimes accompanied by shutting or uplifting one's eyes. ("No" can also be communicated by raising one's eyebrows.) A sharp downward nod means "yes," and shaking one's head sideways means "I don't understand." Waving one's hand up and down with the palm toward the ground is a gesture that means "come here."

Although Turkey is a modern, efficient, secular society, some traditional superstitions and customs persist. For example, charms to ward off the evil eye can be seen in most cars and taxis.

LIVING CONDITIONS

Due to its high rate of population growth and the mass migration of the rural poor to cities following World War II, Turkey faces a housing shortage that is among its most serious social problems. Since the 1950s, new urban dwellers unable to afford decent housing have built large numbers of temporary shelters called gecekondus on the outskirts of major cities such as Ankara and Istanbul. The squatter communities created by these dwellings have turned into permanent urban slums, often lacking such standard features as running water, sewer systems, electricity, and pavements. By the 1980s, it was estimated that more than half the residents of many urban centers lived in gecekondus. The government has taken measures to improve life in these shantytowns, including banning the construction of new gecekondus and making provisions to fund the construction of new housing. Between 30% and 40% of Turkey's population still lives in rural areas, where housing types vary by region. Houses in the rural villages of the Black Sea region are made of wood, whereas those on the Anatolian plateau are generally of sun-dried brick. Village houses are generally two stories high with flat roofs. In the eastern part of the country, many lack running water and some have no electricity.

Health care in Turkey is provided by the government through the Ministry of Health. Availability of qualified medical personnel has improved significantly since the 1980s, but it remains better in urban areas than in rural areas, where it is often still inadequate. Persons living in some areas, such as eastern Anatolia, must travel to provincial capitals for medical care. Infant mortality declined from 120 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1980—then one of the highest rates in the world-to 40 per 1,000 in 2008.

By World War I, the Ottoman Empire already had an extensive railway system that included the famous Orient Express line. The country still has excellent rail transportation, although rail service is not available in some parts of southern and southeastern Turkey. There is a modern highway system connected to Europe by the Bosphorus Bridge, and international air service from Istanbul and Ankara. In the 1990s several new highway projects were underway to ease traffic congestion. The main seaports are Istanbul on the Bosphorus and Izmir on the Aegean Sea. In 2008 a new railway linking Turkey with Georgia and Azerbaijan was completed.

FAMILY LIFE

Traditionally, Turkish marriages were arranged, and in rural areas some still are. The extended family is still important in rural areas, but less so in cities, although it is not unusual for an urban household to include parents, children, and paternal grandparents. In rural areas, women still marry at young ages, and financial arrangements between the two families are important in making marriage decisions. Massive migrations of rural Turks from the Black Sea and Eastern and Southeastern regions to cities across Turkey has led to a decline in the importance of the extended family. It has also increased the number of women in the labor force.

CLOTHING

Modern Western-style clothing has been worn in Turkey since the founding of the republic in the 1920s. In urban areas, both adults and teenagers look much the same as those in the cities of the West, with well-dressed businessmen wearing Italian suits, women taking an interest in the latest fashions from Paris, and young people wearing the universal teen uniform of jeans and athletic shoes. In villages and certain tourist areas, one may still see the traditional salvar, the baggy, loose-fitting trousers worn by both men and women. Bright colors and flowered prints are favored by village women. Although they do not wear veils, many women in rural areas cover their faces with a scarf or handkerchief when they are in close proximity to men they don't know.

Traditional male dress consisted of the salvar, often worn under a long gown with a wide belt in the middle, and the headpiece called a fez (outlawed when Atatürk was in power). In recent years, a style of Muslim headscarf known as the türban has become popular amongst observant Muslim women (this is not to be confused with the head covering worn by males that goes by the same name). Between 1998 and 2008 the türban was officially prohibited in Turkey's universities. Even though approximately 60% of Turkish women cover their heads, many in Turkey's secular elite view the spread of the türban as a worrying sign of increasing religiosity in Turkey.

FOOD

Turkey is famous for its food, which has been called the French cuisine of the East. The most famous dish of Turkish origin is the shish kebab, pieces of lamb grilled on a skewer. Today, the most popular national dish is the döner kebap, lamb roasted on a turning vertical spit, from which slices are cut as it cooks. Turkey is also famous for its appetizers, called meze, made from meat, fish, and vegetables. The most popular include böreks, rolled phyllo dough stuffed with white cheese and parsley; dolma, various types of vegetables stuffed with rice and meat; and imam bay?ld?, eggplant stuffed with ground lamb, onions, and tomatoes. (The name imam bay?ld?, means "the imam swooned," suggesting that the dish was so delicious it made a religious leader faint when he tried it.)

The Turks are also noted for their desserts, ranging from the well-known baklava (small pieces of flaky pastry filled with ground walnuts and dripping in honey) to such exotic creations as "nightingale's nest" and "lady's navel." The basic ingredients of Turkish desserts are milk, honey, eggs, nuts, and phyllo dough. Desserts made with milk include muhallabi (rice pudding with cinnamon) and ke?kül (a milk, almond, and pistachio mixture topped with dried coconut and pistachio).

EDUCATION

In 2004 the adult literacy rate was 87.4% (95.3% for males aged 15 and over, compared with only 79.6% for females of the same age group). Primary education has been available to almost all children between the ages of 6 and 10 since the 1980s. Five levels of education are available: preschool, primary school, middle school, secondary school, and university. Education is not compulsory past middle school, and it is estimated that 89% of children attend primary school. Like medical care in Turkey, the quality of education in rural areas varies significantly. Many rural communities do not have high schools, which sometimes makes it necessary for children to travel great distances if they want to continue their education.

There are several hundred institutions of higher learning in Turkey, including 53 state-supported universities and a number of private universities. In 2005, 2.3 million students were enrolled in Turkish universities, almost double the number that were enrolled 10 years earlier. Students are admitted to Turkey's public universities through a central placement system.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

The whirling dervishes, whose white-clad, rapidly turning figures in their swirling skirts are known the world over, are part of a religious tradition that seeks a mystical union with God through music and dance. The Turks also have a centuries-old tradition of folk dancing that varies from one region to the next, each with its own distinctive homemade costumes.

Turkish painting dates back to the court painters of the Ottoman empire who, among other skills, developed the specialty of miniature painting. The contemporary painter Rahmi Pehlivanli is known for his portraits of leading political and diplomatic figures, as well as his landscapes of different regions of the country.

Several of Turkey's leading literary figures in modern times have been involved in political controversies and their works subjected to censorship. The works of Nazim Hikmet, a Marxist-influenced poet who died in the former Soviet Union in 1963, were banned for years but are now gaining belated recognition. The left-wing satirist Aziz Nesin, who published excerpts from Salman Rushdie's controversial Satanic Verses, was jailed for much of his life. (Nesin died in 1995.) Ya?ar Kemal, a leading novelist, has been harassed in recent years over the content of a newspaper article he authored. Turkey's most famous filmmaker, Y?lmaz Güney, was imprisoned for most of his career, writing screenplays in prison and smuggling them out through friends, together with detailed instructions for their direction. Orhan Pamuk, who won the Nobel Prize for literature in 2006, was charged by state prosecutors with "insulting Turkishness," although he was never convicted.

Traditional Turkish music is rich and complex both harmonically and rhythmically, incorporating dozens of tonal modes in addition to the major and minor scales of Western music and containing meters with such irregular rhythms (to Western ears) as 7, 9, 11, or 13 beats per measure. Traditional instruments include the ud (which resembles a lute), the santur (a Persian version of the dulcimer), and another lute-like instrument, the tanbur.

WORK

The services sector, including a growing tourist industry, accounts for 41.2% of jobs in the Turkish economy. Agriculture accounts for about 35.9%, while industry accounts for about 22.8% of employment. In rural areas, all family members participate in agricultural work, with women routinely performing tasks such as hoeing vegetables and digging out potatoes. Unemployment is a serious problem in Turkey; in 2007 the country's unemployment rate was 9.7%. Unemployment and underemployment are most widespread in the Black Sea and Eastern and Southeastern regions of the country.

SPORTS

The most popular sport in Turkey is soccer, with matches played on weekends between September and May. Like their counterparts in Europe and Latin America, Turkey's soccer fans are wildly enthusiastic, often to the point of violence against each other or against members of losing teams. Large-scale betting is associated with soccer games. Soccer is also played by young people for recreation.

Wrestling is another favorite sport in Turkey, and Turkey has sent many wrestling teams to the Olympic Games. A unique Turkish variety (not represented in the Olympics) is greased wrestling, which makes it harder to hold on to one's opponent. Other sports popular among the Turks include hunting and shooting, skiing (the oldest Turkish ski resort is on Mount Olympus, the legendary home of the gods), and cirit, a traditional sport that involves throwing a javelin while mounted on horseback.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Among the traditional Turkish forms of relaxation, the best known is the steam bath or hamam. Both men and women use the hamam, although they use it separately, either going on alternate days or using separate facilities. Wood-burning stoves are used as heat sources, with bathers absorbing the heat by lying on raised slabs directly above the stoves.

The time-honored leisure-time haunt of Turkish men is the coffeehouse (kiraathane), where backgammon is often played and one can find customers smoking hookahs. In recent years, hookah bars have become popular amongst young people.

In the large cities of the West, such as Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir, many young Turks enjoy going to discos and bars. Popular music is also a source of entertainment. Tarkan, Sezan Aksu, and Mustafa Sandal are all famous Turkish pop singers. Turkey has also produced a number of successful rock and rap groups.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Turkey's most famous handicrafts are its carpets, which sport a dazzling array of designs, many connected with a particular town or region. Most are of the flat-woven kilim variety. Tiles and ceramics have been produced in Turkey since the 11th century and can still be seen adorning the walls of mosques and other buildings.

Another craft found in Turkey is tile making. Turkey's most famous tiles come from the town of Iznik in Western Turkey. The first Iznik tiles date back to Ottoman times. The turquoise tiles are now produced mainly for tourists.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Poverty and unemployment are among Turkey's greatest social problems. In 2003 over 18% of Turks lived on less than $2 per day. Much of the extreme poverty in Turkey is concentrated in the East and Southeast of the country. The conflict with the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), poor infrastructure, and lack of investment have prevented these regions from sharing in the recent prosperity of the rest of the country.

The internal displacement of approximately 1 million Kurdish Turks is another major social problem. Many displaced Kurds live in shantytowns and lack access to educational and employment opportunities. Growing tension between ethnic Turks and ethnic Kurds is also a problem in Turkey. Hundreds of thousands of Kurds have migrated to ethnic Turkish-majority cities, which has contributed to overcrowding. The Kurd-istan Workers' Party (PKK) continues to attack the Turkish military. These PKK attacks cause some Turks to view Kurds negatively.

GENDER ISSUES

The Turkish constitution grants women the same rights it grants men. Turkey had its first woman prime minister in 1993 and women work in nearly all of Turkey's professions.

However, gender inequality is still present in Turkey, just as it is in nearly every other country around the world. For example, virginity is seen as important for women, but not very important for men. In most Turkish families, women are expected to do the housework and prepare meals for the family. Although women participate in politics, they are underrepresented in parliament and in local governments.

Gender inequality is even more pronounced in the rural areas of Eastern and Southeastern Turkey than in other regions of the country. In the East and Southeast, many girls are prevented by their families from finishing high school. Although uncommon, honor killings of women and girls do occur in conservative areas. Honor killings are murders carried out by male family members against female family members suspected of adultery, pre-marital sex, or other actions perceived to bring dishonor to the family.

Homosexuality is not widely accepted in Turkish culture. Homosexuality is not illegal in Turkey, but gays do not have the right to marry or adopt children. Despite negative attitudes towards Lesbian Gay Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) people in Turkey, there are a number of well-known gay and transgender artists in Turkey, such as Bülent Ersoy and Zeki Müren.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ahmad, Feroz. The Making of Modern Turkey. New York: Routledge, 1993.

Arat, Yesim. "Islamic Fundamentalism and Women in Turkey." Muslim World (1990,): 17-23.

Balim, Çigdem, Ersin Kalaycioglu, Cevat Karatas, Gareth Winrow, and Feroz Yawamee, eds. Turkey: Political, Social and Economic Challenges in the 1990s. New York: E. J. Brill, 1995.

Hale, William. Turkey, the US, and Iraq. London: Saqi, 2007.

Kagitcibasi, Cigdem, ed. Sex Roles, Family, and Community in Turkey. Bloomington: Indiana University Turkish Studies, 1982.

Mango, Andrew. The Turks Today. New York: The Overlook Press, 2004.

Metz, Helen Chapin. Turkey: A Country Study. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division. Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1996.

Onder, Sylvia Wing. We Have No Microbes Here: Healing Practices in a Turkish Black Sea Village. Chapel Hill, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2007.

Tapper, Richard, ed. Islam in Modern Turkey: Religion, Politics, and Literature in a Secular State. London: Tauris, 1991.

White, Jenny B. Money Makes Us Relatives: Women's Labor in Urban Turkey. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. White, Jenny. Islamist Mobilization in Turkey: A Study in Vernacular Politics. Washington: University of Washington Press, 2002.

—revised by B. Lazarus