Kadazan

PRONUNCIATION: kah-tah-CHAN
ALTERNATE NAMES: Dusun
LOCATION: Malaysia (Sabahstate)
POPULATION: 514.400 (2004)
LANGUAGE: Kadazandusun
RELIGION: Christianity; Islam; animistic beliefs

INTRODUCTION

Sabah, known as "The Land Below the Wind," is the second-largest state in Malaysia. It is situated on the northern tip of the island of Borneo, bordered by Sarawak on its southwestern side and by Kalimantan to the south. Archeological findings show that Sabah was inhabited by people as early as 28,000 years ago. Certain scholars believe that about 5,000 years ago Sabah was settled by Mongoloid-type peoples, and by the 1st millennium BC, Malayic and other related Mongoloid groups migrated from mainland Asia.

It is believed that Sabah's early inhabitants settled in the coastal areas but were slowly driven inland by the later arrival of other settlers. These later settlers were mainly from Malaya and neighboring islands, settling along the coast and along the banks of rivers when they arrived. The descendants of the displaced groups are believed to be today's Kadazan of Sabah, sometimes known as the Dusun. These displaced peoples over the years remained isolated and insulated from outside influences until the late 17th century.

Prior to the formation of the North Borneo Company in 1877, by an Austrian baron in partnership with a British firm, Sabah was divided under the influences of sultans of Brunei and Sulu. In 1881 the North Borneo Company was upgraded into a Chartered Company, giving it official recognition to rule the 73,300 sq km (28,300 sq mi) of North Borneo until the Japanese invasion in 1942. After the war, Sabah became a British Crown Colony until 31 August 1963, when it obtained self-government from the British. On the 16 September 1963, Sabah, together with Sarawak, Singapore, and Malaya, became the Federation of Malaysia.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

Sabah is not only rich in natural beauty and resources, but also in the cultural heritage of its people. It is endowed with a heterogeneous population and is considered to be a melting pot of many indigenous and immigrant groups. It is estimated that there are some 30 indigenous communities using more than 50 indigenous languages and not less than 80 dialects in Sabah. The largest ethnic group is the Kadazandusun, numbering about 514.400 in 2004, who make up 25% of Sabah's population. The group consists of both Kadazan and Dusun and other subgroups. The other main ethnic groups are the Muruts, Bajau, Paitan, and Chinese. The largest non-indigenous group is the Chinese. They dominate trade and commerce. Nonetheless, many of these ethnic groups share similar oral histories, languages, and traditions.

The Kadazandusun are a collection of ethnic groups who speak similar languages and dialects known as Dusunic family, as well as share a common belief system with variations in customs and practices. Within this group exist at least 10 distinct languages with possibly 30 or more dialects. This includes the various subgroups such as the Kadazan of Penampang and Papar, the Lotud, Dusun, Kwijau, Bisaya, Dumpas, Mankaak, Minokok, Maragang, Tangaah, Liwan, Tatanah, Sino-Natives, the Rungus, and other subgroups from Tempusuk, Tambunan, Ranau, and other districts. The Kadazandusun can be found in all districts, but they are mainly in the western half of Sabah.

LANGUAGE

The various subgroups of Kadazan are speakers of the Dusunic languages with dialectical differences in pronunciation and description of words. The differences are a result of poor communication facilities and environmental evolution in the past. Like most other indigenous groups on the island of Borneo, the Kadazan did not possess a written language until the introduction of formal education in the 18th century, therefore oral traditions were very important among the Kadazan. Most of their knowledge was passed down by oral tradition from generation to generation.

The structure of a Kadazan's name is divided into two parts: the first name is the child's name, and the second is the father's first name. Some common male names are Gimbang, Kunul, Kerupang, Galumau, Gantoung, Empurut, Ampingan, and Sangan. Typical female names are Semitah, Rangkumas, Ansayu, Baimin, Salud, Amin, Halimah, Nani, and Mainah.

FOLKLORE

As is true with many other indigenous people on the island of Borneo, Kadazan folklore plays a major role in Kadazan traditions, customs, and worldviews. One of their most popular folk tales is the myth of their origin. According to legend, all the tribes are believed to have come from one common place called Nunuk Ragang, meaning "Red Casuarina Tree," a fig tree located at the confluence of the Liwagu and Kogibangan rivers in the heart of Sabah. Nunuk Ragang grew in plenty at the Liwagu River in Ranau. It is believed that their ancestors used to swim in the river and climb on the branches of the Nunuk Ragang to sun themselves. Red sap from the Nunuk Ragang roots was thought to have curative elements for different kinds of diseases. The Kadazan lived in abundance at Nunuk Ragang, and as their numbers increased, it became difficult to find enough food for every family within the limited area. In order to solve the problem, the leaders exhorted their followers to move and spread out in search of land and space.

RELIGION

Today, the majority of the Kadazan peoples are Christian, though some profess Islam, while others are followers of their ancestors' animistic beliefs. Even though a large number have converted to Christianity and Islam, many Kadazans still have ritual specialists to perform certain ceremonies. This is particularly true during the Harvest Festival. On the other hand, many of the old customs and traditions, such as headhunting, have ceased among the Kadazan.

According to the Kadazan's traditional beliefs, the spiritual universe is presided over by two supreme deities: kinohoringan (male/husband) and umunsumundu (female/wife). They are husband and wife. Under the command of these two deities are the lesser good and evil spirits that dwell within all objects and the natural environment—the forest, mountains, rivers, caves, and the earth itself—that need to be respected. These spirits must be appeased by means of ceremonial observances. Otherwise, the rogon (evil spirit) will inflict sickness and disease on the people or interfere and withhold blessings in secular world. Therefore, the spirits are presented with offerings and are called to attend the feast. These spirits can be encountered in the forest or sought in sacred places, and they also can be contacted in dreams and through mediums, ritual specialists, or priestesses who are called Babalian or Bobohizan (depending on dialect).

Bobolians or bobohizans play a major role in Kadazan ceremonial rituals. Incantations, prayers, singing, trances and animal sacrifices are common practices at these rituals, some of which can last for days. A bobolian plays a variety of roles. As medium, she beseeches spirits to stay away from newborn babies. As healer, she is engaged to exorcize sicknesses brought by evil spirits. At funerals, she heads the rites that guide the deceased spirit towards its final journey up Mount Kinabalu, which stands at 4,101 m (13,455 ft). It is one of the highest mountains in Southeast Asia. It is believed to be the resting place of the souls of the departed Kadazan peoples.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

The Harvest Festival, known as Magavau among the Kadazan of Sabah, is celebrated annually on May 13 and 14. In 1960, the festival was proclaimed as a public holiday by the state government. It is a festival of celebration in honor of the spirit of rice called "Bambaazon," giving thanks to the spirit for the good harvest. It is both a public and private celebration that involves huge parties, traditional dancing, and beauty contests in various parts of town. However, it is important to note that the celebration of Magavau varies in accordance with the different dialects and districts of the state.

RITES OF PASSAGE

In the past, childbirth was usually done at home with the help of a local midwife or experienced elder. Today, many Kadazan babies are born in hospitals or clinics, though there are others who are still delivered in the traditional method. It is a common practice that when a child is born, a bobolian (priestess) will invoke the spirits and pray over the child for its well-being. This is particularly true among those who still practice the traditional religion. When the newborn child is about a month old, the hair-cutting (momuga) ceremony takes place. It is an announcement of the arrival of a new member in the community. Goats, pigs, and chickens are always slaughtered for this occasion.

Traditionally, there are three stages to a marriage. A marriage enquiry known as monohuku is made when the boy is only 12 years old and the girl is 11. The second stage is momuaboi (engagement) when the proposal is accepted. The final stage is called as matod by the Kadazan. When the parents think that the time has come for their children to be married, normally when the girl is 16 and the boy is 17, the wedding date is fixed mutually between both sets of parents and the couple. During the engagement period, the couple stays with their respective parents. During this time, the boy is obliged to help in his future mother-in-law's house, doing chores, such as collecting firewood, plowing the field, etc. Similarly, the girl is expected to help her future mother-in-law in the kitchen and in planting rice in the fields. This is done to prepare the couple for their life together.

A death in a family or village is announced to relatives and neighbors by the monotonous, fast beat of the gong, or by firing a carbide or kerosene bamboo cannon at frequent intervals. The corpse is draped in a clean white cloth and laid on a mat on the floor in a convenient place in the house. Relatives, neighbors, and friends are expected to pay their last respects to the dead person. Usually, a buffalo is killed and portions of the meat are distributed to visiting mourners, or it is cooked to be served with rice to those present at the funeral.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

It is considered impolite to walk upright in front of those who are seated in the house or longhouses. The usual way is to walk with knees slightly bent, holding both hands stiffly at the sides to avoid one's clothes touching other people, or to put both hands palm-to-palm between your knees, and wedge yourself in.

Visitors and friends are always welcome in a Kadazan home. There is no fixed time for visiting, especially among relatives and friends. Upon arrival at the house, a visitor is expected to take off his or her shoes unless told otherwise. He or she will then be offered betel nut, tobacco, or a cigarette. A visitor is usually asked to stay for the night, even if the visitor does not indicate his or her intention to stay. It is to be noted, however, that when a male visitor pays frequent visits to a house where the house owner has a daughter, it may be taken to mean he is interested in marrying the daughter.

Dating among the Kadazan differs from dating in the West. Even when they are engaged, a boy and a girl are "supervised" or observed by their parents and older siblings. A boy may visit his fiancée's house whenever he likes. The girl may do likewise, but she has to be accompanied by her mother, an aunt or an elder sister. If the boy has an elder sister, the boy is allowed to invite his fiancée to stay a night or two at his parents' house. At the same time if either one of them breaks the rules, a penalty will be exacted. However, it is important to note that many of these customs have changed over the years.

LIVING CONDITIONS

Modernization, education, and improved infrastructure have begun to have impact on Sabah's population. Nonetheless, living standards and conditions among the Kadazandusun vary according to their location. Many continue to live in their traditional areas and maintain a longhouse lifestyle, whereby several families live together under one roof. Meanwhile, those who live in suburban areas have living standards comparable to those found in suburban areas in the United States. They have access to modern health services, tap water, electricity, good public transportation services, and other modern amenities. Most Kadazandusun who live in villages, however, have yet to experience a high standard of living. They still rely on the river for water, kerosene for light, and their feet to get from place to place.

Except for Kadazan and Rungus in Kudat, most have long abandoned their longhouses for individual homes, although the houses are still built of wood, bamboo, and thatch. In recent years, a growing affluence is changing this, replacing thatch with tiles and zinc. However, in places where bamboo is in abundance, some houses are made entirely from bamboo, including the pillars, the roof, the walls, and the floor. This is true in the Tambunan District.

FAMILY LIFE

The nuclear family generally provides the basic social unit of Kadazan society and the basis of the household. It is close-knit in terms of personal obligation and responsibility toward one another. The misfortune or disgrace of one member of the family is deeply felt by all kin; likewise, the good luck and prosperity of one are shared by all. Nonetheless, the high rate of rural-urban migration has led to more intermarriage with other non Kadazandusun groups.

A family consists of a husband, a wife, and their children. Sometimes a household includes other members of the extended family, such as grandparents, uncles, and aunts. A woman's primary role is to raise her children and to see daily that the family has enough food to eat. She is responsible for collecting jungle vegetables like fern tops, mushrooms, and young leaves for the evening, while her husband contributes fish or meat to the pot. Every evening the wife is responsible for preparing a good meal for her family.

Like most other native marriage customs in Borneo, the Kadazan marriage is fiercely monogamous. Adultery committed by either the husband or wife is severely punished.

A family may rear chickens, pigs, dogs, and cats not as house pets but for other purposes. Pigs, ducks, and chicken are reared for domestic consumption, while dogs are reared for hunting and cats to chase or kill rats and mice in the house and farms.

CLOTHING

Most of the traditional costumes worn by Kadazan men and women are predominantly dark or black in color. However, today a modern adaptation to the original attire is rich decoration done with colorful embroidery, glittering sequins, and imported gold lace trimming, as well as handmade lace from imported gold thread or yarn. The women's skirts reach down 5 cm (2 in) above the kneecap, with red embroidery running down the sides. Silver coin belts, rattan or beaded waist bands, beaded necklaces, and other silver ornaments and accessories are worn with these costumes. The color of the rattan waist band worn around the waist holds special meaning. Red denotes that the wearer is not a mother, while black denotes that she is, and white signifies that the wearer is a grandmother.

For their headgear, the women wear hats and/or scarves, while the men wear a head cloth called sigah or kain dasar, a piece of cloth draped, folded, and tied according to the style and pattern of the district. It is important to note that dress codes vary from one district to another.

Today, Kadazan women and men wear Western-style clothing for everyday use. This includes skirts, blouses, shirts, pants, tank tops, etc.

FOOD

As in most societies in Asia, rice forms the staple food of the Kadazandusun diet. Rice is eaten at every meal, with meat and/or vegetable dishes. In the village the woman is responsible for collecting vegetables such as young ferns, mushrooms, bamboo shoots, etc., for breakfast, lunch, and dinner. The man is responsible for bringing meat or fish for the meals. Young ferns are one of the Kadazan's traditional foods. There are normally stir-fried with garlic, onion, and shrimp paste, and are served with steamed rice. Nowadays, most Kadazan's kitchen utensils include pans, pots, plates, forks, spoons, etc., which are available in department stores. In the old days, most of their utensils were made from bamboo, wood, and rattan.

EDUCATION

The Kadazan have responded positively to the Malaysian government's effort to encourage education. This is because education can raise living standards by creating wider job opportunities. Consequently, many are able to read and write in both Malay and English. Children at the age of six are required to go to elementary school, and continue on to lower and upper secondary schools. Many obtain the Malaysian Education Certificate, which is equal to a high school diploma in the United States, and some go on to obtain degrees from local or foreign universities or other higher learning institutions. Parental support and encouragement have been driving forces behind the academic success of many Kadazan. Formal education is seen as an avenue toward success in the modern world.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

Music and dance are closely related among the Kadazan. Both are vital parts of nearly every social event, particularly at the village level. Music is played during wedding celebrations, engagement parties, harvest festivals, first birthday parties and animistic religious ceremonies. A Kadazan wedding sees a rare airing of traditional instruments such as the bronze kulintangan (gongs) and gendang (drums made from wood and leather or calfskin). The sompotan, a mouth organ, is another instrument that is popular among the Kadazan. Made from a dried bitter gourd, it is produced in Tambunan and traded throughout Sabah. Sumazan is a dance between a male and female performed by couples or a group of couples to a symphony of kulintangan.

Since the Kadazan did not have a written language in the past, their stories, songs, history, legends, and myths were passed down orally. Only in recent years have measures been taken to document these stories in books, articles, and journals.

WORK

Although the Kadazan were originally farmers or agriculturalists, many have migrated to urban centers and have become prominent figures in the civil service and other professions. In the interior, rice planting is the most common occupation, although, with the introduction of other cash crops such as rubber and coffee, this is likely to change. In hilly areas, some Kadazan still practice shifting rice cultivation. However, this is gradually dying out. Government efforts to modernize and improve socioeconomic status have enabled the Kadazandusun to become part of mainstream society. As a result, a number of them are now political leaders, entrepreneurs, and professionals.

SPORTS

In the past, swimming in the river and climbing trees were the popular sports among the children. Today, both children and adults are becoming more acquainted with sports such as soccer, volleyball, and basketball. In the evening, after they return home from their farms, they get together to play a game in the yard.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

The type of entertainment or recreation that Kadazan enjoy depends on their locality. Kadazan in urban areas have easy access to movies, television, etc., comparable to residents of major cities in the United States or United Kingdom, and their forms of entertainment are very different from those Kadazan who still live in the village. Traditional music, songs, and dance are some forms of entertainment that are still very popular in the village. However, television and videos are becoming an increasingly widespread form of entertainment.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

The availability of local materials, such as bamboo and wood, has greatly influenced the nature of handicrafts of the Kadazan. Bamboo is used for making different kinds of household utensils, baskets, and mats. It is also widely used to build houses and fences. Wood and rattan are two durable materials widely used by the interior people for making huts, baskets, and decorative wall hangings. Rattan is also useful for tying pieces of wood or bamboo together. The weaving of baskets, mats, and other household utensils is done mostly by women during their free time.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

The Kadazan and most natives of Borneo are facing one common problem: obtaining legal rights over their ancestral lands. They are faced with the dilemma of having to give up their rights to the land in favor of land development programs, usually initiated by the state or federal government. Although the socioeconomic status of the Kadazandusun has improved in recent years, they have to cope with changes to their traditional values. For instance, extended families with several generations staying together are being replaced by nuclear families. This has implications on traditional social and support network.

GENDER ISSUES

Like the Iban of Sarawak, the Kadazandusun maintain an egalitarian society with a bilateral descent system. In this sense, men and women has equal standing in the society. However, there is a clear sense of division of labor between men and women. In the village, for instance, the woman is responsible for collecting vegetables, such as young ferns, mushrooms, bamboo shoots, etc., for breakfast, lunch, and dinner. The man is responsible for bringing meat or fish for the meals.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chay, Peter. Sabah: The Land below the Wind. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Foto Teknik Sdn. Bhd, 1988.

Regis, Patricia. "Classification and identity of Sabah's indigenous groups," In The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Peoples and Traditions, edited by Hood Sellah, 108–109. Kuala Lumpur: Editions Didier Millet, 2006.

Sabah Museum. Sabah's Heritage: A Brief Introduction to Sabah's History and Heritage. Kota Kinabalu: Sabah Museum, 1992.

Teo, Albert C. K., and A. G. Sullivan. Sabah: Land of the Sacred Mountain. Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia: Sabah Handicraft, 1988.

—by P. Bala