Matrix

views updated May 21 2018

Matrix

Resources

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or number-like elements:

In the example on the left, 1 1 and 2 0 are its rows; 1 2 and 1 0, its columns. In the example on the right there are three rows and two columns, making it a 3 2 matrix. When subscripted variables are used to represent the elements, the first subscript names the row, the second, the column: a row, column. For example, a 21 is in the second row and first column, but a12 is in the first row, second column. Except when there is danger of confusion, the subscripts need not be separated by a comma. Some authors enclose a matrix in brackets: other authors use parentheses, as above.

Matrices can also be represented with single letters A, I, or with a single subscripted variable (aij = bij) if and only if aij =bij for all i, j, which says symbolically that two matrices are equal when their corresponding elements are equal.

Under limited circumstances matrices can be added, subtracted, and multiplied. Two matrices can be added or subtracted only if they are the same size. Then (aij) + or (bij) = (aij) = (bij), which says that the sum or difference of two matrices is the matrix formed by adding or subtracting the corresponding elements.

These rules for adding and subtracting matrices give matrix addition the same properties as ordinary addition and subtraction. It is closed (among matrices of the same size), commutative, and associative. There is an additive identity (the matrix consisting entirely of zeros) and an additive inverse:

-(aij) = (-aij)

This latter definition allows one to subtract a matrix by adding its opposite:

A - B = A + (-B)

Multiplication is much trickier. For multiplication to be possible, the matrix on the left must have as many columns as the matrix on the right has rows. That is, one can multiply an m × n matrix by an n × q matrix but not an m × n matrix by an p × q matrix if p is not equal to n. The product of an m × n matrix and an n × q matrix will be an m × q matrix.

Multiplication is best explained with an example:

The 5 in the product comes from (1) (5) + (3) (0). The -1 comes from (1) (2) + (3) (-1). The 7 comes from (1) (1) + (3) (2). In the second row of the product,

10 = (2) (5) + (2) (0); 3 = (2) (2) + (1) (-1); and 4 = (2)

(1) + (1) (2).

Each row in the matrix on the left has been multiplied by each column in the matrix on the right. Mathematicians say multiplied because each row on the left is a two-number row, and each column on the right is a two-number column. These numbers have been paired off, multiplied, and added. This kind of multiplication is somewhat more complicated than the ordinary sort. Those who are familiar with vectors will recognize this as forming the dot product of each row of the matrix on the left with each column on the right.

Multiplication is associative, but not communicative. That is (AB)C = A(BC) but, in general, AB does not equal BA.

In the example above, multiplication is not even possible if the 2 × 3 matrix is placed on the left.

There is a multiplicative identity, I. It is a square matrix of an appropriate size. It has 1s down the main diagonal and 0s elsewhere, shown by these two equations.

A matrix may or may not have a multiplicative inverse, which is a matrix A-1 such that A-1A=I

Since

the two matrices on the left side of the equation are multiplicative inverses of each other.

An example of a matrix that does not have an inverse is

This can be seen by trying to solve the matrix equation

using the row-by-column rule for multiplying gives

a + c = 1

2 a + 2 c = 0

which is impossible.

Typically one limits the concept of an inverse to matrices which are square. Without this limitation a matrix such as

would have no left inverse at all and an infinitude of right inverses. Working only with square matrices, it is possible to show that a matrix and its inverse commute; that is, that any left inverse is also a right inverse. It is also possible to show that any inverse is unique.

Matrices are used in many ways. The following examples show three of those ways.

A matrix can be used to solve systems of linear equations. If

then the matrix equation AX = B represents the system

x - y = 9

x + 2 y = 3

If one multiplies both sides of the matrix equation by the inverse of A (computed above) A-1AX = A-1B

then X = A-1B.

Writing these matrices in expanded form

and multiplying

or x = 7, y = 2,

For such a small system of equations, using matrices is rather inefficient. For systems with a large number of unknowns and equations, using matrices is very efficient, especially if one turns the work over to a computer. Computers work well with matrices.

Two-by-two matrices can be used to represent complex numbers:

They behave like complex numbers, and they sneak around the sometimes disturbing property

Matrices can be used for enciphering messages. If the message were OUT OF WATER, it would first be converted to numbers using a = 1, b = 2, etc. to become 15 21 20 15 6 23 1 20 5 18. These numbers would then be broken into pairs, and each pair, treated as a 2 × 1 matrix, would then be multiplied by a secret enciphering matrix:

where 117 and 168 are reduced to numbers 26 or below by subtracting 26 as many times as needed. When this is done for the entire message, the numbers are converted back to letters, ML. . ., and the enciphered message is sent.

The recipient goes through the same steps, but uses a secret deciphering matrix:

which can be converted back to OU. . . This works because the product of the enciphering and the deciphering matrices is, after reducing the numbers by subtracting 26s, the identity matrix:

Multiplying the message first by the enciphering matrix, then by the deciphering is equivalent to multiplying it by the identity matrix. Therefore the original message is restored.

A two-by-two enciphering matrix does not conceal the message very well. A skilled crytanalyst could crack a long message or series of short ones very easily. (This one, by itself, would be too short for the cryptanalyst to do any of the statistical analyses needed for

KEY TERMS

Column A line of numbers, reading down, in a matrix.

Matrix A rectangular array of numbers treated as a single mathematical entity.

Row A line of numbers, reading across, in a matrix.

Square matrix A matrix with the same number of rows and columns.

cracking it.) If the enciphering and deciphering matrices were bigger, say ten-by-ten, the encipherment would be reasonably secure.

Resources

BOOKS

Bittinger, Marvin L, and Davic Ellenbogen. Intermediate Algebra: Concepts and Applications. 6th ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 2001.

Jeffrey, Alan. Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall/CRC, 2005.

Lay, David C. Linear Algebra and Its Applications. 3rd ed. Redding, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 2002.

Lorenz, Falko. Algebra. New York: Springer, 2006.

Setek, William M. Fundamentals of Mathematics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005.

Weisstein, Eric W. The CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman and Hall/CRC, 2003.

J. Paul Moulton

Matrix

views updated Jun 08 2018

Matrix

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or number-like elements:


In the example on the left, 1 1 and 2 0 are its rows; 1 2 and 1 0, its columns. In the example on the right there are three rows and two columns, making it a 3 × 2 matrix. When subscripted variables are used to represent the elements, the first subscript names the row, the second, the column: a row, column. For example, a 21 is in the second row and first column, but a12 is in the first row, second column. Except when there is danger of confusion, the subscripts need not be separated by a comma. Some authors enclose a matrix in brackets: other authors use parentheses, as above.

Matrices can also be represented with single letters A, I, or with a single subscripted variable (aij = bij) if and only if aij = bij for all i, j, which says symbolically that two matrices are equal when their corresponding elements are equal.

Under limited circumstances matrices can be added, subtracted, and multiplied. Two matrices can be added or subtracted only if they are the same size. Then (aij) + or - (bij) = (aij) = (bij), which says that the sum or difference of two matrices is the matrix formed by adding or subtracting the corresponding elements.

These rules for adding and subtracting matrices give matrix addition the same properties as ordinary addition and subtraction . It is closed (among matrices of the same size), commutative, and associative. There is an additive identity (the matrix consisting entirely of zeros) and an additive inverse:

This latter definition allows one to subtract a matrix by adding its opposite:

Multiplication is much trickier. For multiplication to be possible, the matrix on the left must have as many columns as the matrix on the right has rows. That is, one can multiply an m ×n matrix by an n ×q matrix but not an m ×n matrix by an p ×q matrix if p is not equal to n. The product of an m ×n matrix and an n ×q matrix will be an m ×q matrix.

Multiplication is best explained with an example:

The 5 in the product comes from (1) (5) + (3) (0). The -1 comes from (1) (2) + (3) (-1). The 7 comes from (1) (1) + (3) (2). In the second row of the product, 10 = (2) (5) + (2) (0); 3 = (2) (2) + (1) (-1); and 4 = (2) (1) + (1) (2).

Each row in the matrix on the left has been "multi plied" by each column in the matrix on the right. We say "multiplied" because each row on the left is a two-number row, and each column on the right is a two-number column. These numbers have been paired off, multiplied, and added. This kind of "multiplication" is somewhat more complicated than the ordinary sort. Those who are familiar with vectors will recognize this as forming the dot product of each row of the matrix on the left with each column on the right.

Multiplication is associative, but not communicative. That is (AB)C = A(BC) but, in general, AB does not equal BA.

In the example above, multiplication is not even possible if the 2 ×3 matrix is placed on the left.

There is a multiplicative identity, I. It is a square matrix of an appropriate size. It has 1s down the main diagonal and 0s elsewhere.

or


A matrix may or may not have a multiplicative inverse, which is a matrix A-1 such that A-1A = I

Since

the two matrices on the left side of the equation are multiplicative inverses of each other.

An example of a matrix that does not have an inverse is

This can be seen by trying to solve the matrix equation

Using the row-by-column rule for multiplying gives

which is impossible.

Typically one limits the concept of an inverse to matrices which are square. Without this limitation a matrix such as

would have no left inverse at all and an infinitude of right inverses. Working only with square matrices, it is possible to show that a matrix and its inverse commute, that is, that any left inverse is also a right inverse. It is also possible to show that any inverse is unique.

Matrices are used in many ways. The following examples show three of those ways.

A matrix can be used to solve systems of linear equations. If

then the matrix equation AX = B represents the system

If one multiplies both sides of the matrix equation by the inverse of A (computed above) A-1AX = A-1B then×= A-1B.

Writing these matrices in expanded form

For such a small system of equations, using matrices is rather inefficient. For systems with a large number of unknowns and equations, using matrices is very efficient, especially if one turns the work over to a computer. Computers love matrices.

Two-by-two matrices can be used to represent complex numbers :

They behave like complex numbers, and they sneak around the sometimes disturbing property

Matrices can be used for enciphering messages. If the message were "OUT OF WATER," it would first be converted to numbers using a = 1, b = 2, etc. to become 15 21 20 15 6 23 1 20 5 18. These numbers would then be broken into pairs, and each pair, treated as a 2 ×1 matrix, would then be multiplied by a secret enciphering matrix:

where 117 and 168 are reduced to numbers 26 or below by subtracting 26 as many times as needed. When this is done for the entire message, the numbers are converted back to letters, ML..., and the enciphered message is sent.

The recipient goes through the same steps, but uses a secret deciphering matrix:

which can be converted back to "OU...." This works because the product of the enciphering and the deciphering matrices is, after reducing the numbers by subtracting 26s, the identity matrix:

Multiplying the message first by the enciphering matrix, then by the deciphering is equivalent to multiplying it by the identity matrix. Therefore the original message is restored.

A two-by-two enciphering matrix does not conceal the message very well. A skilled crytanalyst could crack a long message or series of short ones very easily. (This one, by itself, would be too short for the cryptanalyst to do any of the statistical analyses needed for cracking it.) If the enciphering and deciphering matrices were bigger, say ten-by-ten, the encipherment would be reasonably secure.

Resources

books

Bittinger, Marvin L, and Davic Ellenbogen. Intermediate Algebra: Concepts and Applications. 6th ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 2001.

Eves, Howard Whitley. Foundations and Fundamental Concepts of Mathematics. NewYork: Dover, 1997.

Lay, David C. Linear Algebra and Its Applications. 3rd ed. Redding, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 2002.

Weisstein, Eric W. The CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics. by New York: CRC Press, 1998.


J. Paul Moulton

KEY TERMS

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Column

—A line of numbers, reading down, in a matrix.

Matrix

—A rectangular array of numbers treated as a single mathematical entity.

Row

—A line of numbers, reading across, in a matrix.

Square matrix

—A matrix with the same number of rows and columns.

matrix

views updated May 14 2018

ma·trix / ˈmātriks/ • n. (pl. -tri·ces / ˈmātrisēz/ or -trix·es) 1. an environment or material in which something develops; a surrounding medium or structure: free choices become the matrix of human life. ∎  a mass of fine-grained rock in which gems, crystals, or fossils are embedded. ∎  Biol. the substance between cells or in which structures are embedded. ∎  fine material: the matrix of gravel paths is raked regularly.2. a mold in which something, such as printing type or a phonograph record, is cast or shaped.3. Math. a rectangular array of quantities or expressions in rows and columns that is treated as a single entity and manipulated according to particular rules. ∎  an organizational structure in which two or more lines of command, responsibility, or communication may run through the same individual.

matrix

views updated May 18 2018

matrix A two-dimensional array. In computing, matrices are usually considered to be special cases of n-dimensional arrays, expressed as arrays with two indices. The notation for arrays is determined by the programming language. The two dimensions of a matrix are known as its rows and columns; a matrix with m rows and n columns is said to be an m×n matrix.

In mathematics (and in this dictionary), the conventional notation is to use a capital letter to denote a matrix in its entirety, and the corresponding lower-case letter, indexed by a pair of subscripts, to denote an element in the matrix. Thus the i,jth element of a matrix A is denoted by aij, where i is the row number and j the column number.

A deficient two-dimensional array, in which one of the dimensions has only one index value (and is consequently elided), is a special kind of matrix known either as a row vector (with the column elided) or column vector (with the row elided). The distinction between row and column shows that the two dimensions are still significant.

matrix

views updated May 08 2018

matrix Lithologic or petrographic term denoting the interstitial material lying between larger crystals, fragments, or particles. It is the background material of small particles in which larger particles and fragments occur. The term is applied to sedimentary rocks; the igneous equivalent is groundmass, although ‘matrix’ is also commonly used of igneous rocks.

matrix

views updated May 23 2018

matrix uterus; place or medium of production XVI; enclosing mass; mould XVII. — L. mātrix, -īc- pregnant animal, female used for breeding, parent stem, (later) womb, register, f. māter, mātr- MOTHER1.

matrix

views updated May 21 2018

matrix Rectangular array of numbers in rows and columns. The number of rows need not equal the number of columns. Matrices can be combined (added and multiplied) according to certain rules. They are useful in the study of transformations of co-ordinate systems and in solving sets of simultaneous equations.

matrix

views updated May 18 2018

matrix (in histology) The component of tissues (e.g. bone and cartilage) in which the cells of the tissue are embedded. See also extracellular matrix.

matrix

views updated Jun 11 2018

matrix (may-triks) n. the substance of a tissue or organ in which more specialized structures are embedded.