Thomas Aquinas

views updated

Thomas Aquinas

CIRCA 1225–1274
Philosopher and theologian

The Synthesis of Philosophy and Theology. The two defining influences on the great medieval philosopher-theologian Thomas Aquinas were Scholasticism and Aristotelianism. At the time of Thomas’s birth, the dominant approach to theology was that of the university Schoolmen (or Scholastics), who considered reason a necessary complement of faith and emphasized the use of logic and the importance of rational inquiry. One of the greatest aids to their task of systematizing Christian doctrine along philosophical lines was the rediscovery, in the late twelfth century, of certain major writings of Aristotle. Thomas was, therefore, born at a time when Scholasticism was reaching its height and the intellectual weight of Aristotelianism was just beginning to be felt. His great contribution to theology was his effort to synthesize Christianity and Aristotelianism, which resulted in one of the most comprehensive philosophical systems in history and the crowning achievement of Scholasticism.

Education. Thomas was born at Roccasecca, a family castle near Naples, Italy, to the noble house of Aquilo. He received his early schooling at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino, where he demonstrated a precocious intelligence and piety. In 1240 he went to Naples to continue his studies at the recently established university, where he was probably introduced to Aristotle, whose Physics and Metaphysics had recently reached western Europe through Latin translations of Arabic texts preserved by the Muslim world and its philosophers. At Naples, Thomas also came into contact with the Dominicans, a relatively new monastic order with a mission of preaching and instruction and an emphasis on the education of its members. In 1244 Thomas took Dominican vows against the wishes of his family, which even abducted Thomas and held him at various family strongholds during 1244–1245. When Thomas was released the Dominicans sent him to the University of Paris, where he studied under Albertus Magnus, one of the pre-eminent Scholastics and an admirer of Aristotle. When Albertus was sent to Cologne, Thomas went with his teacher and continued to study with him for the next four years, absorbing much of his mentor’s Aristotelianism.

Teaching and Writing. In 1252 Thomas returned to Paris and began his career as a teacher, lecturing on the Libri Quatuor Sententiarum (Four Books of Sentences, written 1148–1151) of Peter Lombard. About four years later he received the title master of theology. In 1259 he left Paris for Italy, where he taught at Rome and several other cities for a decade before returning to Paris. There he disputed the extreme Aristotelianism of Siger of Brabant and other young scholars. Although Thomas’s own thought relied heavily on Aristotle’s teachings, he remained loyal to the Christian doctrine of revelation, departing from Artistotle whenever his teachings disagreed with those of the Church. He attested to this loyalty again on his deathbed, when concerning his writings he pronounced, “I submit all to the judgement and correction of the Holy Roman Church, in whose obedience I now pass from this life.” Thomas moved a final time in 1272, to establish a Dominican school at Naples. He died two years later, on 7 March 1274, on his way to attend the Council of Lyons.

The Summa Theologiae. The number of Thomas’s writings is remarkable given the relatively brief span of his life. In fewer than fifty years he wrote scores of commentaries, tracts, and treatises covering a broad range of spiritual and philosophical topics; some of his early biographers mentioned that he had several scribes working for him at once. Among his most influential works are his commentaries on Aristotle and on the Bible, and his Summa de Veritate Catholcae Fidei contra Gentiles (Comprehensive Truth of the Catholic Faith against the Gentiles, written 1259–1262). His greatest work is his Summa Theologiae (Comprehensive Theology, written 1265–1273), a systematic and thorough treatment of all the major (and many minor) questions of Christian theology. The work is presented in the form of a series of articles, each posing a specific question. Among the more than three thousand questions answered are whether it can be demonstrated that God exists, whether the human soul is incorruptible, whether God is the cause of evil, and whether created goods can bring man happiness. Thomas addressed each question in the Scholastic form prevalent in the lecture halls of his day, first listing every reasonable objection to his proposed answer, then citing an authority to support him, explaining his solution, and finally replying to each of the objections initially raised.

“The Angelic Doctor.” The Summa Theologiae was left unfinished when Aquinas gave up writing in 1273, not long before his death. According to his medieval biographers, Thomas was often given to mystical ecstasies, and after an especially profound experience at a mass on 6 December he had abandoned his work on the Summa Theologiae. When a companion urged him to finish it, Thomas replied, “I cannot… in comparison with what I have seen in prayer all that I have written seems to me as if it were straw.” His fellow Dominicans seem to have held a loftier view of his written work; in 1278, just four years after his death, his works were made the official doctrinal basis of the order. Despite initial resistance by the Franciscans, the influence of Thomas’s works and teaching spread, eventually becoming a cornerstone of Roman Catholic theology. Even theologians who disagreed with Thomas were forced to take some account of his work. Thomas Aquinas was canonized by Pope John XXII in 1323, and in 1567 he was declared a Doctor of the Church.