Literacy

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Literacy

Divergent Skills. Exactly how many people in ancient Egypt could read and write is still largely a matter of conjecture. The first problem to face is precisely what is meant by “literacy.” Undoubtedly, there were many levels of literacy. Some people could barely manage to read or write their own names. Others might be able to read a personal letter or simple list. At the highest level were skilled scribes who could read and write the most complex documents and had a thorough knowledge of secular and religious literature in Egypt. Finally, there were periods when even well-educated persons could read and write in one Egyptian script, but

not in others. Many persons who could read and write Demotic for everyday purposes (such as the composition of personal letters, business accounts, or tax receipts), for example, probably had little or no knowledge of hieroglyphic and hieratic.

Literacy Estimates—or “Guesstimates .” Some Egyptologists have made attempts to estimate the relative size of the literate population of Egypt. It seems likely that the bulk of the literate population consisted of middle-to high-level officials in the government and/or in the major temples. These were the persons who would have had the most need of literacy because the royal house and temples were major economic enterprises with interests throughout the country. This role meant that scribes who could write for administrative purposes had to be on hand. And both the government and religious establishment—it would be a mistake to try and rigidly separate the two—were also in need of scribes who could produce monumental inscriptions and religious literature. The most typical estimate for literacy in Egypt, based on the size of the “elite” population, is about 1 percent during the Old Kingdom, a figure that is considered more or less plausible for the rest of Pharaonic history in Egypt.

Working-Class Literacy? However, estimates based on the number of the elite in Egypt overlook the fact that persons in the middle class—working as artisans or merchants—may, in many cases, have had need of at least some literacy skills. In the much later Greco-Roman Period there is at least some evidence that boat captains were often literate or semiliterate. This case may well have been true of other working class occupations as well, and it may turn out that literacy was more widespread in Egypt than many scholars have been willing to concede. The evidence, however, will probably never be sufficient for scholars to draw any firm conclusions.

THE ROYAL REED: PAPYRUS

For the ancient Egyptians one of the most important plants was the papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), a flowering reed that grew on the banks of the Nile River and in its marshy delta. It could grow up to ten feet tall and attain widths of around six to seven inces. The plant was used to make many products, from baskets and rope to footwear and bedding, and it could even be eaten. Papyrus was combined with plaster to make cartonnage, which was used to construct body-fitting coffins that were then painted. Hunters and fishermen plied Egyptian waters in small papyrus boats. The plant was so valuable that it was eventually cultivated and controlled by state monopoly. Products from the plant were exported throughout the region. By far the most notable use of the plant was as a “paper.” Egyptians may have begun making papyrus as early as 4000 b.c.e. So good was this parchment that ancient Mediterranean civilizations, including the Greeks and Romans, adopted its use for official government and religious documents, as well as for literary works.

Time-consuming and expensive to manufacture, papyrus was made from the triangle-shaped reeds, which were split; the pulp was then removed and pounded into thin strips. This material was soaked for several days to eliminate excess sugars and then was laid side-by-side with other strips in two-layered sheets (each layer was laid in the opposite direction) that were then beaten again or pressed. Individual sheets, or sometimes twenty or more attached pieces, were dried in the sun and then rolled. Reed pens were used to place inks, usually made form lampblack, onto the papyrus; painters could also apply pigments.

Sources: “Ancient Egyptian Papyrus,” Etnweuin, Minnesota State University, Internet website, http://emuseum.mnsu.edn/prehistory/egypt/daiiylife/papyrus.html

Rosalie David, Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt (New York: Facts on File, 1998).