Myanmar

Type of Government

Myanmar has been under the control of a military junta since 1988. It functions as an authoritarian state while retaining the structure of a socialist democracy. The highest-ranking member of the junta, who serves as head of state, commander of the armed forces, and head of government, is assisted by a council of military leaders. Myanmar’s constitution calls for a unicameral legislative and judicial body elected by popular vote; however, the constitution and all offices of the national and regional governments have been suspended. The military junta governs through a series of committees at the national and regional levels.

Background

Myanmar is an Asian nation bordering China, India, and Bangladesh on the northwest, Laos and Thailand on the east, and the Bay of Bengal on the southwest. Humans have lived there since Paleolithic times; centuries of immigration have made it is a culturally and ethnically diverse nation. Its history is usually divided into periods dominated by each of the seven major ethnic groups.

The Mon people migrated into the region between 3000 BC and 1500 BC and established numerous kingdoms. Frequent migration from India added characteristics that still influence modern Burmese culture. The Pyu ethnic group, which was more dominant in the northern regions, had early diplomatic contact with China.

In AD 1057 an immigrant society developed at Bagan (Pagan) and defeated the last of the Mon kingdoms and accomplished the first unified national government. Bagan society absorbed elements of Mon, Indian, and Chinese culture and developed Buddhism as a state religion. Art and architecture flourished, while the military continued to expand its control by subduing most of the nation’s tribal cultures. The stability of Bagan society was threatened by the rise of Kublai Khan (1215–1294) and the Mongolian Empire, so in 1277 the Bagan king Narathihapate (1254–1287) declared war on the Mongols. His forces were defeated at the Battle of Ngasunggyan.

Infighting between the Burmese, the Shan, and the Mon groups followed, until King Tabinshwehti (1512–1550), using both aggressive military tactics and diplomacy, created a powerful Burmese military regime. Though Tabinshwehti was killed before unification of the country was achieved, his successor King Bayinnaung (?–1581) continued the campaign and by 1551 united Myanmar under the TaungNgoo Dynasty.

The TaungNgoo greatly expanded the local economy and trade, while continuing aggressive military campaigns against, among others, the Ayutthaya (Siamese) Kingdom. The Portuguese had poor relations with the TaungNgoo; as Myanmar became important to European trade, the Portuguese began lending assistance to the TaungNgoo’s rivals. Though the TaungNgoo nearly collapsed under the military pressure, by 1613 they had reunified the country. A period of cultural enlightenment ensued, producing a wealth of art, theater, music and literature. The TaungNgoo began to lose control over indigenous groups during the eighteenth century, and in 1752, a rebellion by the Bago ethnic group, aided by European military forces, brought an end to the dynasty.

In 1753 the Burmese king Alaungpaya (1714–1760) defeated the Bago people in a series of battles and established the Konbaung Dynasty. Rangoon, in the northern part of the region, was its capital. However, the Konbaung suffered continual military strife with the Bago, Chinese, Siamese and European peoples. Between 1766 and 1769, China’s Qing Dynasty attempted four invasions of Myanmar but was defeated by the Konbaung armies. After abandoning hopes of conquest, China signed a cooperation and trade pact with the Konbaung, thereby strengthening the regime’s political and economic power. The Konbaung were not as successful in diplomatic relations with European powers, and in 1811 broke diplomatic relations with the British.

In 1824 the Konbaung captured the Assam region of northeastern India, angering the British government and leading to the first Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26). The British, in alliance with Siam (now Thailand), invaded Myanmar. The Konbaung were defeated and surrendered their Siamese territories in the Treaty of Yandaboo (1826). During the Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852) the British captured additional territories and effectively destabilized the regime. Internal struggles persuaded the Konbaung to enter into a military alliance with the French, which incited the British government to seize power. In 1885, during the Third Anglo-Burmese War, the British defeated the remaining Konbaung forces and annexed Myanmar.

Under British control Burma was designated as a province of India with a local government in Rangoon. Burmese natives maintained a militant resistance until the 1890s, eventually persuading the British to allow Burmese to participate in government and to travel to England for higher education.

Led by a new educated elite, a peaceful Burmese independence movement surfaced around 1900 and by the 1920s its leaders had persuaded British authorities to allow additional native representation in the legislature. Despite British concessions, many still believed that the British were exploiting the local labor force and the country’s natural resources while showing little regard for public welfare or the maintenance of native culture. In 1930 Saya San (1876–1931), a monk turned political leader, started a peasant rebellion that eventually mobilized the entire populace. After a nationwide labor strike in 1936, the British separated Myanmar from India and established a local assembly.

The British attempted to control the independence movement by arresting key leaders and forcibly preventing demonstrations. When the British attempted to arrest political leader Aung San (1915–1947), he fled the nation and formed an alliance with Japan. In 1941 Aung San’s Burmese Independence Army helped Japanese forces occupy the country—a maneuver to get the British out. As the Japanese military faltered toward the end of World War II, Aung San turned on his Japanese allies to secure the country’s independence.

Between 1945 and 1947 Aung San and British authorities negotiated a treaty. Internal conflicts erupted—some political factions believed that Aung San was making unnecessary concessions to the British. In July 1947 members of a rival communist faction assassinated Aung San and most of his cabinet. Despite Aung San’s death, negotiations were completed successfully, and Myanmar was granted independence as a democratic republic on January 4, 1948.

Government Structure

Myanmar is divided into seven administrative divisions and seven states. The constitution, which was instituted in 1974 and suspended in 1997, called for a unitary socialist government with legislative, executive, and judicial powers vested in a single body, the Pyithu Hluttaw (People’s Assembly). The assembly had 489 members, who were elected for four-year terms by popular vote. From that body were chosen the Council of State and the Council of Ministers, which served as the executive branch. The Council of State had twenty-nine members; they chose a chairman, who was the president of the country. The Council of Ministers, which had twenty-two members, was headed by the prime minister. Three other councils—the Council of People’s Justices, which functioned as a supreme court; the Council of People’s Attorneys, which advised the government on legal matters; and the Council of People’s Inspectors, which functioned as the governmental auditing and budgetary office—were also chosen from the People’s Assembly.

The 1974 constitution was created during a period of military control under socialist leader Bo Ne Win (1911–2002). His Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) controlled the nation until 1988, when Ne Win was deposed by a military coup led by the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). The council was renamed the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) in 1997. When it suspended the constitution pending reformulation, the SPDC abolished all existing governmental bodies.

Under martial law the chairman of the SPDC serves as the nation’s head of state and the leader of the armed forces. The SPDC appoints a prime minister to lead a cabinet composed of military leaders. All legislation is proposed and amended within subcommittees of the junta. The state judicial system is administered according to military law and has no oversight over the executive branch.

Political Parties and Factions

The National Unity Party (NUP) was founded in 1988 as the political representative of the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP). When elections were held in 1990, the NUP also represented the SPDC. The NUP is considered a pro-military, conservative party focused on preventing insurgency and restoring the economy. The NUP favors socialist economic policies based on a combination of Marxism and Buddhist philosophy.

The National League for Democracy (NLD) was founded in 1988 under the leadership of Aung San Suu Kyi (1945–), the daughter of Aung San. In the 1990 elections the NLD won majority control but was prevented from taking power by the SPDC, which placed Suu Kyi under house arrest. The NLD, which calls for a transition to full democracy through fair elections, is supported by many Western nations.

The Shan Nationalities League for Democracy (SNLD) was formed in 1988 as the political arm of the Shan people, one of Myanmar’s largest ethnic groups. The Shan also occupy portions of China, Thailand, and Vietnam. The SNLD is closely allied with the NLD and, during the 1990 elections, won sufficient votes to become the second-rank party in Myanmar. The SNLD favors a democratic election system but, unlike the NLD, focuses on protecting the rights of the nation’s ethnic groups.

Major Events

Since it gained independence in 1948, Myanmar has experienced frequent conflicts between ethnic, military, and political groups. By the late 1950s government stability was threatened by armed communist blocs, militant factions of the Karen ethnic group, and a parliament split along ideological lines. In 1962 General Bo Ne Win staged a military coup and placed the country under martial law. In the following months Ne Win’s military police violently ended student protests, conducted mass arrests of political adversaries, suspended the constitution, and abolished all government offices. The regime then established a centrally controlled, single-party state headed by the BSPP. In 1974 Ne Win drafted a new constitution that legitimized the military takeover and created a government run by the People’s Assembly. He relinquished his military role to serve as president.

The BSPP government was based on the “Burmese way to socialism,” which combines Marxism with Buddhist philosophy. In addition to the state control of industry and economy, Ne Win’s socialism called for the expulsion of all foreigners and social and economic isolation from all foreign nations. All citizens of the country were encouraged to adopt the state’s version of Buddhism.

Because of economic difficulties, Ne Win eventually opened the country to foreign investment, but not in time to forestall a real crisis. In 1988 the military violently ended a series of student protests, which led to widespread demonstrations. Ne Win resigned in July 1988. The country lapsed into a period of mob rule until the military, under the command of Saw Maung (1928–1997), took control of the government and declared martial law.

Saw Maung and SLORC used communist infiltration and insurrection as justification for abolishing national and local governments and replacing them with military councils. Among the councils’ duties were economic reform and preparation of a new constitution. In 1989 SLORC changed the name of the country from Burma to Myanmar.

In 1990 general elections were held under the supervision of the military. The NLD party, led by Aung San Suu Kyi, who had been under arrest since 1989, won a majority. However, the junta refused to accept the validity of the elections or to allow the newly elected government to convene. Suu Kyi was again placed under house arrest. Her peaceful resistance movement came to the attention of international human-rights organizations. In 1991 she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Foreign governments began to pressure SLORC to convene the new government and restore the constitutional process.

Between 1993 and 2000 the military arrested numerous NLD supporters and shut down most of the party’s offices. In 2005 the military leadership, by then called the SPDC, convened a new constitutional convention but prevented representatives from the NLD or any other pro-democracy party from participating. Suu Kyi was kept under house arrest, except for short periods in 2001 and 2002. NLD operations relocated outside the country.

Twenty-First Century

As a result of the continuing friction between pro-democracy groups and the socialist military regime, the United States and the European Union have levied trade sanctions against Myanmar. Neither the United States nor the EU recognizes the SPDC as a legitimate government, and both have agreed to suspend all foreign relations until the SPDC allows constitutional reform. The SPDC has limited support within Myanmar, and faces continued ethnic and political insurgencies.

Serious poverty affects life in rural areas of the country, which has limited access to foreign investment to spur economic development. However, a wealth of natural resources and a productive agricultural system have allowed it to avoid a severe economic crisis.

Steinberg, David I. Burma: The State of Myanmar. Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2001.

Thant Myint-U. The River of Lost Footsteps: Histories of Burma. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006.

Tin Maung Maung Than. State Dominance in Myanmar: The Political Economy of Industrialization. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2006.