Leisler, Jacob

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Leisler, Jacob

1640

Frankfurt, Germany

May 16, 1691

Merchant, militia officer, and rebel

Jacob Leisler was a German merchant and militia officer who led a rebellion in New York (then New Netherland) in 1689. Driven by religious conviction, he tried to lessen Roman Catholic power in the colony. At the time the colony was made up of many diverse groups—rich and poor, Protestant and Catholic. The main conflict was between Protestants and other colonists—primarily the Dutch—who were joining the Church of England (the official religion of England; also known as the Anglican Church). Because of the long tradition of Calvinism in his family, Leisler wanted the Protestants to triumph because he believed the Anglican Church would eventually submit to Catholicism. (Calvinism was a branch of the Protestant religion that placed strong emphasis on the supreme power of God, the sinfulness of mankind, and the doctrine of predestination, which states that all human events are controlled by God.) While historians continue to debate Leisler's motivations for leading the rebellion, most of the evidence points to his intense religious beliefs.

Robert R. Livingston

Robert R. Livingston was the first prominent member of a family of important American political figures. He was born in Roxburgshire, Scotland, in 1654. After growing up in Holland, he emigrated (moved from one country to another) to the colony of New York (then New Netherland) in 1673. He settled in Albany and married Alida Van Rensselaer six years later. Livingston accumulated substantial wealth by trading goods with Native Americans. Under Governor Thomas Dongan, Livingston acquired a patent (title or deed) for 160,000 acres of land, which he turned into Livingston Manor.

Livingston was a major opponent of the 1689 rebellion led by militia officer Jacob Leisler. After the revolt was subdued, Livingston encountered problems with Leisler's followers who called themselves Leislerians. He had to defend himself against their rising power, which threatened his estates and privileges. A

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highly respected citizen in the colony, Livingston served as secretary of Indian affairs until his death in 1728. Among his descendants is United States Congressman Robert Livingston, from Louisiana.

Influenced by Calvinist tradition

Jacob Leisler was born in 1640 in Frankfurt, Germany. His family, on both his father's and mother's sides, came from a long line of German magistri (magistrate or lawyer class). According to the founder of Calvinism, French Protestant reformer John Calvin, the magistri existed "to withstand the fierce licentiousness [disregard for rules of moral conduct] of kings in accordance with their duty." Many magistri became staunch Calvinist Christians, combining their legal duties with their religious beliefs. Leisler's grandfather relied upon Calvinist teachings when he provided legal counsel to Prince Christian of Anhalt (a former state in Germany). He made sure that his own son, Leisler's father, received a solid religious education. Leisler's father later served as a Calvinist pastor to Huguenot (French Calvinist) exiles.

Leisler thus acquired a zealous Calvinistic view of the world, which included a deep fear of Roman Catholicism. Part of this concern resulted from the Catholic-Protestant conflicts during the Thirty Years War (1618–48; a general European war fought mainly in Germany), which had reached its most destructive stage at the time Leisler was born. Three years previously his parents had fled the Roman Catholic Inquisition (an official inquiry formed to discover and punish heretics, or those who disobeyed the laws of the Roman Catholic Church). Telling their son stories about this difficult time, the Leislers instilled in him a suspicion of Roman Catholicism. Jacob Leisler took this mistrust with him when he emigrated to New York in 1660.

Becomes prominent in New York

Leisler went to New York as a soldier in the Dutch West India Company (the trading and colonizing company that founded the colony of New Netherland, later called New York). After becoming a merchant he married a rich widow, and by 1676 he was one of the wealthiest men in the colony. Although Leisler had secured a high social position, he was unpopular with prominent Dutch families in New York. In 1674 he had spoken out against Nicholas Van Rensselaer, who was attempting to become a minister in the Dutch Reformed Church (now the Reformed Church of America; founded in Holland after the rise of Calvinism in the sixteenth century). Leisler was opposed to Van Rensselaer because he had been ordained by the Church of England. Leisler objected to Van Rensselaer's ties with the Church of England because Calvinists feared that England would be taken over by Catholics. As a deacon (layman, or unordained person, elected to assist the pastor of a church) of a Calvinist congregation, Leisler therefore opposed any Catholic influence in the church at a time when Protestantism was unstable in the colony.

Despite his strong Calvinist beliefs, Leisler served under New York's Catholic governor Thomas Dongan. In 1683 Dongan appointed Leisler as a Court of Admiralty commissioner, hoping Leisler could help ease tensions among diverse Protestant groups. Although he resented working for a Catholic, Leisler agreed to serve in this capacity. His concern about the instability of Protestantism and the rising dominance of Catholicism was intensified in 1685 when French king Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes (a decree issued in 1598, which defined the rights of Protestants). Another blow to Protestant hopes came during the same year when King James II, a Catholic, ascended the throne of England.

From this time onward Leisler became more radical in his Protestantism. Like his ancestors, he combined his secular (public) duties and religious beliefs, viewing political action as spiritual warfare. He believed that Anglicans were too willing to submit to Catholicism, especially after New York came under the Dominion of New England (a self-governing nation in the British Commonwealth) during the reign of James II. During this time, many other Protestant groups, who would not normally have been in a close alliance with Leisler, began to see him as their spokesman. As a result, a strong anti-Catholic coalition was developing in New York, with Leisler at the head.

Protestant fear of Catholics

The situation in New York during Jacob Leisler's tenure as Court of Admiralty commissioner is an example of the profound impact of the Protestant Reformation—and the subsequent fear of Catholicism—on the American colonies. The Reformation was a revolution within, and ultimately against, the Roman Catholic Church that swept Western Europe in the sixteenth century. The movement began as early as the fourteenth century, however. Martin Luther, a Catholic professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg in Germany, is credited with starting the Reformation. On October 31, 1517, Luther posted 95 theses, or charges, on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg. In the theses he demanded reform within the Catholic Church. Specifically, he accused the Catholic clergy (priests, bishops, and popes) of gross corruption and misuse of power. Luther's action led to the founding of Lutheranism, the first Protestant denomination, or group of congregations. Luther was followed in the 1530s by the French reformer John Calvin, who founded Calvinism. From that time onward the Protestant movement gained momentum, fueling fears and animosities against Catholics throughout the world.

Takes over Fort James

In 1688 the Protestants of New York received news that James II had a son. Now the prospects of a long Catholic rule in England were a reality. But the situation was changed when William III, the Protestant husband of James II's daughter Mary II, invaded England. Protestant hopes were now revived in both England and America. Francis Nicholson, lieutenant governor of the Dominion of New England, tried to keep William III's invasion a secret from American colonists. Eventually, however, Leisler received the news and made it public. New Englanders, who had long objected to the Dominion governor, Edmund Andros, because he was an overbearing and dictatorial governor, now saw their chance to overthrow him. Now that Andros had no backing in England and could not defend himself against a rebellion, the colonists sent him and other officials to England as prisoners. When the rebellion reached New York, Nicholson appointed Leisler to end the uprising. Leisler accepted this official position, hoping to apply his Calvinist beliefs to the colonial government.

Soon after his appointment, however, Leisler learned that the lieutenant governor had supported James II. Therefore, Leisler reversed his support for Nicholson. He had also heard about a possible anti-Protestant plot between Andros and Nicholson. Leisler was reluctant to rise up against Nicholson until he realized that it was his duty as a Calvinist to fight. In 1689, when Nicholson went to England seeking support, Leisler seized New York City's Fort James with a group of militiamen (a citizen army).

Bacon's Rebellion of 1676

Rebellions like Leisler's were common in colonial America, as less powerful individuals rose up against aristocrats (members of the ruling class or nobility). Another significant uprising was Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. Led by landowner Nathaniel Bacon (see entry), colonists staged a revolt in Jamestown, Virginia. At the time the colony was ruled by British governor William Berkeley (see entry), who focused primarily on his own economic interests at the expense of colonists. When Berkeley refused to continue defending Jamestown against Native Americans in order to protect the fur trade, Bacon led the Virginians in an uprising. At the end of the conflict, on September 18, 1676, Bacon burned Jamestown to the ground. Historians believe that Bacon's main target was Berkeley, while Leisler's rebellion involved religion and the common man against an aristocratic elite.

After this move, many colonists hailed Leisler as a defender of the Protestant faith. He was soon named lieutenant governor of the colony and upon gaining power he declared his allegiance to Protestant king William III. Leisler believed his authority had been confirmed by a letter sent by the king in December 1688. Addressed to Nicholson or whoever may have been in command at the time, Leisler automatically assumed the letter granted him the power to take over command of the colony. Thus he continued to occupy Fort James, feeling confident that William III approved of his rebellion.

Attempts to gain wider support

In spite of his victory, Leisler was not widely supported by other colonists. For instance, when he held a meeting for various representatives of the colony in 1689, no one attended. Leisler was also hindered by his unpopularity among prominent Dutch families, who resented the fact that the colony was now governed by a group of lowly traders. As a result, Leisler was backed mainly by poor merchants and farmers. He attempted to gain wider support twice in 1690. In February he launched a military expedition to protect northern New York. The militia arrived too late, however, and sixty colonists were killed by French soldiers and Native Americans. In his second attempt to gain support, Leisler called a meeting in April to negotiate with colonists who had protested against his high taxes. Nevertheless, while attempting to please one group of colonists, he ended up angering another. In the end, Leisler still had not won over prominent families who doubted his ability to govern.

Stands trial as a traitor

Not surprisingly, Leisler's victory for the Protestants was short-lived. The tables finally turned when certain merchants, who had been harmed by his economic policies, convinced William III that Leisler was a traitor. In December 1689 the king appointed Colonel Henry Sloughter to replace Leisler as governor of New York. Sloughter did not arrive from England until 1691 because his ship had been delayed by a storm. Accompanied by hundreds of troops, he tried to take command peacefully but Leisler refused to hand over Fort James. The confrontation resulted in violence, and during the fighting several English soldiers were killed. Leisler finally surrendered the fort. Outraged by Leisler's rebelliousness, Sloughter ordered him to stand trial for treason. Leisler defended himself by claiming that William III's letter of December 1689 had given him the authority to take over Fort James. His accusers argued, however, that command should immediately have been turned over to the council after Nicholson's departure. On March 31, 1691, Leisler was found guilty of treason. According to records, on May 16, 1691, Leisler was hanged until "halfe dead" and then beheaded.

Were Leisler's actions justified?

Historians have tried to determine whether Leisler was justified in taking over Fort James and later defying Sloughter. Many point out that Leisler was wrong in trying to promote Protestantism at a time when New York was occupied by many diverse religious groups. He was unduly influenced by his strong Calvinist upbringing, and his religious fervor led him to misread the letter from William III. He had incorrectly assumed that the Protestant king would unconditionally support all Protestant efforts. Nevertheless, even though Leisler was executed, his legacy lived on with the emergence of the Leislerians. These followers of Leisler managed to have the verdict against their leader overturned in 1695. Aside from this achievement, the Leislerians had difficulty gaining political power. The situation changed, however, when they were invited to join the council by Richard Coote, Earl of Bellomont, who became governor in 1698.