Beowulf

Nationality/Culture

Anglo-Saxon

Pronunciation

BAY-uh-woolf

Alternate Names

None

Appears In

The epic Beowulf

Myth Overview

Beowulf (pronounced BAY-uh-woolf) is the earliest existing Anglo-Saxon epic, or a long, grand-scale poem. It tells the story of Beowulf, a Norse hero and warrior who fought and conquered several monsters that terrorized Denmark and Sweden.

Beowulf is divided into two parts. The action in the first part takes place in Denmark, where Hrothgar (pronounced ROTH-gar) is king. Beowulf, a mighty warrior from Sweden, comes to help the king destroy a monster that is terrorizing the local people. The second part, set in Sweden, provides an account of Beowulf as an old man who must rid his country of a fearsome dragon.

Grendel As part one of the story opens, readers are introduced to King Hrothgar. He has built a great assembly hall called Heorot (pronounced HAY-oh-roht), where his warriors gather to eat, drink, and receive treasure after their victories in combat. Lurking in the dark swamps of Hrothgar's kingdom is a cruel and brutal monster named Grendel (pronounced GREN-dl). Grendel lives in a cave with his mother, also a monster, and cannot be harmed by the weapons of humans. As Grendel roams the marshes and swamps, he hears the joyful sounds of song and laughter from Heorot. They fill him with envy and hatred for Hrothgar and his warriors. One night, Grendel goes to Heorot and finds the warriors asleep after a great deal of drinking and celebration. He snatches up thirty sleeping men, kills them, and carries their bodies home to eat.

In the morning, Hrothgar sees the bloody aftermath of Grendel's attack. Loud wails and cries replace the joyful singing of the previous night. The Danes see Grendel's footprints, but do not think he will return; however, the next night Grendel comes back and kills even more warriors. The Danes gather in their temples and pray for protection from Grendel, but their prayers do not help. For twelve years Grendel continues to terrorize the warriors. Afraid to sleep at Heorot, they abandon the great hall.

Stories of Grendel's raids spread to the surrounding kingdoms, eventually reaching the land of the Geats in southern Sweden. When a mighty Geatish warrior named Beowulf—a man who has slain giants and sea monsters and is known for his strength, courage, and skill in battle—hears of Grendel's deeds, he decides to sail to Denmark and help Hrothgar rid his kingdom of the monster.

Beowulf prepares a ship and chooses fourteen brave warriors to accompany him. They set sail for Denmark, arriving the next day. At Heorot, the Geats are welcomed by Hrothgar, who has known Beowulf since he was a child. The king throws a feast for the Geatish warriors. At the feast, a Danish warrior named Unferth insults Beowulf by suggesting that he is too boastful and not a great enough warrior to kill Grendel. Beowulf responds by noting that he has heard no tales of Unferth's bravery. He says that if Unferth were as fierce as he believes himself to be that Grendel would not now be terrorizing the Danes. Pleased by Beowulf s defiant attitude, Hrothgar is confident that the Geatish warrior will slay Grendel and free the kingdom from the monster's evil.

What's a Life Worth?

The story of Beowulf features a concept, common in early Germanic societies, known as wergild (pronounced WAIR-geld). This was the price set on a person's life based on that person's value to society. If an individual was killed, the family received wergild to compensate for the loss. In Beowulf, Hrothgar presents Beowulf with wergild for the Geatish warrior who was killed fighting Grendel. According to Germanic law, the system of wergild was meant as an alternative to seeking revenge for the loss of a loved one.

That night, the Geats stay at Heorot. Grendel soon appears and, before Beowulf can stop him, kills one of Beowulf s own men. Grendel then grabs Beowulf, but the mighty warrior seizes the monster's arm with his powerful grip. Beowulf and Grendel struggle until Grendel finally manages to wrench himself away, leaving his arm in Beowulf s grasp. The monster staggers back to his cave to die. The severed arm is hung in Heorot as a trophy for all to see. Hrothgar showers Beowulf with gifts and honors him with another feast. The Danes believe they will finally be able to sleep in peace at Heorot again.

Grendel's Mother The Danes' troubles are not over. When Grendel's mother sees her dying son, she vows revenge. She goes to Heorot at night and surprises the Danish warriors. After killing the king's most trusted adviser, she leaves with Grendel's arm. Again the Danes call upon Beowulf for help.

Beowulf and several warriors track the monster to her lair in the swamps. They find it at the base of a cliff at the bottom of a pool bubbling with blood and gore. Unferth, who has by now changed his opinion of Beowulf, lends him Hrunting, his sword. Brandishing it, Beowulf leaps into the slimy waters. Grendel's mother grabs Beowulf and pulls him into a cave where the water cannot enter. Beowulf strikes at the monster with Hrunting, but the sword does not hurt her. The two wrestle, and Grendel's mother almost kills Beowulf, but his armor saves him. Then he sees a giant sword hanging on the wall of the cave. He grabs it and, with one mighty swing, cuts off the monster's head. At the back of the cave, he sees Grendel's corpse.

Using the same sword, he cuts off Grendel's head and returns to the surface with it. He also brings the remains of the sword. Beowulf and his men return to Heorot in triumph, and Hrothgar again rewards them. Finally, the Geats go home to Sweden where Beowulf eventually becomes king.

Beowulf and the Dragon As the second part of the epic begins, Beowulf has ruled for fifty years, and his kingdom has prospered. A winged dragon lives in the land, protecting an ancient treasure buried hundreds of years earlier. One day, a slave who had been punished by his master runs away and finds the cave where the treasure is buried. To earn his master's forgiveness, the slave steals a golden cup and takes it to his household. When the dragon inspects the treasure, as he did every day, he quickly notices the missing cup. To punish the Geats for stealing from him, the dragon flies over the countryside breathing fire on the villages and setting homes ablaze.

Though he is now an old man, Beowulf decides to fight the dragon. He and eleven warriors find the dragon's cave, but Beowulf insists on fighting the dragon alone. Early in the battle, Beowulf discovers that his iron shield will not protect him against the dragon's fiery breath. Just as Beowulf is about to be killed, a warrior named Wiglaf, Beowulf s young kinsman, rushes to his aid. With Wiglaf s help, Beowulf slays the dragon. Mortally wounded in the battle, the king asks Wiglaf to bring out the treasure so that he might see it before he dies.

In accordance with Norse burial customs, Beowulf s body is burned in a great fire on a cliff overlooking the sea. The treasure is placed in the fire with Beowulf as a sacrifice. A large burial mound is built over the remains of the fire to serve as a reminder of the great king, and to provide a landmark for seafarers. The poem ends with a ceremony of praise for Beowulf.

Beowulf in Context

The manuscript containing the story of Beowulf was discovered in England in the 1600s. It was written in Old English, the language of the Anglo-Saxon invaders who settled in England between 450 and 600 ce. There is some debate about when Beowulf was written and who wrote it. Although the manuscript dates from around 1000, the poem was composed much earlier, sometime between 700 and 950. Certain references in the text suggest that the author was a Christian who modeled the story after pagan (non-Judeo-Christian) tales of past Norse and German heroes. The writer was probably either a monk or a poet connected to a nobleman's court in central or northern England.

Beowulf is set in a much earlier time than the period in which it was written, and the action takes place in Denmark and Sweden. The story shows the warrior culture of ancient Germanic peoples, where wars were so common that many men held steady jobs as fighters. The king supplied these warriors with food, shelter, land, and weapons. In return, they promised to be loyal and obedient to the king.

Key Themes and Symbols

Beowulf emphasizes values that were important to Norse warriors, such as courage, loyalty to one's king and comrades, and honor for those who fight and die bravely. The story emphasizes how fragile life and fame can be. Like any person, Beowulf must find meaning in his world while accepting the fact that he will eventually die. He meets that challenge by facing danger bravely and trusting that the story of his deeds will cause him to live on in the memories of those who hear it.

Beowulf in Art, Literature, and Popular Culture

Beowulf has endured over the centuries as a prime example of a Western European hero. He is different from many Greek and Roman heroes in that even though he possesses great strength and skills, he is fully human, and his successes do not depend upon help from the gods. The story of Beowulf has been translated and adapted by many writers over the centuries. Numerous movies have also been made about the hero, such as the motion-capture computer-animated Beowulf (2007).

Read, Write, Think, Discuss

John Gardner's novel Grendel (1971) is a retelling of the story of Beowulf from Grendel's point of view. Gardner calls into question the heroism of Beowulf, and offers a starkly different account of the events described in the epic poem.

Think about how point of view affects the telling of a story. What factors can cause a single set of events to be described in two vastly different ways?

SEE ALSO Dragons; Norse Mythology; Witches and Wizards