Myanmar

• Area: 261,969 sq mi (678,500 sq km) / World Rank: 41
• Location: Northern and Eastern Hemispheres, in Southeast Asia, bordered by India and Bangladesh in the northwest, China in the northeast, Laos in the east, Thailand in the east and southeast, and the Indian Ocean to the south and the west.
• Coordinates: 22° 00? N, 98° 00? E
• Borders: 3,643 mi (5,876 km) / Bangladesh, 120 mi (193 km); China, 1,355 mi (2,185 km); India, 907 mi (1,463 km); Laos, 146 mi (235 km); Thailand, 1116 mi (1,800 km)
• Coastline: 1197 mi (1930 km)
• Territorial Seas: 12 NM
• Highest Point: Hkakabo Razi, 19,295 ft (5,881 m)
• Lowest Point: Sea level
• Longest Distances: 1,200 mi (1,931 km) N-S; 575 mi (925 km) E-W
• Longest River: Mekong River, 2,600 mi (4,200 km)
• Largest Lake: Indawgyi Lake, 45 sq mi (116 sq km)
• Natural Hazards: Earthquakes, flooding, drought, cyclones
• Population: 41,994,678 (2001 estimate) / World Rank: 27
• Capital City: Yangon, on the Yangon River in the delta region
• Largest City: Yangon, 4 million (2001 estimate)

OVERVIEW

Myanmar, the largest nation of mainland Southeast Asia, has an extraordinary variety of terrain, from glaciers in the north to coral reefs in the south. In outline, Myanmar frequently is compared to a diamond-shaped kite with a long tail sharing the Malay Peninsula with Thailand. The country has mountainous frontiers, a high plateau in the northeast, and a fertile central plain ending in the deltas of the Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) and Sittang (Sittoung) Rivers. Myanmar is located on the Eurasian Tectonic Plate and is seismically active territory, with frequent earthquakes. Northern and central Myanmar have many extinct volcanoes.

In the late 1980s the military government changed the name of the country from Burma to Myanmar and changed the names or spellings of many geographic features. In this essay the most widely used version of these names are used.

MOUNTAINS AND HILLS

Mountains

There are many mountain ranges throughout the country. Myanmar's northern mountains, including the Patkai and Kumon Ranges, are among the southernmost extensions of the Himalayas. These mountains are very high and rugged and include Hkakabo Razi at the northernmost tip of the country. At 19,295 ft (5,881 m), it is the highest peak in the nation.

The mountains run south along the western border with India and Bangladesh. This belt is composed of many ranges, including the Patkai, Mangin and the Chin Hills, which continue southward to the extreme southwestern corner of the country. The Arakan (Rakhine) Mountains extend southeastwards along the coast from there before giving way to the Irrawaddy flood plains. Notable peaks in the west include Saramati (12,663 ft / 3,860 m) and Mt. Victoria (10,016 ft / 3,053 m).

In central Myanmar, the north-south Pegu Yoma (Bago) Mountains break up the flatness of the alluvial plains between the Irrawaddy and Sittang Rivers. In the southeast, the Dawna and Bilauktaung Ranges mark the border with Thailand on the Malay Peninsula.

Plateaus

In northeast Myanmar, the Shan Plateau, 57,816 sq mi (149,743 sq km) in area, rises to an average elevation of about 3,000 ft (914 m) above sea level. Its western edge is clearly marked by a north-south cliff that often rises 2,000 ft (610 m) in a single step.

Canyons

The Shan Plateau features deep limestone river gorges. The most notable are the gorge of the Salween (Thanlwin) River and Gokteik Gorge, cut by the Namtu River.

Hills and Badlands

Steep craggy limestone hills with many caves are found in the Shan Plateau and in the southeastern part of the country. Elsewhere in the country there are foothill areas leading up to the mountain chains.

INLAND WATERWAYS

Lakes

Myanmar's largest lake, Indawgyi, 45 sq mi (116 sq km), is thought to have been formed by an earthquake. The second largest is the shallow Inle Lake, which covers about 26 sq mi (67 sq km) on the Shan Plateau. It is the residue of an inland sea that is still shrinking. The lower Chindwin River basin has several crater lakes. Other lakes and ponds are for the most part either closed bodies in the courses of former rivers, or are artificial ones formed by reclaiming marshes.

Rivers

The Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) River, 1,350 mi (2,170 km) is Myanmar's primary drainage system. Rising in the far north of Myanmar, the Irrawaddy flows south across the entire country before entering the sea through a nine-channel delta. It is the longest river found entirely within Myanmar. The Irrawaddy's most important tributary is the Chindwin River (600 mi / 960 km). It drains the northwest and is fed by tributary streams from the mountains of the Indian frontier. The Sittang (Sittoung) River (300 mi / 483 km) rises just south of Mandalay and parallels the Irrawaddy on its eastern flank. The lower valleys of the Irrawaddy and Sittang rivers form a vast, low-lying delta area of about 10,000 sq mi (25,900 sq km) that continually expands into the sea due to silting.

Myanmar's other large river, the Salween (Thanlwin), rises in China and flows south across the Shan Plateau in eastern Myanmar. The Salween covers 823 mi (1,325 km) within Myanmar, in a series of rapids and waterfalls through steep, narrow valleys, with enormous changes in level. Plans to dam the Salween have caused international controversy, and mining operations have polluted northern rivers.

In the eastern Shan State the mighty Mekong River (2,600 mi / 4,200 km) forms Myanmar's 146 mi (235 km) long border with Laos. In the southeast, many short streams run westward to the Andaman Sea, most notably the Tenasserim. There are also a number of small rivers in the southwest, flowing south out of the mountains into the Bay of Bengal.

Wetlands

The Irrawaddy delta region has salt and fresh water swamps with mud flats and abundant bird life. The coast of the southeastern region features numerous lagoons adjoined by salt marshes.

THE COAST, ISLANDS AND THE OCEAN

Oceans and Seas

Myanmar's western shores curve along the Bay of Bengal, coming to a point at Cape Negrais. The Irrawaddy delta and southeastern region's coasts together frame the upper corner of the Andaman Sea, joining at the Gulf of Martaban. All of these are parts of the Indian Ocean.

Major Islands

Offshore there are many large islands and hundreds of smaller ones. The islands of Myanmar's west coast and delta have been formed by erosion of the shoreline. Just off the northwest coast, the large Ramree (520 sq mi/ 1,350 sq km) and Cheduba (202 sq mi/523 sq km) islands are part of the Ramri Group. Bilugyun is a large island on the southwest coast. Also in the southwest is an undersea ridgeline forming the Mergui Archipelago of some 900 islands ranging in size from Kadan Island (170 sq mi / 440 sq km) to small rocky outcroppings.

The Coast and Beaches

In the northwest of Myanmar, the coast has rocky ridges with deep channels. Mud flats are covered with mangroves. After Cape Negrais Myanmar's southern delta coast is formed by silt from the Irrawaddy and other rivers. From the mouth of the Sittang River, the coast stretches south with inlets, rocky cliffs, and coral reefs.

CLIMATE AND VEGETATION

Temperature

The average annual temperature is 82°F (28°C). Temperatures can dip below 32°F (0°C) in mountainous areas, and soar as high as 113°F (45°C) on the central plains. Humidity ranges from 66 percent to 83 percent. Three seasons are experienced: a cool winter from November to February, a hot season in March-April, and a rainy season when the southwest monsoon arrives, from May through October.

Rainfall

Most of the country's rainfall occurs during the monsoon. Annual average rainfall is 200 in (508 cm) along the coast and 30 in (76 cm) for central regions. Frost and snow occur in the high mountains of the north.

Grasslands

The vast deltas and flood plains of the Irrawaddy and Sittang Rivers form the heart of Myanmar and are its most productive farmland. Some grassland is mixed with scrub growth in the large tracts of denuded former forest on the Shan Plateau and in the "dry zone" of central Myanmar. Bamboo grows extensively in many parts of the country.

Deserts

The "dry zone" of upper central Myanmar has seven rainless months each year, during which its rivers go dry and windstorms are frequent. The terrain there is characterized by erosion and scrub vegetation, including cactus and acacia.

Forests and Jungles

Until recent decades, Myanmar has been the repository of much of the last large temperate and tropical rainforests in mainland Asia, as well as deciduous monsoon forests and coastal mangrove forests. All of these are dwindling, primarily due to unchecked timber operations. Traditional sustainable logging practices were largely abandoned for clearcutting of valuable hardwoods, particularly teak, in the central regions during the 1970s and 1980s. By the early 1990s, Myanmar's deforestation rate, estimated by satellite mapping, was the third highest in the world. The loss of much of the eastern and western forest cover occured when the military government expanded timber exports in the 1990s. Myanmar's rate of deforestation has more than doubled since 1988, according to a World Resources Institute study. Logging concessions have also been extended to pristine areas of the far north. Deforestation, estimated at nearly 5,000 sq km (1,930 sq mi) per year, is also caused by land-clearing for farms, roads, and military bases. The country's remaining forest cover, now less than 30 percent, is mostly found in the relatively inaccessible mountain areas of the north and northeast. The loss of forest cover in Myanmar has threatened animal and plant populations, and caused landslides, river siltation, flooding, and drought.

HUMAN POPULATION

Myanmar has a moderate growth rate of 1.3 percent and density of 176 people per sq mi (68 people per sq

km) by 1999 estimates. Some 27 percent of the population live in urban areas; most people make their living through agriculture. In 1997 it was estimated that 23 percent of Myanmar's people live in poverty.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Myanmar is rich in natural resources but remains one of world's poorest countries, with an economy based primarily on agriculture. Fishing, timber, and other forest resources (including botanical medicines) are important. Minerals found in Myanmar include jade, rubies and other gemstones, gold, silver, copper, tin, zinc, antimony, tungsten, lead, nickel, cobalt, coal, limestone, marble, chromium, oil (onshore), and natural gas (offshore).

FURTHER READINGS

AsianInfo.Org. Myanmar. http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/myanmar/myanmar.htm (Accessed April 11, 2002).

Beck, Jan. Historical Dictionary of Myanmar. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1995.

Brunner, Jake, Chantal Elink, and Kirk Talbot. Logging Burma's Frontier Forests: Resources and the Regime. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1998.

Kyi, Aung San Suu. Letters from Burma. London: Penguin Books, 1997.