Norway

Basic Data
Official Country Name:	Kingdom of Norway
Region:	Europe
Population:	4,481,162
Language(s):	Norwegian, Lapp, Finnish
Literacy Rate:	100%
Academic Year:	August-June
Number of Primary Schools:	2,129
Compulsory Schooling:	9 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	7.4%
Foreign Students in National Universities:	11,225
Libraries:	1,108
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 320,752
	Secondary: 368,074
	Higher: 185,320
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 100%
	Secondary: 118%
	Higher: 62%
Teachers:	Higher: 13,665
Female Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 100%
	Secondary: 116%
	Higher: 71%

History & Background

Norway, officially known as the Kingdom of Norway, includes a large mainland, a variety of small islands, and other territories totaling 368,658 square kilometers (149,366 square miles). Located in northern Europe, Norway lies on the Scandinavian peninsula and is surrounded by three seas to the west and shares most of its eastern border with Sweden. The northern section of Norway experiences cold winters and weeks of continuous darkness, along with weeks of continuous sun in the summer. The country includes large barren and mountainous regions and has a population of just 4.4 million people. In 1999, it was estimated that 28.1 percent of Norwegians live in one of the four largest urban areas, and only these four areas have more than 100,000 inhabitants. Oslo, the capital of Norway, has approximately 500,000 inhabitants, and the next largest area, Bergen, has 220,000 inhabitants. Just 15 communities have more than 20,000 inhabitants. About 20 percent of Norwegians are under the age of 15, and 38 percent are married.

Relative to most countries, Norway's population is overwhelmingly homogenous. The vast majority are Nordic in heritage and appearance, and more than 60 percent have blue eyes. About 85 percent of Norwegians claim membership in the Lutheran Church of Norway. Most though are merely nominal members of the state-run church with less than 3 percent attending regular religious services. Freedom to practice any religion is available to all. The language of Norway is German in origin, and modern Norwegian has several dialects but all are understood across Scandinavian countries. One written language, known as Riksmal or "official language," was in place until about 1850. Landsmal or "country language" was a written form created out of rural Norwegian dialects. A struggle over these two written forms resulted in both being given equal status. Over 80 percent of schools use Riksmal, now known as Dano-Norwegian (Nynorsk ). English is a compulsory subject in school, and German and French are common third languages selected by students.

Just one hundred years ago, Norway was an agricultural society. In 2000, the 3 largest sectors of employment were public services (40 percent); commerce, hotels, and restaurants (18 percent); and industry (17 percent). Norway is one of the leaders in the world in the exportation of petroleum. With an abundance of offshore oil and peaceful political and labor relations, Norway's standard of living is one of the highest in the world. A social democracy, Norway has a parliamentary monarchy with numerous political parties. A strong sense of equality dominates social policy in Norway. National health and welfare systems provide for all Norwegians and include free medical care and full support in retirement or because of disability. Norwegians also rank among the highest in the world in projected life expectancy.

In terms of its educational history, independence from Denmark in 1814 was pivotal in the development of Norway's educational policy. Denmark had ruled Norway for the previous 400 years, but turned over control to Sweden when Napoleon was defeated. To counter this transfer of control, Norwegians quickly created a constitution that called for the most democratic political structure to date, including a parliamentary system, the abolition of any further hereditary titles, and expanded voting privileges. Although a small elite still ruled Norway, this constitution resulted in the limitation of Sweden's control and has been maintained, with the addition of amendments, to this day. With independence and a democratically based constitution, it was believed that Norway should be an open society, one in which all children have the right to be literate and all citizens should participate in decision making. A centrally organized and comprehensive school system was thought essential for this and to make a cohesive nation out of such a dispersed population. While at least a few years of religious training had been available to most children before this time, independence and the industrial revolution inspired the expansion of educational opportunities for Norwegians. National educational policy was developed through legislation over the next 150 years.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

Just after independence from Denmark, the Storting committee was organized in 1815 to address all school matters. Before independence, Luther's focus on schooling was supported by ordinances in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, and consequently, some schooling was available to children of all social classes for the purpose of religious development. These ordinances recognized that children needed to be literate to read scriptures and to learn specific religious knowledge for Christian confirmation into adulthood. Norway was one of the first countries in Europe to have compulsory education. With the 1739 School Ordinance, schooling was required, even of children in the countryside beginning at the age of seven. The motivation for this ordinance was the religious development of all Norwegian children, including those located away from any sizable town. The provision in this ordinance that required the creation of permanent schools was unworkable though in tiny communities that could not afford them. As a result, local parishes took responsibility for providing schooling and traveling schools were established in which teachers would spend a few weeks at a time in various locations. Mostly, children were taught to read and study religious principles. Children were rarely taught to write, and most attended school for just a few years. Schooling was widely available at this time though, and Norwegians prided themselves on their rate of literacy. By 1800, it was believed that almost all Norwegians were literate, a remarkable achievement given that the literacy rate for all of Europe did not exceed 50 percent for adults until about 1850. For the most part, higher education institutions did not exist prior to Norwegian independence. Some alternative forms of schooling were available. The developing industrial revolution in Norway at the time of independence required vocational training opportunities. Thus, traditional apprentice systems were replaced with schools focused on seamanship, handwork, drafting, and mining.

National school policy continued to be developed and refined and became more secular and extensive with time. The 1848 Folk School Law mandated the creation of a least one folk school in each town, that teachers meet certain qualifications, that 60 students per day is the maximum allowed per teacher, that children attend school from age 7 until confirmation, and that each town have a school commission consisting of town clergy and council appointees. Most important, this law expanded the educational content offered. While only reading and religious instruction were taught previously, now subjects such as writing, singing, and math were to be taught in all schools. By the end of the nineteenth century, laws establishing elementary and secondary schools were passed.

The modern school was developed in three stages of reform, each stage was established through national legislation. The compulsory school (Grunnskole ) was revised in 1969 into a nine-year mandated program. Two stages, stage 1-6 (barnesteget ) and stage 7-9 (ungdomssteget ) were created. The next step of the reform involved the upper secondary school (Videregaende skole ), which lasted from one to three years and incorporated a wide variety of courses with a focus on higher education preparation or vocational training. The last reform stage involved the development of the tertiary level of education. The University of Oslo was the only university in Norway until 1948. Three additional universities were eventually established, and in the 1970s, regional colleges grew at a tremendous rate. These colleges allowed for greater access to higher education across Norway and served local needs for education, research, and development.

Educational System—Overview

The national school system is designed to provide a quality education to every citizen. Egalitarian values with respect to education are quite strong in Norway. In fact, the government attempts to provide the same quality education to absolutely every Norwegian, no matter how remote a community is or how few children it has. For example, the government spends twice as much per pupil in poor areas where children are scattered over a large area than in other regions of Norway. Likewise, gender differences in educational opportunities have been eliminated. The percentage of girls in upper secondary schools, for example, exceeds the percentage of boys in those schools. Gender preferences in course selection are still apparent though. The result is that parents and communities tend to regard their local school as equal to any other school. Schools do not compete against each other for students, and parents do not "shop" for schools for their children. Almost all Norwegians attend local publicly funded schools.

In 1997, the mandatory age at which children must start school was changed from seven to six years old. Now, all children are required to attend school for 10 years from the age of 6 until the age of 16. After these mandatory years, an optional eleventh year is offered. School size is limited by the Parliament. A maximum of 450 students per school is mandated by law. The philosophy behind this is that small schools function better than consolidated schools at facilitating close connections between the school, students, parents, and community. Some school subjects are required. These include Norwegian, English, mathematics, science, physical education, music, and religion. Students may elect to take courses in the arts, other foreign languages, and vocational programs, such as seamanship, office skills, or agriculture. After these mandatory school years, many students go on to three more years of upper secondary school. They may then take an examination that allows them to be considered for entrance into a university. About the same number of students attend vocational schools as attend college and universities. Because of state support, few schools charge tuition, and all interested students, no matter what their financial need, are eligible for loans from the government.

In 1998, the percentage of those 16 years of age or older whose highest level of education completed was primary/lower secondary school was 23.2 percent, whose highest level was upper secondary school was 54.5 percent, and whose highest level was tertiary education was 22.2 percent. This last percentage has doubled since 1980. Gender differences in these rates exist but are small. The percentage of males who are 16 years of age or older and have completed tertiary schooling is 22.7. The corresponding percentage for females is 21.8 percent. In 2000, the expected years of tertiary education for a 17-year-old Norwegian was 3 years. This is higher than the expected number of years for both Denmark and Sweden. Again, gender differences in these expectations are minimal. Expected years of tertiary education was 3.4 years for 17-year-old women and 2.5 years for 17-year-old men in 2000.

Preprimary & Primary Education

Kindergartens have come into popularity in Norway only recently. The number of children in kindergartens more than doubled in the 1980s, and there still are not enough schools. The dramatic increase seems to be due to a high rate of female employment outside of the home, the increase of single-parent families, and a demand by the public for more focus on basic instruction. About a third of eligible children attend kindergartens, and half of these children attend private kindergartens. The kindergarten in Norway is intended to serve both the educational and the social development of children. Consequently, kindergartens are run by the Ministry of Consumer Affairs and Administration, not the Ministry of Church and Education. In 1999, a total of 189,382 children were enrolled in kindergarten. The 5,991 kindergartens in Norway employ 52,898 people. Of these kindergartens, 3,013 of them are state schools.

As of 1997, compulsory education begins at the age of six. Typically, compulsory education begins with six years of primary school. A class teacher model is usual, and classes are generally held together through compulsory schooling. Moreover, it is typical for a student to have the same primary teacher for the first three years, and many have the same primary teacher for their first six years. No students repeat grades. Teachers are given materials that help them respond to different ability levels in their classrooms, but students are never divided at this level based on ability. No examinations or grades are given in primary school, although both are prevalent in lower secondary school. Parents are given a report about their child's progress at least twice a year. Primary school is followed by three years of lower secondary school, and usually all nine compulsory grades are located in a single school building.

In lower secondary school, classes are still kept together, but for some subjects, especially in the eighth and ninth grades, students are divided into three levels for courses, such as Norwegian, English, German, and mathematics, based on the students' ability in each of these areas. Parents and students are involved in the placement of students into these courses. The goal though, as determined by the Parliament, is to keep classes of students together as much as possible throughout their comprehensive school years. As in primary school, students do not repeat grades in lower secondary school. However, students do receive marks at this level and, at the end of the ninth grade year, take a formal examination.

Norway has about 3,500 compulsory schools, resulting in an average school size of 150 students. By mandate of the Parliament, no compulsory school has more than 450 students. Some schools are quite small and occasionally must accommodate more than one grade in a single class. All compulsory schools are operated by local municipalities, although they are subject to the framework and regulations of the central government. The national plan allows for numerous variations and even encourages innovations at the local level. Locally initiated and registered development projects number over 3,000. Class size is also mandated by the Parliament. In primary school, the maximum class size is 28, and for the lower secondary school, it is 30. The average class size is much lower than these mandates. For primary and lower secondary schools, the average class size was 20.2 students per class in the 2000 to 2001 school year. From 1991 to 2000, the number of students per class rose from 19.2 to 20.2. In compulsory education, the student to teacher ratio is 12.5 in full-time teacher equivalents. In 1998, school expectancy for five-year-old Norwegian girls was 18.1 years and for boys, it was 17.2 years. More than 90 percent of students go on to upper secondary school after completing their compulsory schooling.

In autumn of 2000, approximately 590,000 pupils populated Norway's primary and lower secondary schools. From the 1991 to 1992 to the 2000 to 2001 school years, the number of pupils in primary and lower secondary schools increased by a total of 117,000. Much of this change can be explained by the lowering of starting school age from six to seven years old in 1997. At the beginning of the 2000 to 2001 school year, there were 12 fewer primary schools than at the beginning of the previous school year and 150 fewer schools than there were in 1991. A wide variation in the number of primary and lower secondary schools in the various counties exists. Hordaland is the county with the most schools (350), and Nordland, More og Romsdal, Akershus, and Rogaland have more than 200 schools. The counties with the smallest number of schools are Aust-Agder (80) and Finnmark (100). Interestingly, the number of students in Nordland and More og Romsdal counties is relatively small, about half the number of students in the most populated county, yet these two counties have a large number of schools because of differences in demography and settlement patterns. While quality of primary and lower secondary schools are similar, their distribution and size is quite diverse.

Secondary Education

Three years of upper secondary education are offered to students. Classic academic and vocational training programs were combined into a single comprehensive school as a result of the 1974 Upper Secondary School Law. This law was intended to eliminate any status differences between practical and theoretical kinds of education. With both vocational and general studies offered in the same school, all students became free to choose between these kinds of programs. Students may also participate in apprenticeship programs where their training comes from a purely apprentice based experience, a combination of apprentice work and school based activities, or purely school based activities. A general studies education in upper secondary school is considered the best preparation for university attendance. The competition, however, is greatest for the vocational programs, and once students are admitted to the foundational course for a vocational program, they are not necessarily continued to the next levels of more specialized vocational training. Students must be high achievers to be selected for and to move on in their chosen practical programs. In addition, because these students learn job skills and are still eligible to go on to higher education, they are thought to have the best of both worlds. In contrast, admission standards for general studies are minimal, and fewer students seek those slots. Moreover, continuation is virtually assured. However, some of the brightest students choose this route because it leads most directly to higher education. The trend though is that many of the brightest students compete for spots in the top vocational courses, and the availability of general studies slots has lowered the status of this emphasis. A consequence of top students taking so many vocational slots that would have previously gone to students who have had difficulty in a traditional school format is that these students are forced to take a general studies program or drop out of school. A general studies program would allow them to compete more effectively for higher education admission, but few seek it and all are left with no vocational skills and three more years of the type of schooling in which they have not been successful in the past. Some have referred to students who are not motivated by traditional classroom learning techniques as "school tired youth." Of those 16- to 18-years-old, the usual age group for this level of schooling, about 57.5 percent participated in a general studies program in the 2000 to 2001 school year.

Eleven branches of study are available at the upper secondary level. These include general education, manual and industrial studies, arts and crafts, fishing and maritime studies, sports, clerical and commercial studies, domestic arts and sciences, social and health studies, media and communication, and retail and service trades. Each branch has the same structure in that students participate in one or two years of foundation courses, and then, depending on the branch and the length of the foundation courses, one or two years of concentrated training. Within each branch, more specialized courses of study are available. For example, within the Metals and Industrial Studies branch, subjects may include carpentry and metal work, plumbing, clock repair, flower decoration, and piano tuning and repair. The full range of possible vocational courses are not available at every school. In this circumstance, students and their parents may search for a school offering the specific desired courses. Grades are given at this level to reflect student's school work, and separate grades are given to reflect achievement on standardized examinations. The number and nature of examinations depend upon the area of study. Examinations may be written, oral, or some combination of the two. In general studies, students take several examinations, including one for Norwegian composition. In vocational studies, students may take an examination in each of the first two years and then two examinations in their final year. Both kinds of grades, teacher ratings and examination results, are listed on the certificate students receive upon leaving secondary school. Details about the individual student's academic record are also recorded on this certificate, including courses taken and school attendance record.

Although there are more girls, 54.4 percent, in the general areas of study than boys, girls are the vast majority of the health and social studies with 91.7 percent. Girls also account for 82.8 percent of those in arts, crafts and design and 73.2 percent of those in music, dance, and drama. These are considered "soft" areas of emphasis. In the 2000 to 2001 school year, two new areas of study, media and communication and retail and service trades, were added. These new areas have an equal distribution of male and female students. The curriculum for upper secondary schools is developed by the central government, but secondary schools are administered by each county. Although three years of upper secondary or post-basic education are typical for students, certificates are available after completing one and two year programs. Graduation from upper secondary school typically occurs at age 19. Approximately 164,000 students are registered in upper secondary education for the 2000 to 2001 school year. Vocational programs accounted for 42.5 percent of the total number of students. The number of students in secondary school age 20 and over dropped from 14.4 percent in the 1999 to 2000 academic year to 12.6 percent in the 2000 to 2001 school year.

Large differences in the social backgrounds of pupils in general studies and vocational programs in upper secondary school exist. About two percent of students in the vocational programs have parents with a post-graduate level education, while more than 65 percent have parents with an upper secondary level. Although few gender differences in the rate of attendance at upper secondary schools exist, course choices are quite gender specific. Girls choose health, social studies, and aesthetic programs more than boys do, and boys outnumber girls by far in engineering and mechanical trades. In the 2000 to 2001 school year, girls accounted for just 1.7 percent of building and construction trades, 3.8 percent of electrical trades, and 4.4 percent of engineering and mechanical trades. The gender distribution in upper secondary education and at folk high schools has changed slightly from autumn 1996 to autumn 1999. The female percentage in general studies programs has remained the same, but an increase of 3 percent in vocational programs has occurred over these three years. At folk high schools, the percentage of female students has risen by 5 percent from 1996 to 1999. In apprentice programs, 31 percent of students are female, an increase of five percent since 1996. In an effort to expand opportunities for all Norwegians, the Parliament gives priority to disabled students in admittance to upper secondary schools.

Student councils were mandated for secondary schools with the 1974 Secondary School Law. Students have worked to create more say in school affairs and have been successful in getting more power to determine what is relevant and appropriate for their education. Teachers at the upper secondary level tend to find their jobs to be difficult. They complain of conflicting objectives and too much being asked of them. They are required to teach basic subjects, along with cultural heritage, democratic values, and vocational training. Updating subjects and secondary training is done at the national level by the Upper Secondary School Council. This council also creates new initiatives and was responsible, for example, for a program that introduced computers into schools and established training in information technology for teachers in the 1980s. In 1998, there were 230,115 students in upper secondary schools in Norway. In 2000, among all Norwegians between the ages of 55- and 64-years-old, 65 percent have completed at least upper secondary education; but for Norwegians between the ages of 25- and 34-years-old, 93 percent have done so.

Higher Education

Norwegian universities offer programs of study at undergraduate and post-graduate levels. Four universities and 26 state colleges, among a variety of other kinds of higher education institutions, are available to students in Norway. Smaller specialized colleges offer degree programs that are just two or three years in length, while university studies tend to be longer in duration. A small percentage of students attend college outside of the country. About 40 percent of 19-year-olds meet the formal requirements for higher education and about 25 percent of them immediately enter a college or university. Another 10 percent who do not meet the formal criteria are admitted based on other criteria. Entrance to most fields of study is limited because the number of applicants exceed the number of places available. In medicine, technological fields, teacher training, and business economics, minimum entrance regulations help to limit applicants. Unlike most other countries, high achieving students are as likely to attend district colleges as they are to attend universities in Norway, and district college students have the opportunity to transfer to universities if they desire. The student to teacher ratio is 17 in colleges and 11 in universities. Although students do not usually complete upper secondary school until 19 years of age, most put off higher education for a few years while gaining work experience. Others interrupt their higher education for paid employment. The majority of young men in Norway are drafted into military service lasting more than one year, and this delays the completion of their higher education programs. The result of these delays is that about half of the students at institutions of higher education are over the age of 25, and one-fifth are over the age of 30. In terms of gender disparity, in all higher education institutions in 1998, there were 106,711 female students compared to 77,352 male students. Females also outnumber male students at universities with 43,166 female to 37,962 male students enrolled in 1998. The difference is much larger at the state college level with 51,869 female to 28,965 male students. In 2000, nearly 59 percent of students in higher education were female. Male students are in the majority at a few universities and colleges with mostly technological or economic degree programs, such as the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norwegian School of Economics & Business, and Narvik College. At military colleges, women make up only about 10 percent of students.

Two university degrees were traditionally available in Norway. These were a first degree after four or five years of study (cand.mag ) and a higher degree with two to three more years of study (cand.philol, cand.scient, and so on). An informal doctoral degree, which followed these levels, was available to students with additional training and who worked as research associates or fellows. New doctoral degree programs, inspired by those available in the United States, were established in the 1970s and 1980s because they offered more formal, structured programs that were recognized internationally. In Norway, this Ph.D. model emphasizes structure and supervised research. Typically, these programs require 3 years of research training but distributed over 4 years with the student devoting 25 percent of their work to other duties. These degrees have become prerequisites for academic positions.

Regular higher educational programs are available to international students who are capable of funding their own education. Admission for international students though is highly competitive and criteria include academic background, plan of study, and proficiency in English. If the desired program of study is taught in the Norwegian language, international students must spend their first year in an intensive language program or must pass a Norwegian language test called Bergen-testen. During that year, the institution may or may not reserve a place for the student in their chosen department.

Higher education originally developed in Norway in order to create a more educated work force. This was the prime mission of the first university, the University of Oslo, established in 1811. In the 1960s and 1970s, higher education institutions began to differentiate themselves. A binary system was the solution to the quantity versus quality problem. District colleges served vocational needs, and universities maintained a traditional focus. The 1980s brought accusations of mediocrity in terms of both university teaching and research. The Hernes Commission Report of 1988 called for higher quality teaching and research and more integration and flexibility across institutions. A more efficient higher education system was desired by the commission. Among other things, the plan called for the "Norway Network," which merged small colleges and required more cooperation between district colleges and universities, although it was not until 1995 that the district colleges were combined into a state college system. In addition, even though the plan called for integration across district colleges and universities, universities maintained their distinct status and mission. The binary system survived the attempt at integration and increased efficiency. University teachers supported this distinction. District college teachers, on the other hand, fought to obtain university type responsibilities and rewards, including the opportunity to incorporate research into part of their workload.

To further the reform plan for higher education, in the 1990s, state run institutions were given more autonomy with fewer state imposed regulations, but higher education personnel and institutions became subject to performance control. Goal formation and achievement became imperative, with a focus on greater productivity and lower costs. Funds were tied, for example, to the production of new graduates, and incentive funds were given to faculty for publications. A pay for performance system was also put into place, although its impact was minor. Overall, the 1990s brought greater power and control over higher education by the Parliament, despite the stated goal of decentralization. District colleges and students were more powerful in achieving their goals for higher education than university affiliates due to more state support and sentiment for less expensive, more applied, and shorter programs of study.

In fact, the purpose of higher education in Norway in the year 2000 seems to have shifted back to its original goal of preparing workers. The university is no longer seen as a purely cultural institution, but rather as one that needs to be responsive to corporate and consumer demands and where efficiency is prized. Providing a more skilled work force that can help Norway compete in the international economy is the desire of many Norwegians and Parliament. District colleges have shorter and more occupational oriented programs and became available to more students in more locations across the country in the 1990s. In 2000, Norway had 26 district colleges. Faculty at district colleges are primarily responsible for teaching. Universities, on the other hand, remained traditional in their orientation and actively resisted calls to be more practically oriented in their teaching programs. In 2000, the public debate about higher education focused on whether or not the higher education system is too centered on examinations and the certification of students as opposed to learning for its own sake.

The higher education system is essentially state-owned. University teachers are civil servants, and in fact, the Parliament is responsible for establishing any new professorships. A high degree of autonomy exists, and academic institutions are important regional forces, but their budgets are fully controlled by the government. One percent of the Gross National Product (GNP) of Norway was spent on higher education in 1990, while all education costs consumed about 5.8 percent of the GNP. Higher education institutions generally regard their budgets as tight and lobby for an increase in expenditures. About 25 percent of all of the research and development done in Norway is undertaken by higher education institutions. Most of this is basic research and occurs at universities, but applied research and development has proliferated at district colleges in recent years. Research funding is provided through university budgets, along with public and private contracts.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Education is controlled and funded by the central government. Government regulations cover such issues as class size, length of school year, teaching obligations, and minimum number of lessons offered. Even teacher salaries are controlled by the central government as teachers are civil servants and, as such, must lobby public employee salary regulations to impact their pay. Of course, education is also effected by government regulations concerning safety, buildings, and work environment. On the other hand, local governments control the number and location of schools, the hiring of teachers, and the maintenance of their schools. All comprehensive and upper secondary schools are under the control of the Ministry of Church and Education. On a day to day basis, primary and lower secondary schools are administered by local community authorities, and upper secondary schools are administered by the county or region. Each of the 20 counties in Norway have a school board. Members of each board are appointed by the county council which must give each political party representation on the school board in the proportion to which that party is represented on the county council. County school boards are responsible for the teachers and principals, and the county council votes on the annual budget for the school.

The central government finances the bulk of education in Norway. About 40 percent of compulsory education, 60 percent of upper secondary education, and a full 100 percent of higher education is paid by the central government. Local municipalities cover the remaining expenses. Previously, primary and secondary schools had been funded by specific grants for clearly specified activities or projects. In 1985, in an effort to transfer decisionmaking in education from the central government to local municipalities, the financing of schools was altered. A lump sum is now given to local municipalities to fund all central government services, including education. Local governments must now decide how much to allocate to education. It is generally believed that education has received more funding from this method, not less, as education is a priority in local communities. For higher education institutions, the budgets provided by the central government are a frame for decision making.

In order to facilitate developments in education, a law in 1954 established the Council for Innovation in Education (Forsoksradet ). This was the national center for research and development in education. Concerns had been raised that previous educational reforms had not been fully informed by research or testing. This council was charged with assuring educational leaders that any future innovations would be an improvement over what already exists. Experimental forms of schools and educational techniques were advanced and tested under the direction of this council, which served as a consultant to the Department of Church and Education and was responsible for a variety of reforms as described above.

Nonformal Education

Nonformal education was widely available at the end of the nineteenth century as some young people, upon finishing folk school, wanted more yet did not want to participate in college preparatory programs. Clubs or groups revolving around literature, sports, and music developed. In 1999, adult education courses numbered 61,319, and 681,845 Norwegians participated in one of these courses. Participation was distributed by age as follows: 187,626 participated from the 14- to 29-year-old group, 240,783 participated from the 30- to 49-year-old group, and 158,793 participants in adult education courses were over 50 years of age; some of the ages of participants are unknown.

The variety of nonformal or adult education opportunities are immense. Extensive programs for employment training are provided by the Ministry of Labour and Local Affairs. These programs are usually housed at institutions of higher education. Private corporations also provide their employees with numerous training courses, as do the large local public utilities. Another source of adult education in Norway comes from volunteer organizations. These organizations may be affiliated with religious institutions, trade associations, or political parties. More formal adult education programs are offered by district colleges by universities. The government encourages the participation of the disabled in these programs by offering special appropriations for accommodating programs. More than a quarter of adult Norwegians participate in at least one adult education course each year. In recent years, adult education programs have seen budgetary cuts that have resulted in fewer offerings. The desire to participate does not seemed to have changed, but government cutbacks in education have been focused on these kinds of opportunities.

Teaching Profession

Teacher training for compulsory education occurs mainly in teacher training colleges in a program that lasts four years. Primary school teachers were qualified after three years of schooling until 1992 when the training requirements were enhanced. It was felt that compulsory education teachers needed more depth and breadth in their subject education. The fourth year then became devoted to specialized study, along with education theory. In addition, the first three years of teacher training are now more constrained with fewer optional courses. This added structure insures that teachers receive more instruction in the main subjects taught in the first few years of compulsory school. Twenty teacher education colleges provide elementary teacher preparation. Upper secondary teachers must have a full university degree or professional experience in a vocational field, along with pedagogical training. Secondary teacher training is available at four universities and eight other institutions of higher education. All teacher education programs were standardized in the mid-1990s. The emphasis was on strengthening subject education and developing reflective teachers and a cooperative mentor-focused culture for educators. This was to ensure cohesion across diverse parts of the educational system and to allow for educational content to be adjusted as needs or trends in Norway dictate.

Teachers enjoyed much public support and great respect through the 1960s. In the 1970s, the developing oil industry required more infrastructure, and the public became concerned with health care and other kinds of services. The result has been less remuneration and respect for teachers, especially in comparison to growing salaries in the private sector. Teachers also complain of diminished facilities and increasing responsibilities. In 1999, the number of teachers who worked in primary and lower secondary schools, upper secondary schools, colleges, and universities numbered 110,500. This number increased by 1,400 from the previous year. Across all schools, 30 percent of teachers worked part-time in 1999. Primary school teachers have the highest percentage of part-time teachers (33 percent), while in comparison only about 20 percent of university teachers work part-time. The average age for teachers in Norway is 44.7.

Academics in Norway were considered part of the educated class (Akademikerne ) and, for most of the nineteenth century, part of the political elite. Academics had a large role in the cultural and social development of Norway. The original pedagogical purpose of the university was to prepare students for a vocation. To become an academic before the early 1980s required a two year masters-like program called the magister degree. Increasingly academic departments developed Ph.D. programs, including more structured course requirements and research work. By 1990, the doctorate was generally considered a minimum requirement for a permanent university position. Doctoral students are paid comparable to laborers outside of academics, and unlike other countries, most in Norway stay at the same university throughout their careers. This may be a function of the small higher education system in Norway and may also lend itself to the influence of a small group of senior academics and favoritism.

In higher education, beginning in the late 1960s, the equalization of both the status and the working conditions of academics was advanced. A hierarchy consisting of the sciences (amamuensises ), medicine (prosektors ), and arts and sciences (lecturers ) had existed prior to this time. Lecturers had more teaching responsibilities than the other academic groupings. Work conditions were homogenized as duties for each grouping were moved to about half of their work activities devoted to teaching and half to research. Faculty boards also became less hierarchical. While department chairs and deans had occupied faculty boards, representation was extended to all levels of faculty.

Summary

Norway has achieved a remarkable educational system. Adult literacy exceeds 99 percent, and school expectancy for a five-year-old in Norway was 17.7 years in 1998, one of the highest school expectancy rates of any country. For Norwegians age 25- to 34-years-old, 93 percent have completed upper secondary education, a rate that compares with Japan and is among the best in the world. Norway excels in educational attainment for women as well. The percentage of Norwegian women who have a tertiary level of education is exceeded only in the United States. While many more men than women have at least an upper secondary education in the 55- to 64-year-old age group, among those aged 25 to 34, 31 percent of Norwegian women and 24 percent of Norwegian men have completed a tertiary education program.

Although a prominent goal of the national educational system in Norway is to provide the same quality education to all Norwegians, some disparity still exists. For example, parental education is an indicator of children's level of education. Of all the students enrolled at Norwegian universities and scientific colleges, 23 percent had parents with a post-graduate degree, and another 31 per cent had parents with up to a 4 year tertiary degree. Only one in three had parents with only an upper secondary school education. For the state colleges, the corresponding percentages were smaller with 8 percent of students having parents with a post-graduate degree, and 25 percent having parents with up to a 4-year tertiary degree. More than 50 percent had parents with an education at the upper secondary school level. In addition to parental education, gender also seems to play a large role in educational choices. Norway's achievement is that opportunities are available to all, even though there are still significant group differences in educational outcomes.

The school system in Norway then has come quite close to achieving its primary goal of a high quality education available to all citizens, regardless of geographical location, ethnicity, gender, social class, or any other consideration. The system is subject though to constant revision. Some of the prominent issues in education for Norway at the beginning of the twenty-first century concern the development of preschool programs, including the availability of kindergartens, the decentralization of education affairs, and the efficiency and effectiveness of such a comprehensive school system. While the state provides school funding and has a strong interest in maintaining uniformity across the system in terms of the quality and the structure of education, decision making power is being dispersed to local school administrators. This philosophy of decentralization is sought in a variety of realms, extending beyond the educational system in Norway. Likewise, efficiency and effectiveness are prized across systems in Norway as this country's economic well being is tied to oil prices, and Norway has had experience with economic recession. In the vast and complex national school system then, budget cuts are common and a source of much contention. Finally, Norwegians are especially concerned that their educational system prepare their citizens to compete in a world market. The inclusion of technology in education and the development of a highly skilled workforce are key components of future educational reforms.

Bibliography

Aamodt, Per O. "Floods, Bottlenecks and Backwaters: An Analysis of Expansion of Higher Education in Norway." Higher Education 30 (1995): 63-80.

Statistics Norway. 2000. Available from http://www.ssb.no.

Eide, Kjell. "The Future of European Education as Seen from the North." Comparative Education 28 (1992): 9-17.

Huss, Helen. The Education of Children and Youth in Norway. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1960.

Kogan, Maurice, Marianne Bauer, Ivar Bleiklie and Mary Henkel. Transforming Higher Education: A Comparative Study. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2000.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Reviews of National Policies of Education: Norway. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 1990.

Rust, Val D. The Democratic Tradition and the Evolution of Schooling in Norway. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1989.

—Melanie Moore