Myanmar

Basic Data
Official Country Name:	Union of Myanmar

Region:	Southeast Asia
Population:	41,734,853
Language(s):	Burmese
Literacy Rate:	83.1%
Number of Primary Schools:	35,752
Compulsory Schooling:	5 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	1.2%
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 5,413,752
	Secondary: 1,752,510
	Higher: 245,317
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 121%
	Secondary: 30%
	Higher: 5%
Teachers:	Secondary: 106,515
	Higher: 5,730
Student-Teacher Ratio:	Primary: 46:1
	Secondary: 16:1
Female Enrollment Rate:	Secondary: 30%
	Higher: 7%

History & Background

The Union of Myanmar, formerly known as Burma, is the largest nation in mainland Southeast Asia. With a territory of 262,000 square miles and a population of approximately 50 million people, it is located between the two most populous nations in the world—China and India.

Myanmar's society and culture have been greatly influenced by China and India. As an independent nation since January 1948, Myanmar has been passing through various military rules and a series of democratization movements. Its education system, as is the case in other Buddhist countries in Southeast Asia, is based on the model of rural monasteries where the Sayadaws (abbots) teach the basic three Rs, as well as handicrafts, to people of all ages.

A fascinating, longtime continuity of monastic learning and modern education makes Myanmar one of the most literate countries in the region. With an approximately 80 percent literacy rate, Myanmar, despite many militaristically created setbacks, rightfully claims to be an educational leader among many economically disadvantaged Third World countries.

Myanmar has been an active partner in the UNESCO-led movement of "Education for All," known as EFA2000. Education in Myanmar (then Burma) until 1948 was colonial, widely criticized by the leaders of independence movement. The Education Reconstruction Committee Report of 1947 included a wide array of school reforms such as bilingual curricula, vocational training, and health education. During the 1948-1962 post-independence period, the government of Burma announced a statement of educational policy that included free education in state schools; the use of Burmese as a medium of instruction while allowing English at the college level; and the creation of new textbooks that highlighted the spirit of nationalism.

Under military rule (1962-1988) the Burmese educational system became highly centralized. General Ne Win's Government used the schools as a tool of political indoctrination. While the military rulers emphasized science and technology, school and college curricula were controlled and teachers were not able to teach in a free atmosphere. Once an economically as well as educationally leading country in South East Asia, Burma was granted a status of "Least Developed Country" by the United Nations in 1987. In 1989 Burma adopted a nationalistic new name, Myanmar.

Finally, during 1988-2000, known as a period of "democratization under the military control," the educational system in Myanmar has remained chaotic. In the first free, multiparty elections, Ms. Aung San Suu Kyi's party won a decisive victory, but the Military refused to give up its authority. Ms. Kyi, a highly popular, democratic leader was held under house arrest. Numerous students and teachers who led the democratization movement were silenced or jailed, and many colleges and universities were periodically shut down.

Educational System—Overview

Despite a traditionally high rate of literacy and importance of learning in Myanmar, its educational system is in a state of underdevelopment and uncertainty. Although enrollment in primary schools is very high, the completion rate lags behind. Reports indicate that only one third of all primary school children finish the first five years. Many students drop out due to poverty, lack of support, and poor health. While school attendance is high in urban areas and among male students, village schools in a vastly rural-agrarian country are handicapped by poor attendance, especially among the female students.

Myanmar's educational system has been suffering from a proportionately declining budget. While there has been a sizable increase in the number of schools, colleges, universities, and teachers during the last five years, the percentage of total education expenditure declined from 4.65 percent in 1995 to 2.52 percent in 1999. While the total budget rose from approximately 7,000 to l,000 million kyats (approximately 6.5 kyats equal US$1.00), the proportionate decline implies that the present military rule does not give high priority to education, even though it does declare its commitment to EF2000 Education For All by Year 2000.

For several years Myanmar has also been actively participating in many world agencies such as UNDP (United Nations Development Project), UNESCO (United Nations Economic, Social, and Cultural Organization), and UNICEF (United Nations Children's Emergency Fund). Even in this area of support by NGOs (nongovernmental organizations), as in the above allocation by the Government' Ministry of Education budget, there is a slight proportionate decline. While the UNDP allocation of $3.9 million for primary education in Myanmar rose to $5.9 million in four years (1994-1998), it fell from 14 percent to 12 percent, proportionately.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Recent changes and developments in the educational system in Myanmar, as in the case of other less developed countries, are described, explained, and projected in many divergent ways. Depending on the source of the description and assessment of changes in Myanmar's schools and colleges, there are widely varying pictures. The government-generated reports declare steady progress and lofty goals at all levels of education.

There are seven departments and many specially formed committees in charge of setting goals and employing appropriate strategies to achieve EFA (Education for All) and specific numerical targets. For instance, the Department of Basic Education is in charge of the primary, middle, and high school levels. The Department of Higher Education is responsible for colleges and universities. There are separate departments for technical, agricultural, and vocational education and official bodies for administering examinations, training teachers, and conducting educational research. There are various committees for formal and nonformal education at national and regional levels; these bodies have reported that more and more children have been completing primary and secondary education and that the degree programs have shortened their masters degree program from three to two years. It is also proposed that undergraduate programs be reduced from four to three years and that a semester system that continuously monitors the student's progress be introduced in place of the present system, which heavily relies on rote leaning and extremely competitive end-of-year final examinations.

The Medium of Instruction: Before 1991 all textbooks for basic education were in Burmese. Even in higher education, English was de-emphasized as a language of the Colonizers. Such nationalistic sentiments seemed to be replaced by more realistic objectives of mastering English as a universal language and being more compatible with scientific and technical education.

It is reported that all subjects except the Myanmar language and literature are taught in English at the high school and college levels. The texts and examinations, too, are written in English. There is some concern though, among Myanmar's leaders, that the English language may generate more liberal ways of thinking, as in the United States and Great Britain, and may create an atmosphere of democratic and egalitarian ways of thinking and acting.

Teaching Profession

The critics of Myanmar's militarism point to the severe shortage of adequately trained teachers, especially to teach English and sciences, as many seek overseas careers because of relatively low salaries and lack of freedom. Myanmar's leaders seem to favor the Japanese system of education, which places heavy stress on discipline, more so than the Western European and American systems. Many university students have been leaving Myanmar to seek admission to other universities in the region or to Europe and the United States, as numerous campuses have been closed or affected by student demonstrations and government repression.

Two developments in recent years include an increase in the enrollment of computer literacy and an increase in the enrollment in the government-sponsored University of Distance Education. Several hundred schools and colleges have been teaching computer education, especially during evenings and through short programs. Almost 50 percent of all university students were affiliated with the University of Distance Education, which attracts elderly students and would-be teachers.

Tuition Classes: In Myanmar and in many developing countries that call themselves "Socialistic," the government heavily favors the rich through a parallel system of private tutoring called kyu-shin. Many students call in teachers to coach them at their homes in the format of small groups of friends and relatives. These private classes are costly and have been contributing to the general deterioration of government schools. Such a system also creates inequality of opportunity for students who need private classes but cannot afford them.

The most popular tuition classes cater to the needs of students in the final year of high school as a "guarantee" for college entrance after the stiff and highly competitive tests. The tutors often guide their students through specially prepared expensive guidebooks and more or less personalized guidance. English and science are among the most sought-out subjects in order to get better jobs or entry to overseas universities.

Ethnic Diversity: Myanmar's population includes many ethnic minorities, some of which (such as Mon) have been deprived of equality in the use of their own language. For example, at one point, the shutting down of 120 Mon schools attended by 6,000 students was discussed. Another discriminatory practice involves the Citizenship Law of 1982. Thousands of Chinese and Indian students face the problem of college admission in general and entrance to the programs of technology and medicine in particular.

Summary

In spite of its pro-educational cultural tradition and several recent success stories, Myanmar still faces many unresolved issues. While the international agencies, as well as local volunteers, have been trying to improve the quality and expand the scope of education at various levels, Myanmar's repressive military leadership offsets these efforts.

The democratically inclined leader, Ms. Kyi, is still not allowed to lead, despite her winning a Nobel Peace Prize 10 years ago. Myanmar's schools and colleges need to get closer to their long overdue prospects of democratization, openness, and equality among students and teachers.

Bibliography

Asia 2000 Yearbook. "Far Eastern Economic Review," 2000.

Myo Nyunt, U. Human Resource Development and Nation Building in Myanmar's Educational Development. Yungoon: Office of Strategic Studies, 1996.

Thein, Myat, and Khin Maung NYO. Social Sector Development in Myanmar: The Rate of the State. ASEAN Economic Development, December 1999.

Union of Myamar. Review of the Financial, Economic, and Social Conditions for 1997/98. Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, 1998.

—Ashakant Nimbark