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Zoroastrianism

Historians remain uncertain about when Zoroastrianism first developed, but many believe that it is older than Judaism. If that belief is correct, then Zoroastrianism is the world's first major monotheistic religion (a religion that worships one god). Zoroastrianism was founded by the prophet, Zarathushtra (also spelled Zarathustra), often referred to by the ancient Greek version of his name, Zoroaster. The core of Zoroastrian belief is that God, Ahura Mazda, is the supreme creator and the source of all truth. Zoroastrians see life as a battleground between the forces of good and evil. The good is represented by an aspect, or side, of Ahura Mazda called Spenta Mainyu, who exists in ongoing conflict with his evil opponent, another aspect of Ahura Mazda called Angra Mainyu. Within this ongoing battle between good and evil, humans have free moral choice. The goal of human existence is to create a social order that is morally perfect.

An alternative name for the religion is Mazdayasna, meaning "Worship of Wisdom." In modern Persian the religion is often called Behdin, which means "Good Religion" or "Good Law." Zoroastrians often call themselves Zartoshti, which simply means "Zoroastrian," Behdini ("Followers of the Good Religion"), or Mazdayasni ("Worshippers of Wisdom").

Zoroastrianism's historical roots are in ancient Persia (modern-day Iran). Over time the religion spread throughout the Middle East and eastward into India. In the twenty-first century a distinction is made between Indian Zoroastrians, called Parsis (or Parsees), and Iranian Zoroastrians, who maintain communities in such cities as Tehran, Yazd, and Kerman. In other countries in the region, such as Tajikistan and Kazakhstan, many people have shown interest in rediscovering their Zoroastrian heritage. The religion is also practiced in Afghanistan and Pakistan.

The number of Zoroastrians in the world is relatively small, though how small is difficult to calculate. Until about 2002 most sources gave estimates of the number of Zoroastrians that were as low as 100,000 to 140,000. Some sources declared the religion to be on the verge of extinction. After 2002, though, many sources began to report much higher numbers, as many as 2 million to 3.5 million worldwide, with estimates of the number in North America ranging from 18,000 to 25,000. Many sources, however, continue to report the earlier figures rather than the more recent estimates.

WORDS TO KNOW

adur aduran:

The "fire of fires" that burns in Zoroastrian temples.

Ahura Mazda:

The supreme God of Zoroastrianism.

Amesha Spentas:

The "Bounteous Immortals," aspects, or sides, of Ahura Mazda.

asha:

Righteousness that derives from natural law.

Avesta:

The chief sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism.

daevas:

Ancient Persian deities.

Faravahar:

A figure of a bird with its wings spread that is a chief symbol of Zoroastrianism.

Gahambars:

Seasonal festivals.

Gathas:

A portion of the Avesta that contains holy songs; believed to be the words of Zarathushtra himself.

kushti:

The sacred cord, or belt, that Zoroastrians wear.

kusti:

The "holy path" one has to follow to be a Zoroastrian.

Parsis (Parsees):

Zoroastrians who live in India.

Sedreh-pushi:

The Zoroastrian initiation rite.

urvan:

The soul.

yazata:

Guardian angel.

These more recent, higher numbers are not the result of a sudden explosion in the number of Zoroastrians. Historically, Zoroastrians have been persecuted (harassed or even injured), especially in Iran, but in the early years of the twenty-first century more people became willing to openly acknowledge their belief in this ancient faith. The Indian government has supported Zoroastrianism, encouraging its followers to identify it as their religious affiliation. Thus, the number of Zoroastrians may not have actually increased. Rather, the number of people who acknowledge the faith has increased. Using an estimate of 2.6 million, one source ranks Zoroastrianism as the seventeenth-largest religion in the world. Still, it is generally believed that the number of Zoroastrians is shrinking, largely because many traditional Zoroastrians believe that one cannot convert to the religion but rather has to be born into it.

History and development

Little is known about the life of Zarathushtra, the founder of Zoroastrianism. His name is composed of two words in the Avestan language of ancient Persia (a language related to Sanskrit). The name means something like "Keeper of Old Camels," though different translations have been suggested. The modern Persian version of his name is Zartosht. Although he was an actual historical figure, historians cannot agree on when he lived. Some of the earliest dates put his life as far back as 10,000 bce, but Persian tradition and the writings of many ancient Greek and Roman historians put the date later, at around 7,000 bce. (This is the date that most Parsis accept.) Some archeological evidence suggests a date of about 2,000 bce.

Most modern historians, however, have argued for later dates, somewhere roughly between 1500 and 1000 bce (although a very few put the dates even later, around the middle of the first millennium bce). These historians base their estimate on the language of the Gathas, a Zoroastrian sacred text believed to record the actual words of Zarathushtra. By comparing the Gathas to other Sanskrit writings of the same period, especially the Rig Veda of Hinduism, they find similarities in the language that suggest a date around 1200 bce. In addition, the Gathas contain references to social customs that were followed roughly around this same time.

These dates are uncertain because many of the religion's texts were destroyed. They either no longer exist or exist only in fragments. Some were destroyed by the Greek conqueror Alexander the Great (356–323 bce) in 330 bce; others, by Arab and Mongol invaders beginning in 650 ce. With the destruction of these texts, the religion was left with few written records.

The life of Zarathushtra

Most of what is known about Zarathushtra's life is found in Zoroastrian scripture, histories written by ancient Greeks, and oral tradition. He was probably born and lived in northwestern Persia. Throughout his childhood he was unnaturally wise. By age fifteen he had decided to devote himself to religion. Traditional accounts say that when Zarathusthra was just seven years old, he was the target of an assassination plot at the hands of Iranians who recognized that he was the prophet of a new religion that would threaten their established way of life. At age twenty he left his parents' house and lived for seven years in a cave, where he meditated. When he returned, Zarathushtra was prepared to preach a new religion, one that placed less emphasis on ritual and more on thought and intellect.

About Zoroastrianism

• Belief. Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion that worships a Supreme God and sees the world as engaged in an ongoing struggle between good and evil. A key belief is that people have free will and can choose good over evil.
• Followers. The number of Zoroastrians, who live primarily in Iran and India, is difficult to calculate. Many sources give numbers in the low hundreds of thousands, while other sources estimate that Zoroastrianism has as many as 3.5 million followers.
• Name of God. The name of the Supreme God of Zoroastrianism is Ahura Mazda, a name that means "Wise Lord."
• Symbols. Zoroastrians have three primary symbols. Fire represents the wisdom and creative energy of Ahura Mazda. White is a symbol of purity. The Faravahar is a bird with its wings spread that symbolizes the human connection with Ahura Mazda.
• Worship. Much Zoroastrian worship takes place individually and consists of prayers. Zoroastrians worship in temples, often called fire temples because a sacred flame is maintained inside.
• Dress. Zoroastrians do wear two items of symbolic clothing. One is the kushti, a woolen cord, or belt, that symbolically binds them to their religion and their community. The other is a kudreh, a white muslin vest or undershirt that has a small pocket in front that serves as a reminder to "fill" it each day with good thoughts, good words, and good deeds.
• Texts. The sacred text of Zoroastrianism is the Avesta, which contains the Gathas. The Gathas are believed to be the actual words of the religion's prophet, Zarathushtra.
• Sites. A holy site for Zoroastrians is a group of six shrines near Yadz, Iran. Chief among them is the Pir-e-Sabz shrine, which many Zoroastrians visit on pilgrimage.
• Observances. Zoroastrians celebrate six seasonal festivals called Gahambars. Additionally, they celebrate a number of other holy days, including the presumed dates of Zarathushtra's birth and death.
• Phrases. The motto of Zoroastrianism is Pendar-e Nik, Goftar-e Nik, and Kerdar-e Nik," which means "Good thoughts, good words, good deeds."

At first Zarathushtra met with little success. His first and only convert, other than members of his immediate family, was a cousin (some sources say a nephew). Many people in his community thought that he was insane and distanced themselves from him. The people rejected his beliefs because he reduced the daevas, or evil spirits of Iranian religion, from gods to mere workers on behalf of Angra Mainyu, the aspect, or side, of god that represents evil. At one point Zarathushtra was imprisoned, but he escaped.

After twelve years of trying to find acceptance for his beliefs, Zarathushtra left his community and found refuge in Bactria, an ancient kingdom in modern-day Afghanistan and Tajikistan. There King Vishtaspa and his queen, Hutosa, heard Zarathushtra debate local religious leaders and decided to adopt his ideas. The king and queen made Zoroastrianism the official religion of the kingdom and gave their daughter's hand to Zarathushtra in marriage. At first Zoroastrianism had a military, or aggressive, quality as its members fought persecution and fended off attacks. During a battle with a group called the Turanians, Zarathushtra was killed as he tended the sacred fire in a temple. In time, however, the religion spread rapidly, and this militant defiance against the established religious order was no longer necessary.

Zoroastrianism in the Persian Empire

Zoroastrianism became the dominant religion of the Persian Empire. It was the favored religion in the empire during the Achaemenid Dynasty (529–323 bce). A dynasty is the period of reign by a particular ruling family. The Achaemenid Dynasty reached the peak of its power in about 500 bce and ruled over the entire region, from eastern Europe through the Middle East and into central Asia and south-southwest into North Africa. After Alexander the Great overthrew the Achaemenids in the 330s bce, the empire was ruled by the Seleucid and Parthian dynasties, but few records remain from this time. It is believed, however, that the Three Wise Men, or Magi, who in Christian tradition brought gifts to the infant Jesus, were Zoroastrians from Parthia. Also during this period a sect, or group, derived from Zoroastrianism, called Mithraism, began to worship Mitra, a sun-god. Mithraism gained some popularity in the Roman Empire (c. 31 bce–476 ce), particularly among members of the Roman army.

During the Sassanid Dynasty (224–651 ce) Zoroastrianism spread aggressively throughout the Persian Empire. By the sixth century ce it had moved into northern China, though it died out there by the thirteenth century. In the seventh century the Persian Sassanid Dynasty was overthrown by Arab Muslims. Because of persecution, particularly in Iran, Zoroastrianism began to lose influence. During the eighth and ninth centuries large numbers of Zoroastrians fled Iran for India, where they were given refuge and protection under two conditions: that they not proselytize, or try to win converts, and that they marry only other Zoroastrians. Some twenty-first century Parsis continue to follow these restrictions, though many do not. In Iran, where Zoroastrianism continues to be persecuted and its members are called Gabars, or infidels (unbelievers), the government strongly encourages Zoroastrians to marry within their faith as a way of keeping membership in the religion from growing. Even in Iran, however, Zoroastrianism is idealized as representative of the nation's cultural and historical roots.

Sects and schisms

Seven different sects, or groups, have been identified in the history of Zoroastrianism. Some of these sects continue to exist, while others no longer have any followers. In addition to Orthodox Zoroastrianism, which emphasizes the traditional doctrines, or principles, of the religion. The seven sects include the following:

1. Zurvanism: Zurvanism emerged late in the Achaemenid period (700–331 bce). It was based on the belief that because Ahura Mazda did not create the evil Angra Mainyu (called Ahriman by Zurvans), the two must have been the sons of a third figure, Zurvan, whose name means "time." Zurvanism was a pessimistic cult because it believed that Zurvan had given Ahriman dominion over the world, so the world was inherently evil. Zurvanism died out by the seventh century.
2. Kshnoon: This movement was begun in India in the early twentieth century by Behramshah Shroff (1857–1927), and it retains a few members, mostly in Mumbai (previously called Bombay), India. Kshnoon believes in reincarnation, meaning that when a person dies, the soul inhabits another body. Through the cycle of death and rebirth, a soul can achieve spiritual purity. Members also believe that Shroff was able to extract hidden, secret knowledge from Zoroastrian scripture.
3. Parsi Reform Movement: The Parsi Reform Movement began in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Its adherents believe that Zoroastrian beliefs have to be updated to remain relevant in the modern world. Members of this movement believe that one way to do so is to absorb Western knowledge through education. The Parsi Reform Movement also calls for less emphasis on rituals. Its teachings are at odds with traditional Zoroastrianism in several ways. The followers of this movement believe that death is a release from bondage and that the world is not essentially good.
4. Parsi Theosophy: Theosophy is a philosophical approach to religion based on spiritual insight. As a worldwide movement theosophy began in the nineteenth century in New York with the foundation of the Theosophical Society. Parsi theosophists believe that the Zoroastrian scriptures, particularly in the original language, are a source of this mystical, or spiritual, insight. Further, this sect believes that Zoroastrian scripture must be interpreted metaphorically (that is, symbolically) rather than literally and that Zoroastrian doctrines have to be reinterpreted in light of modern science.
5. "Typical" Parsi Zoroastrianism: This movement avoids theological (religious) debates and attempts to emphasize the ethical side of the religion as a way of making it more relevant for younger people.
6. Mazdaznan Movement: The Mazdaznan movement, founded in the early twentieth century by Rev. Dr. Otoman Zar-Adhusht Hanish (d. 1936), included the first Zoroastrians in the United States. This movement incorporates elements of Christianity and Hinduism. It continues to believe in a monotheistic God, but it also believes in a Father (the male creative principle), a Mother (the female creative principle), and the Child (representing salvation, or deliverance from sin, and faith in the future). Members of this movement practice rhythmic praying and chanting, follow a strict vegetarian diet, and are urged to lead a simple life. The movement eventually spread to Mexico and to several countries in Europe.
7. The Lovers of Meher Baba: This movement has only very loose links with Zoroastrianism. It was founded by Meher Baba (1894–1969), who declared himself the last avatars in the current cycle of time. (An avatar is an incarnation of a god and is usually associated with the god Vishnu of Hinduism.) Baba, whose name means "Compassionate Father," preached that the goal of life was to become one with God through love. It is believed that this sect has hundreds of thousands of believers.

Darius the Great

One of the most famous Zoroastrians in history was Darius I, also called Darius the Great (d. 486 bce), who ruled the Persian Empire for more than thirty years. Darius was a member of a high-ranking Persian family. After Darius's predecessor, Cambyses II (ruled 529–522 bce), committed suicide, the Persian throne was seized by a man named Gaumata, who ruled under the name Smerdis (sixth century). Darius, however, believed that Smerdis had seized the throne illegally because he was not a member of the royal family (though later historians believe that he was). Darius gathered about him a number of Persian nobles, marched against the king, and put him to death.

Darius was a strong believer in Zoroastrianism. He said that he was able to take his legitimate place as the hereditary ruler of Persia "with the help of Ahura Mazda." He was also a strong king and an effective administrator. When the leaders of a number of outlying kingdoms in the empire rebelled, thinking that they, too, had legitimate claims to the throne, Darius quickly put the rebellions down and secured the empire. He launched a number of building projects, introduced a monetary (money) system based on gold and silver, developed a system of law, standardized weights and measures, appointed administrators to the empire's various provinces, and encouraged trade with other nations. His only real setback occurred near the end of his reign, when his forces were defeated by the Greeks at the famous Battle of Marathon in 490 bce.

Basic beliefs

The supreme God of Zoroastrianism is Ahura Mazda (often written in English as one word, Ahuramazda). This name comes from the words ahura, meaning "divinity" or "lord," and mazda, meaning "wisdom," so Ahura Mazda is usually translated as "Wise Lord" or "Lord of Wisdom." In addition to Ahura Mazda are a number of Amesha Spentas, or Bounteous Immortals (sometimes called Holy Immortals). These figures, which were developed from ancient Persian deities called daevas, are thought of as various aspects, or sides, of Ahura Mazda. Chief among them is Spenta Mainyu, similar to the Christian "Holy Spirit." Zoroastrianism recognizes six more the Amesha Spentas:

1. Vohu Manah, who represents good mind and purpose;
2. Asha Vahishta, or truth and righteousness;
3. Spenta Ameraiti, or devotion, serenity, and kindness;
4. Khashathra Vairya, or power and just rule;
5. Hauravatat, or wholeness and health; and
6. Ameretat, or long life and immortality.

It is believed that Vohu Manah appeared to Zarathushtra when he was in seclusion in the cave and revealed to him that Ahura Mazda was the one true God.

Good and evil

Some Zoroastrians also believe that Angra Mainyu is not an aspect, or side, of Ahura Mazda, but a separate spirit involved in an ongoing battle between good and evil. They believe that in time Ahura Mazda will prevail and that the principle of goodness will reign supreme. Other Zoroastrians believe that the battle between good and evil exists only in the human mind. Either way, it is through the existence of Angra Mainyu, whether as a being or as a concept, that Zoroastrians account for the existence of evil in the world. This "problem of evil" is a problem with which monotheistic religions have long dealt. The puzzle is this: If God is all powerful and all good, why does evil exist in the world?

In Zoroastrianism this puzzle remains unresolved. Historically, Zoroastrian theologians, or religious scholars, have argued that Ahura Mazda, as a kind God, could not have created Angra Mainyu. If such is the case, however, then the religion cannot be said to be monotheistic, for Angra Mainyu would have an existence independent from Ahura Mazda. On the other hand, Ahura Mazda created people who are capable of doing evil, so this leaves open the possibility that he also created Angra Mainyu. Ultimately Zoroastrianism does not offer a clear answer to this problem. What is clear is that a core belief of Zoroastrianism is free will: that people can choose good over evil, or evil over good.

Zoroastrianism had a great deal of influence on Judaism and Christianity, giving rise to such concepts as the soul, heaven and hell, the savior, resurrection, final judgment, guardian angels (called yazatas by Zoroastrians), and others. Zoroastrians believe that the soul, or urvan, is given three days to meditate after death as it passes along the Path to Judgment, called Chinvat Peretum. If good thoughts outweigh the bad, the soul is admitted to heaven. If the bad outweighs the good, the soul is sent to hell.

Zoroastrians also believe that the world passes through three phases. The first phase is creation. The second phase is the present world. During this phase good and evil are mixed, but people's good actions and thoughts are helping to lead the world to a heavenly ideal. In the final stage, good and evil will be separated, all will be pure and good, and even the souls that were sent to hell will be freed. Another strong similarity between Zoroastrianism and Judaism, Christianity, and Islam is that a savior, a descendant of Zarathushtra called Saoshyant, will be born of a virgin. He will raise the dead and pass judgment on everyone in the final judgment.

Ordinary members of the faith do not dwell on these theological concepts. Rather, they concern themselves with their everyday conduct as part of the ongoing battle between good and evil. They dedicate themselves to a "threefold path," which is stated simply in the Zoroastrian motto: "Good thoughts, good words, good deeds" (in modern-day Persian, Pendar-e Nik, Goftar-e Nik, and Kerdar-e Nik). This goal is expressed by the term asha, a form of righteousness that comes from natural law (law derived from the way the universe operates rather than from human sources) and includes truth, order, discipline, and progress.

Choice

Zoroastrianism is a religion that is remarkably free of dogma, or principles regarded by the religion as true and authoritative, and commandments, or laws. It instead emphasizes an ethical life. Zarathushtra, who believed in the power of human reason, taught that each person was capable of knowing the difference between good and evil and following the good. A person endowed with Vohu Manah, or "good mind," will follow the path of righteousness in conformity with the law of asha. Such a person follows the Kusti, or "Holy Path," to become a Behdini, or "Follower of the Good Religion." It should be noted that the Persian word that is often translated as "religion" can also be translated as "law." The Zoroastrian concept of law is that of a divine order, a rightness to things, that people naturally follow.

Sacred writings

The main scripture of Zoroastrianism is called the Avesta. Originally a twenty-one-volume work, many of the volumes are now lost. The term avesta is thought to come from an Iranian word that means "shelter" or "support." Sometimes the title Zend (or Zand) Avesta is used to refer to the Zoroastrian scripture, but this title refers more specifically to a compilation of Zoroastrian writings made in the ninth century. The Avesta was compiled over a long period of time, ranging from 1700 bce to 400 ce. Like many scriptures, or holy texts, it was originally transmitted orally.

Within the Avesta is a seventy-two-chapter ritual text called the Yasna, which means "reverence" or "veneration." In turn, within the Yasna are the Gathas, a collection of divine songs totaling about 6,000 words and 241 verses arranged in 17 chapters. The Gathas are the core of the Avesta, for they are believed to have been composed by Zarathushtra himself more than three thousand years ago. They record the sermons he gave at the court of King Vishtaspa.

Scholarship (research) shows that the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism are, in fact, very old. Much of the Avesta is written in a language called Avestan, sometimes referred to as Gathic Avestan. This is one of the oldest surviving Indo-European languages (a class of languages related to English, Latin, ancient Greek, Persian, and Sanskrit, among others). Some Zoroastrian writings are preserved in Pahlavi, a Middle Persian language used between 300 bce and 950 ce. The Avesta had to be reconstructed from scattered texts, some of them in Greek translations. One effort to do so was made by Vologeses I (died c. 80 ce), the king of Parthia, a kingdom in the northeast of modern-day Iran, from 51 to 77 ce. The effort was not completed, however, until the reign of the Sassanian king Shapur I (240-271). In the twenty-first century many Zoroastrians continue to recite the Avesta in the Avestan language, although most people do not understand the words. Often the original Avestan is recited, and then the text is repeated in the local language.

In addition to the Gathas are a number of other texts that are part of the Avesta. The Vendidad contains laws about becoming and remaining pure and also includes myths, or stories, and religious observances. The Khorda Avesta, which contains a number of ritual prayers, includes the Yashts, which are individual hymns to Ahura Mazda and to the guardian angels. The Visperad contains a service dedicated to Ahura Mazda.

Sacred symbols

The most common symbol of Zoroastrianism is fire. For this reason, Zoroastrians have sometimes been mistakenly characterized as "fire worshippers," but this is incorrect. Rather, they see fire as a symbol of the creative power of Ahura Mazda. It is also a symbol of truth and righteousness, an element that purifies and provides light and that cannot be corrupted. Zoroastrian places of worship are called fire temples. Here, a fire called Adur Aduran ("fire of fires") is kept constantly burning to represent the light of God. The fire is the focal point of worship services. At only ten Zoroastrian temples, two in Iran and eight in India that represent the religion's most sacred places, a more sacred fire called the Atash Bahram ("fire of victory") burns. Fires also burn in homes and temporary places of worship.

The color white, representing purity, bears special significance for Zoroastrians. Zoroastrians wear a white cord, or belt, called a kushti (or koshti). It is made of seventy-two strands of lamb's wool, and symbolically binds worshippers to their religion and their community. Further, most Zoroastrians a white undershirt or vest called a kudreh, which also serves as a reminder of the need for purity in their lives. The kudreh has a small symbolic pocket in front as a reminder to the wearer to fill it each day with "good thoughts, good words, good deeds."

The Faravahar

The most prominent symbol of Zoroastrianism is the Faravahar, sometimes spelled Farohar. The name comes from an Avestan word, fravarane, meaning "I choose," suggesting the idea that a person chooses to follow the religion. The Faravahar depicts a bird with its wings spread and a human figure sitting atop it. The symbolism of the Faravahar is interpreted in many ways, but generally the meaning is as follows:

The human figure represents the Zoroastrian's connection with humankind. Some efforts have been made to show that the figure represents either Ahura Mazda or Zarathushtra. Zoroastrians, however, generally do not give Ahura Mazda any kind of human shape or form, and evidence that it represents Zarathushtra is not clear. Many religious historians believe that it likely represents the Persian king.

Each of the two wings has three major feathers, which represent the three mainstays of the Zoroastrian ethical code: good thoughts, good words, good deeds.

The three lower parts of the figure represent the opposite: bad thoughts, bad words, bad deeds, which cause misfortune and unhappiness.

The two loops at the sides of the Faravahar represent the two opposing forces in the universe, Spenta Mainyu and Angra Mainyu, the forces of good and evil. The human face is turned in the direction of the good.

The circle in the middle of the figure represents eternity, a suggestion that the human spirit is immortal.

One of the human figure's hands points upward, suggesting the need to struggle upward to achieve salvation, or freedom from sin. The other hand holds a ring. Similar to a wedding ring, this band represents a covenant, or promise, between Ahura Mazda and humanity.

Worship

Zoroastrians often worship privately in the home. For example, the names of some of the more important yazatas (guardian angels) are given to the days of the week and the months of the year. On a day or month that bears the name of a yazata, individuals may choose to recite one of the Yashts in honor of that yazata. When Zoroastrians pray, they generally face either the sun or another source of light, which is symbolic of the energy and goodness of Ahura Mazda. To face the sun, many will pray at a window in the home.

In addition, many individual acts of worship consist of prayers from the Avesta that are recited at five different times during the day. These prayer times are called Hawan (between sunrise to noon), Rapithwin (between noon and 3:00 pm), Uzerin (between 3:00 pm and sunset), Aiwisruthrem (between sunset and midnight), and Ushahin (between midnight and sunrise). Zoroastrians are known for being hard workers and early risers, so the Ushahin prayers are generally recited early in the morning, before sunrise. One prayer is a confirmation of faith. Before and during this prayer, the worshipper unties and reties the knots of the kushti, or sacred cord worn a symbol of the Zoroastrian's commitment to the faith. Individual worship also takes place when the faithful visit a temple. Another common individual ritual is lighting a fire in an urn, then feeding the fire with sandal-wood, incense, and myrrh.

Communal worship

In addition to individual worship, Zoroastrians take part in communal worship. Communal worship takes place around a fire urn, which a priest called a Raspi tends throughout the ritual. The fire ritual typically consists of recited prayers, often followed by a communal meal. Zoroastrians take part in a large number of communal rituals, many of them connected with specific feast days. One of the most common rituals is called the Afrinagan, a ceremony of blessing that honors both living participants and ancestors who have died.

Khorshed Niyaesh

Each day devout Zoroastrians are required to recite standard prayers. One of these prayers is called the Khorshed Niyaesh, a prayer in praise of Ahura Mazda. Devout Zoroastrians recite this prayer during each of the three daytime prayer times, when the sun is in the sky. A portion of the prayer is as follows:

May there be the rejoicing of Ahura Mazda. I commence this recital in the name of the Creator. I praise and invoke Ahura Mazda, who is the keeper of treasures, Glorious, Omniscient [All-Knowing], the Perfector of all deeds, the Lord of Lords, King over all Kings, the Protector, the Creator, of all things created, the Giver of the daily bread, the Natural, and the Powerful, without beginning or end, the Bestower [Giver] of good things, the Forgiver of sins, the Loving, Omnipotent [All-Powerful], Wise, and the Nourisher of all creation.

The Afrinagan can take many forms, which vary depending on the time of the year, but typically the ritual follows a set format. It is led by a chief priest, called a Zoti, and it incorporates elements of creation, including plants (which, during the ceremony, are represented by flowers), animals (represented by milk), fire, water, the earth, and the sky. The ritual consists of a number of preliminary prayers, including a prayer for the tying of the sacred cord, a prayer to obedience, a fire ritual, and a prayer in praise of Ahura Mazda. These prayers are followed by an introduction to the service itself. This introduction consists of a number of prayers and makes use of ayat, or ritual implements, including the fire urn; a tray with sandalwood, incense, and myrrh; a tray containing milk, fruit, wine, water, and other items; and, especially, a tray holding flowers, usually five but sometimes three or eight. The flowers all have to be of the same length and, traditionally, have come from either a jujuba tree or a myrtle tree. The five flowers, which are arranged in a specified manner on the tray, symbolize the five prayer times of the day. The ritual ends with additional prayers.

Observances and pilgrimages

The Zoroastrian religious calendar is complicated because three different calendars are used. The first and oldest of these, called the Fasli calendar, is tied to the seasons of the year. The Shahanshahi calendar, used primarily by Parsis in India, is also tied to the seasons, but it requires the addition of a month every 120 years. Over a period of some hundreds of years, this extra month was not added, so the calendar remains off by many months. Finally, the Qadimi calendar was adopted in Iran and is one month ahead of the Shahanshahi calendar. Efforts have been made to reform and unify the Zoroastrian calendar, but the different calendars cause confusion about the dates on which religious festivals and observances are held. For example, in Iran the new year is celebrated in March-April, but in India it is celebrated in August-September. In all the calendars, however, each month and each day are presided over by a Zoroastrian spirit and are marked by prayers to that spirit.

Festivals

Zoroastrian religious festivals are of two major types: Gahambars (Gahambar means "in time") are seasonal festivals, and Jashans are other festivals that are not associated with the seasons. The six Gahambars reflect the roots of Zoroastrianism in an agricultural society. Because the calendars have not been corrected in centuries, the seasons each Gahambar represents often do not match the common calendar. Each Gahambar corresponds to one of the six days of creation. The six Gahambars are:

1. Maidyozarem: the midspring festival, held in early October and commemorating the creation of heaven.
2. Maidyoshahem: the midsummer festival, held in early December and commemorating the creation of water.

1. Paitishahem: the harvest festival, held in mid-February and commemorating the creation of Earth.
2. Ayathrem: a festival celebrating the bringing in of herds, held in mid-March and commemorating the creation of plants.
3. Maidyarem: the midwinter festival, held in early June and commemorating the creation of animals.
4. Hamaspathmaidyem, or Muktad: the Festival of All Souls, commemorating the creation of humankind.

In addition to the seasonal festivals are a number of other important festivals (Jashans) and holidays:

Pateti: New Year's, celebrated in August-September by the Parsis and in spring by Iranians.

Jamshed-e Navroz: New Year's Day (Norouz), celebrated in August-September by Parsis and in spring by Iranians.

Jashan-e Sadeh: the Festival of Fire, celebrated on the one-hundredth day before Navroz (New Year's).

Jashan-e Mehragan: Festival of Mihr, a day of thanksgiving dedicated to the highest angel, Mithra.

Jashan-e Tirigan: Festival of Tir, a day dedicated to Tishtrya, the angel of the star Sirius and of rain.

Farvardigan: Festival of the Guardian Angels.

Khordad Sal: The birthday of Zarathushtra.

Zartosht No-Diso: The traditional anniversary of the death of Zarathushtra.

Pilgrimages

Zoroastrianism originated in ancient Persia, a country roughly corresponding to modern-day Iran, so most of the religion's holy sites and places of pilgrimage are located in Iran. Early Zoroastrians built many fire temples in the caves, mountains, rocks, and deserts of the region. Many of these temples were abandoned in the seventh and eighth centuries ce, when Islam became the dominant religion, but many survive. In the modern era, Zoroastrians, both from Iran and from India, travel back to these ancient sites as a way of discovering their religious roots.

One of the major places of pilgrimage is a group of six shrines in the Yadz region of Iran. While many pilgrims visit these shrines individually, more often they visit as part of communal celebrations, with feasting, dancing, and music. The most important of the six shrines is the Pir-e-Sabz shrine, about 45 miles (72 kilometers) from Yazd. (The word pir, meaning "saint," is used to refer to these shrines.) Surrounding the shrine is a legend that the daughter of a Sassanian ruler was being pursued by a Muslim army. She stopped at the site of the shrine, where she prayed to Ahura Mazda for help. Miraculously, the rocks of the mountain opened and provided her with protection. Near the shrine are a holy spring and a huge tree traditionally thought to have taken root from the Sassanian daughter's cane. Thousands of pilgrims flock to the site each year on June 14 through 18. Throughout June, July, and August, pilgrims also visit the other nearby shrines, including Seti Pir, Pir-e Narestuneh, Pir-e Banu-Pars, Pir-e Naraki, and Pir-e Herisht.

Everyday living

Much of Zoroastrian life is rooted in the religion's motto: "Good thoughts, good words, good deeds." Devout Zoroastrians begin their day with a prayer to Asha Vahishta, or righteousness, as a reminder to practice the principles of Zoroastrianism throughout the day. A devout Zoroastrian also begins the day by lighting a fire, the sacred symbol of Ahura Mazda.

Zoroastrians are known primarily for two beliefs that influence their daily lives: respect for the environment and an emphasis on industry and hard work. Zoroastrianism has been called "the world's first ecological (or environmental) religion." Based on the idea that Ahura Mazda represents all that is good and pure, Zoroastrians believe that the natural environment is sacred. Thus, devout Zoroastrians try to avoid any activity that pollutes the air, water, or soil, including burial of the dead. Related to this is the belief that all creatures are sacred. Thus, Zoroastrians avoid any type of violence, discrimination (mistreatment), and persecution, and they show great respect for people of other religious traditions. Many are vegetarians, meaning they avoid eating meat and foods that come from animals. Zoroastrians also promote equality of men and women.

Zoroastrians place considerable emphasis on hard work and industry. Any kind of laziness is frowned on by members of the community. For this reason, especially in India, Zoroastrians tend to be successful in business and are regarded as honest in all their business dealings. Many of the nation's business leaders are Zoroastrians. Zoroastrians often share the fruits of their industry with those who are less fortunate. In general, they contribute a great deal of their income to charity.

Rites of passage

An important ritual for Zoroastrians is the Sedreh-pushi Ceremony, when a Zoroastrian child is initiated into the faith. The ceremony is also called the Navjote. At this time the child is given a sedreh (vest) and koshti (sacred cord). By wearing the koshti, the child signifies that he or she is bound to the teachings of Zarathushtra. During the ceremony the child, usually between the ages of seven and twelve, recites prayers and takes part in a ritual washing.

Marriage, another important ritual, is preceded by the signing of a marriage contract. The wedding ceremony itself is a time of great celebration and is typically accompanied by feasting that lasts from three to seven days. Traditionally, both the bride and the groom are dressed in white, and during the wedding service, married female relatives of the bride and groom hold a white scarf over the couple's heads. Sugar cones are rubbed together to symbolize sweetness in the couple's married life. Then the ends of the scarf are sewn together to symbolize the unity of the couple.

Funeral services for Zoroastrians might be regarded as unusual in the West, and indeed Zoroastrians have had to adapt their beliefs to modern life. Traditionally Zoroastrians allowed the dead to remain exposed until vultures and other scavenger birds consumed the flesh and the bones were bleached. They believed that burying a body would pollute Ahura Mazda's Earth. In India, so-called Towers of Silence were constructed as places where bodies could be exposed to the birds. Unfortunately, the vulture population has declined significantly, making the practice impractical in modern life, so Zoroastrians are rethinking the practice. In other parts of the world, Zoroastrians do bury or cremate the dead.

Modern issues

One of the issues facing modern Zoroastrianism is the possibility that the religion could die out. The religion does not seek converts, and traditional Zoroastrians believe that one has to be born into the faith and cannot adopt it in later life. This limits the number of followers. Further, traditional Zoroastrians believe that one is obliged to marry only another Zoroastrian. A woman (and her children) who marries a non-Zoroastrian is no longer a member of the religion, though a Zoroastrian man who marries a non-Zoroastrian woman does remain a member.

These views are not universally accepted, particularly by Zoroastrian clergy, or priesthood, because they contradict Zoroastrians' professed belief in the equality of the sexes. Yet these beliefs continue to influence people's behavior. The issue becomes a particular problem with Zoroastrians who live outside of India or Iran, where Zoroastrians are few and suitable spouses may not be readily available.

Zoroastrianism's influences

One of the fascinations of historical religious studies is the religious activity that took place in Asia and the Middle East in the centuries before and after the start of the Common Era. During these centuries the countries of the Middle East and surrounding areas successively fell under the rule of various empires, including the Persians and the Romans. As a result, religions tended to intermix. The official religion of empires frequently changed, and one religion could exercise a marked influence on the thought and development of another. Such is the case with Zoroastrianism.

Scholars continue to debate the influences that Zoroastrianism had. One factor that sustains the debate is the uncertainty about dates. Conventionally, Zoroastrianism is regarded as the first monotheistic religion, but that holds true only if it predated Judaism. Scholars are by no means unanimous in their belief that it did. Many historians believe that because the ancient region of Babylon was part of the Persian Empire, some of the beliefs of Zoroastrianism were transferred to Judaism during the time of the Jews' Babylonian captivity. Additionally, because Zoroastrianism influenced Judaism, it indirectly influenced Christianity, which developed out of Judaism. Some of these beliefs include belief in angels and devils, a life after death, a system of punishments and rewards for immoral and moral behavior, the immortality of the soul, and the Last Judgment. Other scholars, however, argue just the opposite: that Judaism predated Zoroastrianism and therefore Zoroastrians absorbed these beliefs from Judaism. Still others believe that the two religions developed entirely independently. Either way, Zoroastrianism and the Judeo-Christian tradition have striking similarities.

In the modern world, Zoroastrians have had an impact on industry, government (in both India and England), and the arts. It is a small religion, but one that has had great historical impact and one whose roots are among the most ancient of the religions practiced in the modern world. It members are highly regarded in India, where they are leaders in society. The challenge for modern-day Zoroastrians is sustaining the religion and finding ways to adapt their beliefs to the changes of modern life.

For More Information

BOOKS

Boyce, Mary. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. New York, NY: Routledge, 2001.

Clark, Peter. Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to Ancient Faith. Sussex, England: Sussex Academic Press, 1999.

Hartz, Paula. Zoroastrianism, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Facts On File, 2004.

Mehr, Farheng. The Zoroastrian Tradition: An Introduction to the Ancient Wisdom of Zarathushtra. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2003.

Nanavutty, Piloo. The Gathas of Zarathushtra: Hymns in Praise of Wisdom. Middletown, NJ: Grantha Corporation, 1999.

WEB SITES

Gray, Martin. "Zoroastrian Sacred Sites." http://www.sacredsites.com/middle_east/iran/zoroastrian.htm (accessed on June 2, 2006).

"Religion and Ethics: Zoroastrianism." British Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian/index.shtml (accessed on June 2, 2006).

"Religions in Canada: Zoroastrianism." Zoroastrian Society of Ontario. http://www.forces.gc.ca/hr/religions/engraph/religions38_e.asp (accessed on June 2, 2006).

"Zoroastrianism." Religioustolerance.org. http://www.religioustolerance.org/zoroastr.htm (accessed on June 2, 2006).