Tlingit

LOCATION: United States (Alaska)
POPULATION: 17,200 enrolled members
LANGUAGE: English; Tlingit
RELIGION: Christianity; native Tlingit

INTRODUCTION

Tlingit (meaning "the people") is the name given to a native group of the Northwest Coast, whose original homeland was located in the Alaskan panhandle. With the exception of a part of the Prince of Wales Island, the thirteen tribes that make up the Tlingit group occupied the land of the panhandle south of Yakutat Bay. The Tlingit developed as a coastal culture, well adapted to the rugged, heavily forested coastal areas that they inhabited.

Beginning in the 18th century, the Tlingit tribes experienced frequent conflicts with the early Russian fur traders who first entered the area at that time. In 1799, Russian adventurers built a fort on one of the islands that makes up the southeastern archipelago. But three years later, in 1802, they were driven out by Tlingit warriors. Some time later, however, a Russian trader by the name of Aleksandr Andreyevich Baranov was successful in recapturing the fort. Baranov turned the fort into a trading post that, over time, grew into the present-day city of Sitka. By 1867 the United States had won control over Alaska and opened Tlingit lands to settlers and prospectors searching for gold.

In the 20th and 21st centuries, the Tlingit, like other Alaskan natives, have fought for their civil rights and for control over the natural resources of their ancestral lands. In 1971, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act transferred about 100 million acres of land back to native Alaskans, including the Tlingit, who were organized into a regional corporation called Sealaska, with the title to 330,000 acres of land and 660,000 acres of mineral rights. Today Tlingit work in industry, business, government, and the professions. In 1994 the Tlingit gained media attention when two Tlingit youths from Alaska who had attacked a pizza delivery man in Washington state were turned over to an ad hoc tribal court, which imposed a traditional punishment of banishment to an isolated island off the coast of Alaska.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

In the 18th century, at the time of the initial European entry into the area, the total number of members of the thirteen Tlingit tribes was estimated to be about 10,000. Over the course of the next one hundred years, their numbers dwindled; at one time only about 4,500 remained. As of the 2000 U.S. Census, the number of tribally enrolled Tlingit in the United States was 17,200. Almost all contemporary Tlingit live in the state of Alaska. Many of their original villages on the southeastern Alaska coast between Ketchikan and Yakutat are still populated. This is an area of rugged mountains with snow-capped peaks, offshore islands, and plentiful streams.

LANGUAGE

The language of the Tlingit Indians belongs to the Dene linguistic family. Dene is the largest language family in North America and includes Yak, Tlingit, and Athabaskan. Tlingit is a highly endangered language, meaning that younger people are no longer learning Tlingit as a mother tongue, or first language. The best estimates for number of speakers of Tlingit in Canada and the United States is between 300 and 500 (in 2008).

In 2008, a proposal to link the Yeniseian languages of central Siberia and the Na-Dene languages of northwestern North America into one large language family was presented by Edward Vadja of Western Washington University.

The Yeniseian language family, which only has a few remaining living languages, did not show any genetic relationship with any of the other language families of the Old World. The most well-known language of this family is Ket, which has only about 200 speakers. Many different attempts to link Ket to the languages of the Old World have been proposed during the latter half of the twentieth century. Veda's proposal has been supported by many linguists who specialize in the Na-Dene languages as well as the Siberian languages.

FOLKLORE

The most important character in Tlingit mythology is the trickster figure Raven, who is also considered the ancestor of the Tlingit. The power of animal spirits in general and communication between the spirits of animals and humans are also themes in Tlingit myths, as is reincarnation. Traditional beliefs encompassed an afterlife spent in one of two domains, corresponding roughly to the Judeo-Christian Heaven and Hell: Kiwa-a was the heaven for the virtuous, while those who had been morally deficient went to a place of torment called Ketl-kiwa, or Dog Heaven.

A common Tlingit folk belief was that if a girl going through puberty looked at the sky, she would cause a storm. A special hood with tassels was worn by girls of this age to shroud their eyes.

RELIGION

Like the other native peoples of the Northwest Coast, many Tlingit belong to the Russian Orthodox Church. The Tlingit forebears were converted the Orthodox Church by the Russian missionaries who followed the traders that arrived in the area in the 18th century.

The traditional religion of the Tlingit, like that of most hunting and gathering cultures, was based on animism, the belief that spirits—which the Tlingit called jek—inhabit people, animals, and objects in the natural world. They believed that the environment can be influenced in magical ways, either for good or ill, by human intervention, a belief that led to the development of a whole constellation of customs and taboos intended to ensure prosperity and prevent disaster. Many such customs and taboos were designed to placate and mollify the souls of the animals that were the chief prey of the Tlingit. The Tlingit are also thought to have believed in a creator, called Kah-shu-goon-yah, who controlled both the heavens and the earth, and whose name—which means "divisible-rich-man"— was always whispered rather than uttered aloud. Each Tlingit clan had a totem animal with which it identified, and erected totem poles as tributes to their totem animals. The Tlingit also paid homage to their ancestors and included them as elements of totem pole designs.

The most important human figure in Tlingit religious belief was the shaman, who served many vital roles within Tlingit society. The Tlingit shaman could be either male or female and functioned as priest, doctor, and counselor to his or her people.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

Today many Tlingit observe the holidays of the Russian Orthodox calendar. Within traditional Tlingit society, by far the single most important occasion was a gathering called a potlatch, a communal ceremony that centered on feasting and gift-giving and that accompanied almost every major event in Tlingit life. A potlatch might be given by a retiring chief in honor of the occasion of his role being taken over by a new leader. Potlatches were held to celebrate birthdays and to legitimize adoptions and marriages. Sometimes a potlatch would be held for no other reason than to demonstrate in no uncertain terms the wealth and status of the host or to make a good impression on guests or visiting dignitaries. At other times, a Tlingit might host a potlatch as a means of saving face and restoring dignity following an embarrassing public failure or a personal disappointment.

The potlatch is a form of redistributive exchange. Redistributive exchange involves a complex level of social organization within a society. Modern taxation is an example of redistributive exchange. In redistributive exchange, a centralized authority accumulates wealth and then through culturally defined rules, distributes that wealth to members of the society. These traditional potlatches were later replaced by "destructive potlatches" that developed after European colonization of the region. In particular, it was the availability of trade goods that were incorporated into the system of Tlingit wealth that changed the nature and structure of the potlatch. The destructive potlatch was an ostentatious display of wealth and prestige, which called for as much showing off as possible, the entire point of the ritual being to waste or destroy publicly as much of the host's wealth as possible. The goal was to demonstrate that the host was so wealthy that even such large-scale waste could not damage his economic situation. The potlatch simply served to establish and reinforce his standing within the community. The host of a potlatch might throw precious oil on the fire until the flames leap out to singe the surrounding guests. A wealthy chief might kill a valuable slave with a special club known as a "slave killer" and then fling the slave's scalp to his rival. Many beautiful things were made by Tlingit craftspeople simply in order that a chief or other notable person might give them away or destroy them at a destructive potlatch.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Major life events of the Tlingit were traditionally marked by the potlatch (also called a koolex). Such events included the transfer of ancestral names to children; the point at which a daughter became eligible for marriage; a son's coming-of-age (also marked by the erection of a memorial totem-pole and the construction of a new house); a marriage; and funeral rites.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Unlike that of most other American Indian groups, Tlingit society evolved as an aristocracy. At the top of the Tlingit social ladder were the chiefs, who were considered to be of royal blood. Directly beneath the chiefs in rank and privilege were members of the nobility, and beneath them were the working-class (or common) people, the majority of the population. At the bottom of Tlingit society was a slave class made up of members of other tribes who had been captured in war. Tlingit society equated wealth with the right to rule; chieftainship, along with the rights, advantages, and prerogatives that accompany it, was passed on from one generation to the next of the same wealthy family. Tlingit chiefs and nobles controlled all the tribe's wealth, determined the social rank of the members of the tribe, laid claim to the best fishing and hunting areas, and maintained the exclusive right to practice certain highly esteemed crafts.

Even today, class and social status are important in Tlingit villages.

LIVING CONDITIONS

The Tlingit have three advocacy organizations that promote their culture, rights, and welfare. The Alaska Native Brotherhood is concerned with cultural preservation; the Tlingit-Haida Association (Haida are a neighboring tribe) address housing and other social welfare issues; and the corporation Sealaska lobbies for economic and political power. Some Tlingit villages have their own city officials, police forces, and school boards.

The Tlingit have access to, and use, modern medical services. Traditionally, they had a system of folk medicine that included principles of hygiene and a knowledge of herbs. When necessary, they consulted with a special healer who had more advanced knowledge of medical practices.

FAMILY LIFE

Arranged marriages were formerly the norm, but this practice continues to diminish during the early 21st century. Divorce was rare in traditional Tlingit culture, as it was considered an affront to the clans of both the husband and wife. The Tlingit had an elaborate system of kinship by which their society was divided into two halves, or moieties, called Raven-Crow and Eagle-Wolf. Although the various rules and prohibitions attached to this system are still upheld theoretically, in practice they are often broken, and its terminology has fallen into disuse among the younger Tlingit. A child's lineage is linked to the maternal rather than the paternal side of the family, so maternal relatives traditionally played an important role in a child's upbringing. Traditionally, sons learned how to hunt, fish, and fight from their maternal uncles; daughters learned domestic skills from their maternal grandmother and aunts, who also prepared them for childbearing and taught them the history of their clan. The family elders still hold a high level of respect and influence among the Tlingit, including those who are college educated.

CLOTHING

In the summer, Tlingit men traditionally wore no clothes, or only a breechcloth made of animal skin. In the winter, they wore shirts with trousers or leggings made from deer, caribou, or other animal skins. These were decorated with fringes at the sides and bottom and with rows of porcupine quills. Women wore cedar-bark skirts and capes in the summer and skirts or tunics of buckskin during the cooler seasons. Both men and women went barefoot much of the time, even in snow during the winter. On especially rough terrain, they wore moccasins, or snow-shoes with webbing or spikes. Women wore their hair loose or in braids, with ornaments of wood or shells and beads, and both men and women wore feathers in their hair. People who became shamans were forbidden to cut or even comb their hair. A fur cap was a common form of winter headgear. Both men and women painted their faces, either the entire face or only the upper or lower part. Black and red were the colors most often used. Often, rings were painted around the eyes. Tattooing was also common. Mourners wore old clothes and cut their hair short.

The Tlingit of today wear modern, Western-style clothing appropriate to their northern climate. Traditional clothing, masks, and headdresses are still worn on ceremonial occasions, and by dancers and other performing groups. Traditional Tlingit garments are known for their intricate beadwork, typically in white on a red background. Chilkat blankets, with their abstract animal designs, are valued by collectors of folk art.

FOOD

The traditional Tlingit diet consisted of fish, meat, and wild plants. Given their resource-rich environment, they rarely experienced times of deprivation. The rivers of their Alaskan homeland abound with salmon, halibut, herring, candle-fish, and other fish, which the Tlingit caught with nets and traps, speared, shot with bow and arrow, or sometimes simply stunned with a club. Skimming the open sea in their enormous dugout canoes, they hunted whales, seals, sea lion, and walrus. On land, they hunted deer, mountain goats, bear, and small animals and availed themselves of the bounty of bird's eggs, berries, and edible plants that were theirs for the taking.

Although today's Tlingit eat typical modern-day American fare (including packaged convenience foods), salmon, their traditional staple, still plays a prominent role in their diet, along with other fish, including halibut, herring, and cod, as well as crabs and other shellfish. Salmon is eaten both fresh and dried, and salmon grilled over a smoking fire is especially popular. Oil from the euchalon, or candlefish, is used as a dip with many foods.

EDUCATION

Modern Tlingit young people attend public schools, where, much like school-aged children everywhere in the United States, they are taught basic subjects like math, history, spelling, reading, science, social studies, and the use of computers. But Tlingit teachers are also concerned that their students learn something about their culture and old traditions before this knowledge is lost completely. The Tlingit place a high value on education, and many work in business, industry, government, and the professions.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

An elaborate woodcarving tradition can be seen in Tlingit homes and on their boats, and Tlingit ceremonial costumes are decorated with individualized crest designs. Characteristics of Tlingit art include stylized conventional forms and the practice of filling in any blank spaces. The most favored colors are red, black, and green. Perhaps the most famous form of Tlingit art is the elaborately patterned Chilkat blanket.

Although the dancing societies that were important to other tribes of the Northwest Coast did not hold a prominent place among the Tlingit, they did have a dance tradition. Special dance aprons that were like miniature Chilkat blankets were worn by shamans, chiefs, and other tribe members. Other elements of the traditional dance costume included belts made from ropes of shredded cedar bark, headbands also made from cedar bark, special collars or bibs, and headdresses with eagle feathers. Shamans in particular were known for their wild dancing, characterized by spirited gesticulation. Today, dancing groups still perform for local ceremonies and for visitors in several Tlingit villages.

WORK

Traditionally, the Tlingit worked at hunting and gathering the food they needed to survive. However, this way of life declined after 1880, and the Tlingit began to participate in the Western cash economy. World War II and the discovery of large oil reserves in Alaska created many opportunities for employment in construction and other jobs for the Tlingit and other native groups in Alaska. Instead of engaging in traditional fishing practices, many of today's Tlingit drive diesel-powered boats with hydraulic hoists and industrial-size nets. Tlingit women often work in fish canneries or produce crafts for sale. Many Tlingit work in urban areas, some of them settling permanently in large towns and cities and working in government, business, and the professions.

SPORTS

Tlingit men enjoy engaging in contests of strength such as wrestling.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Traditional Tlingit feasts and dances usually took place in the winter. The frequent potlatches held in Tlingit villages provided the major source of entertainment. Today the Tlingit enjoy modern types of recreation, such as watching television or renting movies.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

The Tlingit are expert carvers and use the wood, especially red cedar, that is so plentiful in their native habitat extensively in their arts and crafts, especially for storage boxes, dishes, and ceremonial masks. They make excellent baskets, some of which are so tightly woven as to be waterproof, and also weave fine blankets of dog hair and mountain goat wool. They are experts at finishing their wooden artifacts with inlays of bone, copper, and shells, which are found in abundance everywhere at the water's edge. All Tlingit crafts are highly ornamented with elaborate and beautiful designs. Since the arrival of tourists by steamship, the Tlingit have maintained an active crafts industry.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Many Tlingit Indians today live in poverty in substandard housing. They face the imminent destruction of their culture and way of life and experience difficulty in adapting themselves to the ways of the prevalent society. As a result, many suffer from alcoholism, drug abuse, and other forms of social distress.

GENDER ISSUES

The Tlingit recognize two gender categories: káh (man) and shawát (woman). Gender and rank were the governing categories for behavior in precontact Tlingit society. Rank was indicated by differing styles of dress and bodily adornment. High-ranking senior women wore large labrets in their lower lips.

While rank could change during the course of a person's lifetime, gender was fixed during life but not after death in re-birth. Tlingit traditional belief holds that following death an individual is reborn into his/her clan. It was possible for a man to be reborn as a baby girl or for a woman to be reborn as a baby boy.

Females were important to the perpetuation of the Tlingit matriclans. As such, the puberty rituals for girls were elaborate and lengthy. At the onset of a girl's first menstruation, she would enter seclusion at the rear of the family longhouse or in a small, separate structure built near the family house. She would be isolated from contact with outsiders except for young girls and older women. The length of time spent in seclusion was dependent upon the rank of the girl through her family. Girls of high ranking families could remain secluded for as long as a year. Following the period of seclusion, the girl would emerge from this state as an adult woman who was now ready for marriage.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dauenhauer, Nora M., and Richard D. Dauenhauer, eds. Haa shuka, Our Ancestors: Tlingit Oral Narratives. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1987.

Jonaitis, Aldona. Art of the Northern Tlingit. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1986.

Klein, L. Tlingit Women and Town Politics. New York University, Ph.D. dissertation, 1975.

Marquis, Arnold. A Guide to America's Indians. University of Oklahoma Press, 1974.

Obery, Kalervo. The Social Economy of the Tlingit Indians. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973.

Olson, W. The Tlingit. Auke Bay, Alaska: Heritage Research, 1991.

Osborn, Kevin. The Peoples of the Arctic. Chelsea House, 1990.

Pelton, Mary Helen, and Jacqueline DiGennaro. Images of a People: Tlingit Myths and Legends. Englewood, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited, 1992.

Straley, John. The Woman Who Married a Bear. New York: Soho Press, 1992.

—revised by J. Williams