Peter Abelard

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Peter Abelard

Circa1079–1142
Philosopher and theologian

Abelard and the Rise of the Schools. Peter Abelard, the most skilled logician of his day, was a major figure in the twelfth-century rise of Scholasticism in Paris. His chief influence lay in his work on the subject of universals and his contributions toward defining the Scholastic methodology, which consisted in the systematic application of reason to questions of philosophy and theology. Possessed of an ambitious and even “entrepreneurial” spirit, Abelard lived variously in Melun, Corbeil, and Paris, traveling wherever he thought he could best further his career as a teacher. His lectures were always well attended, and among his later students were Arnold of Brescia and John of Salisbury. Abelard was an important forerunner of the thirteenth-century university schoolmen, though personal scandal and clerical opposition were to mar his own career.

Early Career. A native of Le Palais, Brittany and the first-born son of a knight, Abelard moved to Paris to study philosophy. He quickly established a reputation as a master of dialectic. Indeed, Paul Vignaux refers to Abelard as “The Knight of Dialectics,” in that he gave up his birthright as a knight of the sword to become instead a “Knight of the Schools.” In Paris he studied first under William of Champeaux at the cloister school of Notre Dame. Before long he felt dissatisfied with his teacher and began to debate him publicly. A similar situation arose when he went to study theology with Anselm of Laon. Finding Anselm’s method of scriptural exegesis insufficiently rigorous, Abelard openly challenged him and began to offer lectures of his own. In this way he quickly established himself as a teacher, but in proportion to his academic success he met with envy. As a kind of Socratic figure, he aroused the resentment of fellow teachers, many of whom did not hesitate to conspire against him.

Abelard and Heloise. His career was also threatened for personal reasons. According to a commonly held medieval ideal, the philosopher was supposed to be an ascetic, completely detached from worldly pursuits. Abelard, however, became involved in a love affair with Heloise, a private student of his who was at the time living with her uncle, the canon Fulbert. The affair was not only a scandal on account of Abelard’s refusing the normal constraints of the scholarly life, but also because it marked a betrayal of his agreement with Fulbert. The resulting castration of Abelard by Fulbert’s servants and the marriage and exile of Abelard and Heloise have inspired many literary treatments of the couple’s ill-fated love. Heloise concluded her life as an abbess and Abelard as a humbled monk and theologian, though the affair did not bring an end to Abelard’s days as a teacher.

Charges of Heresy. His academic career upset, Abelard had sought refuge at the Abbey of St. Denis. After a quarrel with the brothers there, he went in exile to Nogent-sur-Seine and started a school known as Le Paraclet (The Comforter). Later he served as abbot of St. Gildas in Brittany, but he found the behavior of the monks to be unruly and ill suited to study. Abelard returned to Paris and lectured at St. Genevieve, during which time he became involved in intense theological debate with Bernard of Clairvaux and other major clerics. Several of his writings, including Sic et Non (Yes and No, circa 1117–1128) and Theologia Christiana (Christian Theology, circa 1134–1138) led to a confrontation with conservative factions who feared what they perceived to be Abelard’s overly rational approach to theology. Abelard believed the issues could be settled by means of public debate, of which he was a master. Bernard of Clairvaux had other ideas about the matter: he sought by secret political means to have the full force of ecclesiastical condemnation used against Abelard. When Abelard arrived at Sens for the “debate” on 3 June 1140, he discovered that Bernard had already prejudiced the ecclesiastical authorities against him. Rather than accept their judgment, Abelard departed and made his way to Rome to plead his case. He went to the Monastery of Cluny on the invitation of the abbot, Peter the Venerable, and there he composed Apologia contra Bernardum (Defense against Bernard). Bernard, however, was able through his connections to secure a papal condemnation of Abelard as a heretic. Abelard’s sentence would have meant his excommunication, confinement to a monastery, and the destruction of his books, had it not been for the diplomacy of Peter the Venerable, who managed to reconcile Abelard and Bernard. Abelard was allowed to reside at Cluny, and the ban of excommunication was lifted. He moved to another Clu-niac house at St. Marcel-sur-Saone, where he died peacefully on 21 April 1142.

Logical and Philosophical Works. Abelard’s writings reflect above all his mastery of the trivium: grammar, logic, and rhetoric. In addition to commentaries on Aristotle’s Categories and On Interpretation, Porphyry’s Isagoge, and Boethius’s De differentiis topicis, Abelard wrote tracts on logic in Introductiones Parvulorum (The Lesser Glosses on Logic, believed to have been written circa 1105) and Logica Ingredientibus (The Greater Glosses on Logic, circa 1112–1130). He also wrote Dialectica (Dialectic, circa 1130–1140), a treatise dealing with propositions, syllogisms, and logical consequences. Perhaps the most influential of all Abelard’s logical works was his Sic et Non, in which a series of questions are posed, together with conflicting answers from patristic authorities. Though Abelard contented himself with merely collating the relevant passages from the Church Fathers, in his preface he set forth guidelines for comparison, logical scrutiny, and synthesis. The objective and rigorously dialectical methodology modeled in this work became a hallmark of Scholasticism.

Ethical and Theological Works. It would be a mistake to see Abelard as only a logician. His work in ethics, the Scito te ipsum (Know Thyself, circa 1138–1142) is an important contribution to the development of moral philosophy. Abelard placed primary emphasis on the role of intention in human deliberative moral action. In particular, he gave a nuanced account of the role of intention in moral decisions. Later in life Abelard applied his dialectical skills to theology. Here he met with great opposition from traditional theologians, who accused him of substituting reason for faith. Some in power viewed him as such a threat to the Christian faith that he was forced to burn one of his earliest works, a treatise on the trinity titled Theologia Summi Boni (Theology of the Highest Good, circa 1118–1120). His later theological works include Commentary on Romans (circa 1125–1131) and his Theologia Christiana. Peter Abelard, one could claim, helped lay the foundation for the world of university theology as distinct from that of monastic lectio divina (divine reading of scripture). His aim was not simply to meditate at length on the text of scripture, but to examine the text rationally in terms of its grammatical, logical, and rhetorical possibilities. Argumentum, or rational argument in the service of faith, had replaced non-argumentative meditative thought. Henceforth, a person’s public ability was measured by the dialectical skill of the debater and not by appeals to the authority of a learned person or a book.

Other Works. Abelard’s literary output was not confined to scholarly works. He also wrote Latin and vernacular poetry, including many religious hymns. Perhaps his best-known nonphilosophical work is his correspondence with Heloise. His elegant use of the epistolary form helped to establish the letter as a significant mode of philosophical and theological expression. Abelard also made use of the letter as a frame for his Historia Calamitatum (circa 1132–1133), an autobiographical account of his life and troubles. Including biographical detail rare for a figure of the Middle Ages, the work provides a frank description of his career as a gifted but highly controversial scholar.