Rubens, Peter Paul
Peter Paul Rubens
June 28, 1577
Siegen, Westphalia, Germany
May 30, 1640
Antwerp, Belgium
Painter, diplomat
"My talent is such that no enterprise, however vast in number and in diversity of subjects, has surpassed my courage."
The Flemish painter and diplomat (one who conducts negotiations between governments) Peter Paul Rubens was one of the best-known artists of the seventeenth century. He received commissions from Italy, Spain, France, England, and Germany as well as from his homeland, the southern Netherlands. His boundless imagination, capacity for work, and productivity were legendary during his lifetime. In 1621, when he was not yet forty-five years old, an English visitor to Antwerp (a city in present-day Belgium) described him as "the master workman of the world." Rubens said of himself, without boasting, that his talent was so great that no other artist could equal him in the variety of subjects he painted and the number of works he produced. Without interrupting his artistic activity, he also had a demanding career as a diplomat. Rubens is considered the master of a style of painting called baroque, which was characterized by large, dramatic works in deep colors and hues (see accompanying box). Although the baroque period came at the end of the Renaissance, Rubens's work is considered the culmination of Italian Renaissance art.
Rubens was born in 1577 in Siegen, Westphalia, Germany. His father, Jan Rubens, had been a lawyer in Antwerp (a city in present-day Belgium) before fleeing to Cologne, Germany, in 1568 because he was a Calvinist. Calvinists were members of a religious group that followed the teachings of the Protestant reformer John Calvin (1509–1564; see entry). At that time the Low Countries (present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and parts of northern France) were ruled by Spain, a Catholic nation. In Cologne Jan Rubens entered into an adulterous relationship with the wife of William I (called the Silent; 1533–1584), Prince of Orange. As a result Jan Rubens was thrown into prison. He was released two years later through the efforts of his wife, Maria Pypelinckx, and permitted to go to Siegen. The family, who had now become Catholic, lived in Cologne until Jan Rubens died in 1587. His widow returned to Antwerp, taking her three children with her.
Starts painting career in Rome
Peter Paul Rubens received a classical education, which included instruction in Latin and Greek. He then became a page, or court attendant, to a noblewoman, Marguerite de Ligne, countess of Lalaing. This early experience of court life was undoubtedly useful to the future artist, who later spent much of his time in aristocratic and royal circles. After returning to Antwerp, Rubens decided to follow the profession of painter. He studied under three masters (supervisors)—Tobias Verhaecht, Adam van Noort, and Otto van Veen—and in 1598 he was accepted as a master painter into Antwerp's Guild of Saint Luke, a professional organization for artists and craftsmen.
In 1600 Rubens went to Italy, where he entered the service of Vincenzo Gonzaga (1562–1612), duke of Mantua, whose palace housed a notable art collection. Since Rubens was not expected to spend all of his time at the duke's court, he found time to visit other cities in Italy, especially Rome, Florence, and Genoa. In Rome he completed his education as an artist, studying the sculptures of antiquity and the paintings of the High Renaissance, especially those of Raphael (1483–1520; see entry) and Michelangelo (1475–1564; see entry). During his stay in Rome, from 1601 until 1602, he painted three altarpieces (works of art that decorate an altar for the Church) of Saint Croce in Gerusalemme. In 1603 Gonzaga sent Rubens on a diplomatic mission to Spain. Here he made the impressive equestrian (rider mounted on a horse) portrait of the Duke of Lerma. Rubens also saw for the first time the art collection that Spanish king Philip I (1478–1506) had assembled at El Escorial, the royal palace. Included in the collection were numerous paintings by the Italian master Titian.
The baroque period
The "baroque period" is generally used to describe the music, art, literature, and philosophy of the seventeenth century. The concept of the baroque emerged in the eighteenth century to describe an exuberant, sensuous, expressive, and dynamic style that was different from the classical style of the Renaissance. For advocates of Renaissance ideals, this era was an age of decadence, or decline. Its manners, morals, and arts were absurd, grotesque, corrupt, and contrary to good (that is, classical) principles. The word "baroque" may have come from the Portuguese barroco and the Spanish barrueco, terms for a misshapen pearl. Another origin may have been a nonsensical word created by medieval logicians (scholars who study logic, or the use of reason in thinking) for a convoluted, or excessively complicated, argument. Whatever the origin of the word, the eighteenth century carried on its negative connotations to condemn the baroque for not being the Renaissance.
When Rubens returned to Rome again in 1605 he managed to remain there for almost three years. During this time he was commissioned to decorate the high altar of San Maria in Vallicella, an unusual honor for a foreigner. For this project he painted an altarpiece showing the Madonna and Child (Mary and the infant Jesus) with Saint Gregory (early pope and Christian scholar; c. 540–604) and other saints. This work did not make a good impression because the lighting conditions in the church were unfavorable. Rubens then made a set of three pictures painted on slate. In 1608, before this work had been unveiled, he received word that his mother was seriously ill. Upon reaching Antwerp he learned that she had already died. Although Rubens planned to return to Italy, he soon found reasons for remaining in Antwerp. The rulers of the Spanish Netherlands, Archduke Albert VII (1559–1621) and Duchess Isabella, appointed him court painter with special privileges. In 1609 Rubens married Isabella Brant, and a year later he purchased a house in Antwerp. Around this time he painted Rubens and His Wife in the Honeysuckle Arbor.
Produces two thousand paintings
The first major project Rubens undertook after returning from Italy was Raising of the Cross (1611), a triptych (three-panel painting) for the church of Saint Walburga. With this bold and dramatic work Rubens established himself as the leading master of the city. It was followed by an equally large triptych, Descent from the Cross (1614), in the cathedral in Antwerp. Rubens's imagination found new outlets in subjects from both the sacred and secular (nonreligious) worlds. In The Last Judgment (c. 1616) he portrayed an apocalyptic vision (warning of impending disaster) of the torments of the damned, or sinners. The same tempestuous, or stormy, energy can be seen in the artist's hunting pieces, with their ferocious combats of men and wild beasts.
Rubens's workshop was now in full operation. With the aid of his pupils and assistants, he achieved an astonishing output of pictures—more than two thousand paintings have been attributed to his studio. The most brilliant of these assistants was Anthony Van Dyck (1599–1641), who joined Rubens's workshop in 1617 or 1618 and helped in the execution of a number of important commissions. Nevertheless, Rubens was not simply content to let his assistants do all the work. The paintings coming from his studio were of the highest quality, indicating that the artist himself was involved in producing them. Indeed there were so many masterpieces at this time that it is difficult to select a few representative examples. One of his most dazzling works on a mythological subject is Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus. Among his finest religious works are two altarpieces glorifying the Ignatius of Loyola (c. 1491–1556; see entry) and Francis Xavier (1506–1552), the first saints of Jesuit, or Society of Jesus, order. Titled Miracles of St. Ignatius of Loyola and Miracles of St. Francis Xavier, these huge paintings feature a richness of color and depth of feeling that nearly overwhelm the observer.
The Jesuit altarpieces were followed by an even larger commission from France. In 1622 Rubens went to Paris to decorate two great galleries in the Luxembourg Palace, the residence of the queen mother, Marie de Médicis (1573–1642). The first of these projects, a series of twenty-one large canvases illustrating the life of Marie, was completed in 1625. Rubens succeeded in transforming the uninspiring story of the queen's life into one of the most brilliant and spectacular of all baroque decorative projects. Rubens had other commissions during this period. For King Louis XIII (1601–1643; ruled 1610–43) of France he designed the tapestry series History of Constantine the Great. Several years later he designed an even larger tapestry cycle, Triumph of the Eucharist, for the Convent of the Descalzas Reales in Madrid, Spain.
Rubens also painted important altarpieces for churches in Antwerp. Adoration of the Magi (1624) was made for Saint Michael's Abbey; Assumption of the Virgin (1626) for the high altar of the cathedral; and perhaps the most beautiful of all, Madonna and Saints (sometimes called Mystic Marriage of St. Catherine; 1628) for the church of the Augustinians (a religious order). Rubens painted some of his most memorable portraits during these years. Hanging in Windsor Castle in England is his famous Self-portrait (1624), which he painted at the request of the Prince of Wales, later King Charles I (1600–1649; ruled 1625–49) of England. It shows the strong and handsome face of the artist, with a bold moustache and curling hair and beard. He is wearing a broad-brimmed hat that not only lends interest to the picture but serves also to conceal his baldness, about which he seems to have been rather sensitive.
Succeeds as diplomat
Rubens's diplomatic activity had begun some time earlier. It reached a peak in the years between 1628 and 1630, when he was instrumental in bringing about peace between England and Spain. In addition to carrying out his political duties he found a new and enthusiastic patron (financial supporter) in the Spanish king, Philip IV (1605–1665; ruled 1621–65), who knighted him in 1631. Rubens's mission to England was equally successful. Charles I knighted him artist-diplomat, and the University of Cambridge awarded him an honorary master of arts degree. Rubens returned to Antwerp in 1630. That year he married Helena Fourment, a girl of sixteen. His first wife, Isabella Brant, had died four years earlier. Though he had hoped to withdraw from political life, he was a confidential agent for Spain in the frustrating and unsuccessful negotiations with the Dutch, who were seeking independence. Finally he retired from his diplomatic career, and in 1635 he purchased a country estate, the Castle of Steen, south of Antwerp. In the last decade of his life Rubens expanded the subject matter of his art. An example is Garden of Love, (1623) a complex interweaving of classical and contemporary themes. He expressed a new interest in nature, inspired perhaps by his residence in the country. He painted a series of magnificent landscapes, among them Castle of Steen. The portraits of this period, especially those of his wife Helena and their children, are characterized by informality and tender intimacy.
During this period Rubens communicated a lyrical, or poetic, quality in his depictions of Christian and classical subjects. For instance, in the Ildefonso Altarpiece the scene of a saint receiving a vestment (religious garment) from Mary shimmers with a silvery radiance. The secular counterpart to this work is Feast of Venus, in which Rubens paid tribute both to the art of antiquity and to the paintings of Titian. The almost dreamlike poetry of his mythological subjects is exemplified by Judgment of Paris and Three Graces, in which opulent nude figures seem to glow with light and color. Rubens continued to carry out monumental commissions during his last decade. For Charles I of England he executed the ceiling paintings of the Banqueting House at Whitehall, which is a glorification of the reign of James I (1566–1625; see entry) and the Stuart monarchy. It is the only large-scale decorative work by the artist that still remains in the place for which it was designed. In 1635 the new governor of the Netherlands, Duchess Isabella's nephew Cardinal Infante Ferdinand, arrived in Antwerp. An elaborate celebration was held in the governor's honor, and Rubens was given the task of preparing the temporary street decorations. Swiftly mobilizing teams of artists and craftsmen to work from his designs, he created an elaborate series of painted theaters and triumphal arches that surpassed all expectations by their magnificence. His last great project was a vast cycle of mythological paintings for the decoration of Philip IV's hunting lodge near Madrid, the Torre de la Parada. Toward the end of his life Rubens was increasingly troubled by arthritis (inflammation of the joints), which eventually compelled him to give up painting altogether. He died in Antwerp in 1640.
For More Information
Books
Fletcher, Jennifer. Peter Paul Rubens; With Fifty Plates in Full Colour. New York: Phaidon, 1968.
McLanathan, Richard. Peter Paul Rubens. New York: H.N. Abrams, 1995.
Wedgwood, Cicely V. and the editors of Time-Life Books. The World of Rubens, 1577-1640. New York: Time-Life, Inc., 1967.
Web Sites
Howe, Jeffery. "House of Peter Paul Rubens." A Digital Archive of Architecture. [Online] Available http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/arch/rubens_arch.html, April 5, 2002.
Pioch, Nicolas. "Rubens, Peter Paul." WebMuseum. [Online] Available http://sunsite.unc.edu/wm/paint/auth/rubens/, December 10, 2001.
"Rubens, Peter Paul." National Gallery of Art. [Online] Available http://www.nga.gov/collection/gallery/gg45/gg45-main1.html, April 5, 2002.