Erasmus, Desiderius

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Desiderius Erasmus

October 27, 1466
Rotterdam, Netherlands
July 12, 1536
Basel, Switzerland

Humanist scholar

"In the country of the blind the one-eyed man is king."
Desiderius Erasmus.

The Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus was the foremost humanist in northern Europe (see accompanying box for a description of humanism). He promoted a method called philology (study of language used in literary texts) in the study of the Bible (the Christian holy book). Erasmus also popularized works by ancient and early Christian writers. Known as a "Christian humanist," he combined Christian teachings with classical ideals. In his own time, even critics did not dispute that he was the reigning "prince of humanists." His admirers credited him with the single-handed revival of literary study in Germany. For some years Erasmus enjoyed celebrity status. He was sought after by other scholars who conducted extensive letter exchanges with him, and visitors considered a journey to his home a cultural pilgrimage (religious journey). Many of his works, such as Handbook of the Christian Soldier and Praise of Folly, were translated into all major European languages. Erasmus's reputation began to decline in the 1520s, however, when he refused to take sides in the debate surrounding the Protestant Reformation (a movement to reform the Roman Catholic Church). By the end of his life he was being charged with disloyalty by Protestants and Catholics alike.

Criticizes scholastics

Erasmus was born in Rotterdam, Holland, the illegitimate son of Roger Gerard, a priest, and a physician's daughter. Throughout his life he was sensitive about the lowly circumstances of his birth. He was orphaned at age five and placed under the care of guardians. From 1475 until 1484, Erasmus received a classical education from the Brethren of the Common Life. The Brethren was a religious community that reformed the educational system in the Low Countries (present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and parts of northern France) by replacing scholasticism with humanist concepts. Scholasticism had been the dominant method of study in the Middle Ages. Scholastics sought to combine Christian teachings with the concept of reason found in the works of ancient Greek philosophers. At the beginning of the Renaissance, a scholastic education consisted mainly of a series of exercises that subjected biblical texts to rational proof (logical reasoning). This development displeased many religious people, who felt such training failed to respond to the spiritual side of human experience. One result was the creation of the Brethren of the Common Life, which emphasized inner piety (dutifulness in religion). The Brethren schools provided a training ground for an impressive number of northern European humanists.

After completing his education, Erasmus entered the monastery (house for monks, members of a religious order) at Steyn in 1487. He was ordained a priest in 1492 and appointed secretary to the bishop of Cambrai (a city in present-day France) the following year. Erasmus's life took a significant turn in 1495, when he went to Paris, France, to study theology (religious philosophy). Paris was then the center of theological training in Europe. He lived at the Collège de Montaigu, a hostel (lodging house) for poor students. During his stay in Paris he developed a strong distaste for the scholastic method. In letters to friends Erasmus made scathing comments about the scholastic professors in Paris, whom he described as pseudotheologians (fake religious scholars) and obscurantists (those who make ideas unnecessarily complex).

Finding the living conditions at the Collège de Montaigu unbearable, Erasmus struck out on his own and began to tutor the sons of wealthy families. He never completed his degree in Paris. In 1499 he traveled to England with one of his pupils, William Blount, lord Montjoy. During his stay in England he made lifelong friends, such as the humanists Thomas More (1478–1535; see entry) and John Colet (c. 1466–1519). In 1506 Erasmus moved to Turin, Italy, where he obtained a doctorate in theology without meeting the requirement of being a resident student at the university. He then established a connection with the printing house of Aldo Manuzio (1449–1515) in Venice, which later contributed to his productive career as a writer.

Agricola Introduces Humanistic Studies

"Humanism" is the modern term for the literary movement that initiated the Renaissance. Humanism was founded by the scholar and poet Petrarch (1304–1374) and his followers in Florence, Italy, in the mid-1300s. Humanist scholars believed that a body of learning called studia humanitatis (humanistic studies), which was based on the literary masterpieces of ancient Greece and Rome, could bring about a cultural re-birth (or renaissance). Humanistic studies consisted of five academic subjects: grammar (rules for the use of a language), rhetoric (art of effective speaking and writing), moral philosophy (study of human conduct and values), poetry, and history. The texts included not only classical literature but also the Bible (the Christian holy book) and the works of early Christian thinkers. The Dutch scholar Rudolf Agricola (Roelof Huisman; 1444–1485) is credited with introducing humanistic studies in northern Europe in the late 1470s and early 1480s.

Although Agricola's career was brief, he had a strong influence on humanism in northern Europe. Among his numerous works were orations, poems, letters, and Latin translations of Greek texts, most of which were published after his death. His greatest achievement was De inventione dialectica libri tres (Three books on dialectical invention), which was inspired by his discontent with current educational methods. Agricola's book was highly influential as a statement of humanist rhetoric, partly because he illustrated rules with detailed examples from classical works. Printed in 1515, De inventione was widely read by advanced students, professors, and theoreticians during the sixteenth century. One of Agricola's letters, De formando studio (On the organization of the program of studies), also influenced humanists. This letter became popular because it included a brief description of making a commonplace book, a collection of excerpts from ancient texts that provided models for teaching writing and recitation. The commonplace book was used in Latin grammar schools throughout Europe until the eighteenth century.

Writes Praise of Folly

By the time Erasmus returned to England in 1509, he was disillusioned with the Catholic Church. He disapproved of the wars that popes were always waging, and he was critical of clergymen who failed to fulfill Christian teachings in their own lives. As a result of this experience Erasmus wrote Encomium moriae (Praise of Folly), a satire (criticism through the use of humor) of the church and the clergy. In a famous passage a character named Dame Folly ridicules human folly (foolishness or lack of good sense) in general, but she focuses particularly on the self-importance of and lack of spiritual values among theologians and clergymen. The book concludes with an appeal to Christians to embrace what appears to be folly in the eyes of the world—that is, the simple-hearted devotion to the teachings of Christ, which leads to the Kingdom of Heaven. Praise of Folly made Erasmus famous. In 1515 he was appointed councilor to Prince Charles (later Holy Roman Emperor Charles V ; see entry). To be near the royal court at Brussels in Belgium, Erasmus took up residence in Louvain, where he joined the theology faculty at the university. From the outset his relationship with other faculty members was an uneasy one because many of his writings drew criticism from theologians.

Publishes New Testament

Erasmus was an unusually learned scholar and a highly prolific writer. He published innumerable works on a wide variety of subjects, including biblical studies, education, and religious reform. During his career he also wrote more than three thousand letters to kings, popes, scholars, financiers, humanists, and reformers.

Erasmus was best known for his edition of the New Testament, the second part of the Bible pertaining to the life and teachings of Jesus Christ (also called the gospels). Erasmus started his project in 1504, when he discovered a set of notes on the New Testament made by the Italian humanist Lorenzo Valla (1407–1457). Following in Valla's footsteps, Erasmus began making notes on differences and errors he found when he compared Latin translations with the Greek biblical texts. In his New Testament he presented the original version of the biblical texts, which was written in the Greek language, and placed it alongside a Latin translation. Released in 1516 Erasmus's book was the first published Greek text. It provided scholars and reformers with a basis for further study of the New Testament. Erasmus also published Enhiridion militis Christiani (Handbook of a Christian soldier; 1503), in which he described a tightly structured patriarchal (headed by men) society built on Christian values. Although he held traditional views on the role of women, he advocated education for women and emphasized mutual respect and fellowship in marriage.

Erasmus stated his educational views in De pueris instituendis (On the education of children; 1529) and other works, which were typical of humanist philosophy. He believed that parents had a duty to educate their children. If they could not give instruction themselves, they should select a teacher who could provide the necessary moral and intellectual guidance. Erasmus did not approve of physical punishment, and he recommended motivating learners with interesting material, a healthy challenge, and positive reinforcement. His ideal curriculum (program of study) was based on language studies, the core subject of studia humanitatis. Another dimension to Erasmus's writing was Querela pacis (The Complaint of peace; 1517), in which he condemned war as an instrument of tyranny and warned rulers to fulfill their obligation to preserve Christian harmony.

Drawn into Reformation debate

In the 1520s Erasmus was drawn into the Reformation debate. His position at Louvain became increasingly difficult because he was considered a supporter of Martin Luther (1483–1546; see entry), the German priest who initiated the Protestant Reformation in 1517. To escape the hostile climate, Erasmus moved to Basel, Switzerland, where he became the center of a scholarly circle that included many prominent humanists. He remained in Basel from late 1521 until 1529, when the city formally turned Protestant. At that point he went to Freiburg, a Catholic city in Germany. During the last decade of his life, however, controversy continued to swirl around him.

At the beginning of the Reformation, Erasmus had given Luther limited support, but he also voiced disapproval of Luther's radical language. When Erasmus saw that the changes proposed by Luther and other reformers would lead to a split in the church, he distanced himself from the movement. Although he preferred to stay on the sidelines, he finally had to defend himself against Catholic charges that he was a Lutheran supporter. In 1524 he wrote De libero arbirio diatribe (Diatribe on free will), in which he quoted biblical passages for and against the concept of free will (humans' ability to choose their own actions). He argued that in cases where Scripture is not clear on the matter, the church should be the final authority. Luther issued a sharp reply in De servo arbitrio (The bondage of the will), stating that humans do not have free will and insisting that this fact is clearly stated in Scripture.

Condemned by the church

Many Catholic theologians thought Erasmus's contribution to the debate came too late, even though he had taken the side of the church. By this time he had already made theologians angry with Praise of Folly, in which he ridiculed the church. But he had caused the most controversy with his edition of the New Testament. Although the book was welcomed by humanists, it was attacked by theologians. In the sixteenth century people believed that the Vulgate Bible (official Latin version) was written by Saint Jerome, in Latin, under divine inspiration (directly from the word of God). Since Erasmus had found errors in the Latin translation, he was charged with blasphemy (insulting God) and accused of giving support to the reformers. From 1523 onward, Erasmus's works were investigated by the Paris theological faculty, whose judgment was considered the final word in religious matters. Numerous passages in his writings were censored (suppressed). In 1531 the church issued a formal condemnation and Erasmus gave a lengthy apology. Until his death in 1536 he was the focus of attacks from both Catholics and Protestants. Catholics continued to question his faithfulness to the church and Protestants called him a hypocrite (person who puts on a false appearance of virtue or religion) for his failure to support Luther.

The Reformation turmoil damaged Erasmus's reputation in Italy, France, and Spain. Elsewhere his books, especially his manuals of instruction and his editions of biblical texts, remained in use. The humanist tradition founded by Erasmus stayed alive in the Netherlands, and by the eighteenth century he was admired as the man who first presented a religion of reason. A resurgence of interest in Erasmus's writings also took place in the twentieth century, when world religions were seeking greater unity of thought. Historians suggest that the loss of life and devastation resulting from World War I (1914–18) and World II (1939–45) made people more susceptible to Erasmus's pacifism (opposition to war). For instance, in 1950 a translation of The Complaint of Peace by José Chapiro was presented to the United Nations (an international organization founded for the preservation of world peace).