brewing is as ancient as distilling, and had a long evolution prior to its expansion during the 18th and 19th cents. to become a large-scale industry pioneering mass production. Its basic raw materials are barley, hops, and water, and the process involves the infusion of malted barley and water, followed by fermentation of the liquid or wort drawn from the mixture. In the medieval period ale-brewing prevailed and it was not until the early 15th cent. that hops were added to the wort for flavouring and as a preservative. The resulting beverage was known as ‘beere’ or ‘biere’ to distinguish it from ale, which was rarely hopped. Many householders from the gentry downwards, and most retailers, brewed their own beer.

From the beginning of the 18th cent. rising population accelerated a long-term trend towards larger breweries. Among the more important firms established at the time were Whitbread, Guinness, and Younger. From the outset these and other family firms dominated an industry which expanded rapidly along parallel paths. Every town of consequence had its brewery, while in the cities like London, Edinburgh, and Dublin much larger units began to evolve. The spectacular growth of Burton upon Trent was in part due to the excellence of the local water, but it also benefited from the town's central position once a national canal network had been established. The size of a brewery generally reflected the size of its immediate market, since beer is a bulky commodity and transport costs were high. Partly to counter this, brewing had its own peculiar marketing arrangements, with a high proportion of output sold through tied houses under the ownership of the brewing companies themselves. Concentration also made the industry an increasingly easy target for the excise, though the strength of beer and the duties payable have varied considerably since the 18th cent.

The expansion of the industry during the latter half of the 19th cent. outstripped its earlier growth. Brewing benefited from rapid advances in science and technology, especially from a deeper understanding of the chemistry involved, and from developments like refrigeration and bottling. The Institute of Brewing was set up in 1886 to disseminate this research. By this time the brewing industry encompassed hundreds of firms of various sizes across Britain, retailing beer through thousands of outlets. The industry was pervasive in other respects. Through its raw material needs it retained close links with agriculture and the countryside; it continued to be conspicuously taxed; and the sale of beer was increasingly enmeshed in complex licensing laws. In all these areas, especially when the temperance movement was active, the industry was forced into the forefront of national politics.

The years from the First World War to the late 1950s were characterized by rationalization and amalgamation, an almost continuous decline in production, and increased taxation. Notable product changes, begun in the Victorian era, saw a shift from dark, heavy beers to lighter, brighter beers and ales. Lager, pioneered by Tennent in Glasgow and Jeffrey in Edinburgh, along with bottled beers, increased greatly in popularity. Experimental canning was tried in the 1930s. After some painful readjustment in the 1950s and early 1960s, the industry was dominated by six conglomerates, mainly producing keg and lager beers. However, about 80 regional and local brewers managed to maintain their independence, and partly encouraged by the Campaign for Real Ale, successfully maintained the production of traditional cask beers.

Ian Donnachie