Exploration

The Louisiana Purchase...198
Expedition Chart...201
Discovery of the Yosemite...203
The Pampas and Andes...206
"Yosemite Glaciers"...210
"The Excursion"...213
"Expedition of 1898–1902"...215
My First Summer in the Sierra...218
The Living Sea...222
Voyager II's Gold Disc "Sounds of Earth"...227
The Log from the Sea of Cortez...230
"Isotopic Evidence for Extraterrestrial Non-Racemic Amino Acids in the Murchison Meteorite"...235
"The Greenland Expedition of 1925"...238
The Science Bit … Part 3 … The Larsen B Ice Shelf Disintegration...241

Since the beginning of human history, people have explored their surroundings. Historians believe that early humans migrated out of Africa and into Eurasia about 60,000 years ago. They were seeking new food sources and leaving areas with unfavorable environmental conditions. Asia was likely populated 40,000 years ago, the Americas about 30,000 years ago. Evidence suggests that agriculture developed in the Middle East around 10,000 years ago. This important innovation spread throughout Europe and Asia during the next 5,000 years.

The first evidence of ocean voyages dates from 1200 bce, when Phoenicians sailed simple ships along the Mediterranean coast to find places to sell their wares. Between c. 900 and 700 bce, Greeks, Chinese, and Polynesians began exploring their surroundings by ship. Sailors started producing charts documenting important features along the coastline.

Ancient Greeks made steady progress exploring the globe between c. 200 and 100 bce. Using information from camel traders and measurements of the sun's shadows, Greek astronomer Eratosthenes of Cyrene (c. 275 bce-c. 195 bce) calculated the circumference of Earth. Soon after, explorers learned to navigate using the stars, and cartography evolved.

During the first millennium, the Polynesians made many explorations. The Chinese launched major travels throughout Asia and the Pacific. However, the Dark Ages in Europe led to few explorations beyond those of the Vikings. The Renaissance marked the beginning of the Age of Discovery in Europe. Prince Henry (1394–1460) helped the Portuguese become a marine power, exploring much of the African coast. Italian navigator Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) explored the Americas, developing charts of the Atlantic Ocean. Ferdinand Magellan (c. 1480?–1521)) made the first trip around the world by ship.

Fueled by various motives—some noble, others greedy or religious—exploration of the Americas continued. The Dutch, Spanish, French, and British explored mainly for economic riches. Juan Ponce de Leon (1460–1521) explored the Florida coast, while fellow Spaniard Francisco Vá squez de Coronado (1510?–1554) trekked across what is now the southwestern United States. British navigator James Cook (1728–1779) traveled extensively along the Pacific Ocean. In 1804, the Lewis and Clark expedition ventured across the North American West. In some cases, the explorations were intrusive and harmful to existing native populations, cultures, and environments.

By 1900, the most accessible regions of the globe had been explored. Only the most extreme environments remained undiscovered. These places included areas high in the mountains and deep in the ocean, or amid frigid polar regions and dense rain forests. By the mid-1900s, adventurers had climbed the highest mountain, Mount Everest, and explored the North and South Poles. However, new environments continue to beckon, including the ocean depths and space.

This chapter discusses the relationships and issues that have evolved from the discovery of diverse environments. One common element related to social issues and debate is how human exploration has changed and challenged new environments. Another element is how explorers define new environments in terms that are understandable to their culture, sometimes endangering or disregarding the native populations, cultures, and environments.