Waxbills and grassfinches

(Estrildidae)

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Suborder Passeri (Oscines)

Family Estrildidae

Thumbnail description
Small, often brightly colored, highly social birds with large, conical bills

Size
3.5–6.7 in (9–17 cm)

Number of genera, species
29 genera, 129 species

Habitat
Savanna, forest, and semi-desert

Conservation status
Endangered: 2 species; Vulnerable: 8 species; Near Threatened: 6 species

Distribution
Sub-Saharan Africa, southeastern Asia, Australia, and South Pacific islands. Small populations have been introduced throughout other parts of the world

Evolution and systematics

Weaverfinches, or estrildids, are related to the weavers with which they were formerly placed in the family Ploceidae. They do, however, differ clearly from weavers not only in external appearance, but also in behavior and in a number of digestive tract characteristics. For these reasons, they are now generally considered a distinct family that has diverged far from the common ancestral stock shared with the weavers. Sibley and Monroe, on the basis of genetic studies on DNADNA hybridization, have grouped several of the existing families, including Estrildidae and Ploceidae, into the Passeridae family. Although there is presently no consensus among ornithologists about their work, it will certainly play an important role in avian taxonomy in the future.

Physical characteristics

Weaverfinches are relatively quite small in size ranging from the 3.5 in (9 cm) quailfinches (Ortygospiza spp.) to the 6.7 in (17 cm) Java sparrow (Padda oryzivora). There are about 29 genera with about 129 species. Particularly characteristic of the weaverfinches are the projections or swellings of thickened connective tissue known as tubercles or papillae shown by the young at the edges of the bill and at the gape. These are a striking white, blue, or yellow color, often emphasized by black surroundings. In the Gouldian finch (Chloebia gouldiae) and the parrotfinches (Erythrura spp.) the tubercles have developed into organs which seem to reflect light and thus show up in the semi-darkness of the nest. A characteristic of the weaverfinches that varies according to the genus and species is the gape pattern of the nestlings. These patterns consist of dark spots or lines on the palate, the tongue, and the floor of the mouth. In contrast to the colored bulges at the angles of the gape, the patterns in the interior of the mouth are, in many cases, retained for life.

The plumage is sometimes inconspicuous, but often very attractively colored. It is never, as in many weavers, striped in a sparrow or bunting-like fashion. Adult plumage is attained over a period of six to eight weeks without a distinguishable intermediate phase as in the fringillid finches. As in the whydahs, the outermost primary is generally very much shortened. Using the physical characteristics of an individual's plumage, one can usually place it in one of the many Estrildidae groups. For example, the parrotfinches usually display combinations of vibrant greens, blues, and reds in contrast to the munias and mannikins (Lonchura spp.), which are usually characterized by various shades of browns and tans. For some of the groups, the name is descriptive and indicates that group's distinguishing feature, such as in the olive-backs (Nesocharis spp.), the crimson-wings (Cryptospiza spp.), and the bluebills (Spermophaga spp.). Sometimes, however, a group's name can be misleading, such as with the firefinches (Lagonosticta spp.) whose plumage usually contains colors ranging from pink to crimson red, but never what most would consider a "fiery" red. The patterning of the plumage can also help place estrildids into groups. The twinspots have white spots on their underparts and sides with each feather containing two spots, the characteristic for which they are named. The pytilias (Pytilia spp.), on the other hand, have barring in these areas in addition to a bright red face in the males. The firetails (Emblema spp.) can have either barring or spots on their sides and underparts, but their distinguishing characteristic is their bright red rump and tail.

The bill of the almost exclusively insectivorous species, such as the negro-finches (Nigrita spp.) and the flowerpecker weaver-finches (Parmoptila spp.), is as slim as that of warblers. In species that eat large seeds, like the bluebills and the seed-crackers (Pyrenestes spp.), it is almost as thick and strong as that of hawfinches. The waxbills (Estrilda spp.) fall somewhere in the middle of this size range with their often bright red "waxy" bills. Tail size is also quite variable, ranging from the long central tail feathers of the grassfinches (Poephila spp.) to the unusually short tail of the quailfinches.

Distribution

The family Estrildidae is an Old World family with a natural distribution around and south of the equator in the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australasian biogeographic regions. Most species within this family can be found in Africa. The negro-finches and flowerpecker weaver-finches can be found in equatorial east central Africa. The olive-backs have very small, often patchily distributed ranges within central Africa. The other Africa-endemic groups have more diversified ranges. These include the pytilias, the multiple genera of twinspots, the crimson-wings, the seedcrackers, the bluebills, the firefinches, the waxbills, the quailfinches, the cordon-bleus (Uraeginthus spp.), and the two species in the genus Amadina. The munias and mannikins have radiated throughout Africa, including Madagascar, across southern Asia, and into Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia, and surrounding islands. The parrotfinches are concentrated in Southeast Asia throughout its many islands as well as the mainland. Some species have a very limited range sometimes consisting of only a single island, a major disadvantage to the conservation of a species when a threat to its population arises. Australia, like Africa, has its own set of endemic estrildid groups. These include the grassfinches, the firetails, the two species within Neochmia, as well as the monotypic genera Chloebia and Aidemosyne. Introduced populations of several estrildid species have been established throughout the world from either intentional releases or from escaped captive birds.

Habitat

Most weaverfinches live in grass or bush steppes, savannas, and open dry area forests. A few have penetrated deserts and semi-deserts, particularly in South Africa and central Australia. Others resumed their family's apparent earlier position as true forest dwellers, particularly in western and central Africa, southeastern Asia, and the Indo-Australian insular area. Recently, several species have become closely linked with man and have moved into fields and gardens, some even into city parks. The red-billed firefinch (Lagonosticta senegala) comes into native huts in its search for food. Zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) and crimson finches (Neochmia phaeton) breed on and in buildings.

Behavior

In recent years the display behavior of weaverfinches has been studied with particular intensity. The bond between members of a pair, and sometimes among members of a small flock, is usually strong. Unlike in many groups of birds, male weaverfinches do not feed the female as part of a courtship ritual. In most species the male has a "display dance" in which it sings and either hops towards the female or performs characteristic bows or stretching movements while hopping about in front of the female. Many avadavats (Amandava spp.) and some Australian grassfinches hold a feather or a grass stalk in the bill during this display, apparently as a nest symbol. The

female weaverfinch's way of indicating readiness for mating is unique among songbirds. She cowers on a branch and trembles her tail, which is held vertically while the wings are kept still. In contrast, other songbird females tremble their wings and keep the tail quite still.

The song of weaverfinches is often soft and sometimes inaudible to human ears. This may, in part, be due to the fact that weaverfinches do not use songs to indicate aggression or territoriality, and therefore do not need their song to be heard by neighbors. An often unmusical and short song is uttered just loud enough for a nearby female to hear as part of the male's courtship. Unlike other vocalizations, the song is not instinctual. Instead, it is learned during a very narrow window during development of the fledgling (25 to 35 days of age for the zebra finch). Captive birds raised by a different species often learn the song of the male foster parent, but not the other calls. However, they can learn the meaning of the foster parents' calls and will often respond with the corresponding call from their own repertoire.

Feeding ecology and diet

The predominant food of weaverfinches is half-ripe and ripe grass seeds. Particularly in the breeding season many also take arthropods. They are attracted by nuptial swarms of ants and termites at the beginning of the rainy season and they pick the insects up from the ground or sally after them like flycatchers in a short fluttering flight. Some Australian weaverfinches have developed a manner of drinking which is evidently unique among passerine birds and occurs outside this order in only a few groups of birds. They suck in the water like pigeons, immersing the bill almost up to its base. This behavior has evolved independently several times in birds of arid areas probably because the birds are exposed to danger at the water holes. By sucking up the water they can reduce the time required to stock up with fluid.

Reproductive biology

Estrildid nests are always roofed over and are, as a rule, almost spherical with a diameter of about 4–8 in (10–20 cm). Many species attach a long entry tube to the nest, but this, in contrast to many weaver nests, never hangs down vertically. Usually both partners participate in nest building. Males mainly gather the nesting material and the females build with it. Most species use fresh or dry grass stalks and many line the nest cup with feathers or other soft materials. In many cases nests are built outside the breeding season as well and

these are used for roosting. In many species a whole group of birds use such sleeping nests together. Nests are usually placed in bushes or low trees. Some species nest on the ground, while others suspend their nests between grass stalks or reeds or nest in tree holes.

The clutch usually consists of four to six eggs, with rare cases of up to nine. Both sexes incubate eggs and brood young. In the daytime they relieve one another at approximately equal intervals of about one and a half hours, while at night both sexes in many species sit together in the nest. The male, when appearing for relief at the nest, often brings as a "present" a bit of grass or feather. The incubation period is 12–16 days. Young receive mainly half-ripe seeds. Parents regurgitate these in small portions from the crop and push the food into the young bird's gape. The nestling with wide open bill grabs the adult's bill about the angles. The begging posture of the young is also unique among passerines. They do not stretch the head and neck towards the parents, but lay the neck flat on the nest floor, turning only the gape upwards. The chick's bill is wide open, displaying the characteristic pattern inside the mouth and the head is moved from side to side and turned in a lively manner. There are no trembling wing movements so characteristic in other food-begging young birds. This begging posture is retained after leaving the nest. The nestling period lasts about three weeks, which is surprisingly long for such small birds. Even after fledging, the young have not definitely left the nest, for the parents guide them back to it for sleeping and, at first, even for feeding. Young remain dependent on the parents for food for one or two weeks after fledging.

Some species of weaverfinches serve as brood hosts for the whydahs and indigobirds (Vidua spp.). Each parasitic species has a corresponding estrildid host species with which it shares many similarities including juvenal plumage as well as the characteristic species-specific mouth markings. This result of convergent evolution is used to fool the host species into accepting their "adopted" charges. The similarities between the groups have even fooled ornithologists in the past to place them within the same family. The whydahs and indigobirds are now rightly placed in family Ploceidae with the weavers, their true relatives.

Conservation status

According to the IUCN, the family Estrildidae contains six species which are considered Near Threatened, eight which are Vulnerable, and two that have reached the status of Endangered. The reason for the decline in most of these species' numbers is multifactorial. Several species, including the green avadavat (Amandava formosa), the green-faced parrotfinch (Erythrura viridifacies), and the Timor sparrow (Padda fuscata), which are all listed as Vulnerable, have suffered from habitat loss and modification in addition to trapping for the pet trade. Early and strict laws governing the exportation of Australian fauna have nearly eliminated the threat of trapping for the pet trade on that continent. However, habitat modifications in the form of fragmentation, overgrazing by cattle, and widespread burning have affected the populations of the star finch (Neochmia ruficauda), the diamond firetail (Stagonopleura guttata), and the Endangered gouldian finch in Australia. Having a range that is limited only to a small island or two means that a threat to an already decreased population can have major consequences. This has been the case for several parrotfinches including the royal parrotfinch (Erythrura regia), considered by some ornithologists to be a subspecies of the red-headed parrotfinch (Erythrura cyaneovirens). This species has felt the impact of logging and cattle grazing in its native range of Vanuatu and Banks islands. However, the Java sparrow, another island denizen with a small population, is gradually succumbing to the combined effects of trapping for the pet trade, killing, and egg-robbing because of their effects on

rice crops, and hunting for food. Population numbers are not the only factors considered when classifying the conservation status of a species, however. Population trends play a major role as well. This is well illustrated by comparing the Anambra waxbill (Estrilda poliopareia) and the pink-billed parrotfinch (Erythrura kleinschmidti), both of which have populations fewer than 1,000 individuals. The former's population is stable and it is therefore classified as Vulnerable whereas the latter's population is declining, earning it an Endangered status.

Significance to humans

Weaverfinches, in contrast to many other songbirds, have neither long nor very attractive songs, and only on a few rare circumstances when they are handfed do they become tame. Nevertheless, they have, throughout the history of aviculture, been among the most popular and frequent pet and aviary birds. Several species such as the Java sparrow, the zebra finch, and the gouldian finch have reached the status of domesticated species, a rare title among birds kept as pets. The Bengalese or society finch has never occurred in the wild. Instead, it is a form of the white-backed munia (Lonchura striata) that was domesticated in the Far East during the early 1700s or even earlier. The deficiencies of weaverfinches are balanced in most species by attractive colors and patterns. They are lively, sociable, in most cases peaceable, and not demanding in their maintenance. They are particularly suitable for large aviaries where a mixed group of different species and colors can often be kept harmoniously. If planting within the aviary and feeding are suitable, breeding can usually be expected once the pair becomes established.

In contrast to their pet quality, some estrildids, namely the munias and mannikins, can have a devastating impact on agricultural crops such as rice. This often leads to their widespread persecution. Hunting of the pests becomes a sport and children are sometimes hired to collect eggs from nests. Some species, such as the Java sparrow, are also hunted for food, while others, like the spotted munia (Lonchura punctulata), are collected for religious purposes.

Species accounts

List of Species

Red-fronted flowerpecker weaver-finch

Parmoptila rubrifrons

subfamily

Estrildinae

taxonomy

Pholidornis rubrifrons Sharpe and Ussher, 1872

other common names

English: Jameson's antpecker, red-fronted antpecker; French: Parmoptile à front rouge; German: Ameisenpicker; Spanish: Pinzón Hormiguero de Jameson.

physical characteristics

3.9–4.3 in (10–11 cm). Similar to warblers, with which they were previously classified. Sexually dimorphic with males having a red forehead and cinnamon-brown underparts; females lack the red forehead and have spotted underparts. Juveniles are similar to adult males but lack the red forehead.

distribution

Two populations: one in Liberia and southwestern Côte d'Ivoire and one in northern Democratic Republic of Congo, eastern Congo, and western Uganda.

habitat

Inhabits forest edges and scrub, usually low to the ground.

behavior

Found at mid-level or near the ground in pairs, small groups, or sometimes mixed-species groups. The voice of this secretive species has not been recorded.

feeding ecology and diet

A longer more slender bill than that of most estrildids reflects this species' more insectivorous diet of mostly ants, including their larvae and pupae. This species, along with the closelyrelated flowerpecker weaver-finch (Parmoptila woodhousei), possesses a brush-like tongue which is believed to be an adaptation to a diet of ants. When searching for food, this species examines both live and dead leaves.

reproductive biology

As for negro-finches, the nesting behavior and the nestlings' mouth patterns of P. woodhousei are what convinced taxonomists that the flower-peckers are indeed estrildids, albeit aberrant examples. However, the nest and nestlings of P. rubrifrons have not been found or described.

conservation status

CITES: Appendix III. Not considered threatened by the IUCN.

significance to humans

None known.

White-breasted negro-finch

Nigrita fusconota

subfamily

Estrildinae

taxonomy

Nigrita fusconotus Fraser, 1843.

other common names

French: Nigrette à ventre blanc; German: Weißbrustmantelschwärzling; Spanish: Negrita Pechiblanca.

physical characteristics

3.9 in (10 cm). Sexes similar with females sometimes having slightly paler underparts with less gray. Juveniles are duller than adults and have a dark brown rump and tail compared to the adults' blue-black rump and tail.

distribution

Guinea and Sierra Leone, east to western Kenya, and south to northern Angola.

habitat

Occurs in secondary growth, cleared areas, forest edges, and gallery forest.

behavior

Found singly, in pairs, or in small groups. The song is described as a descending, trilling "tz-tz-tz-tz-tzeeee" sometimes ending with a few "tsip" or "chip" notes. Males sing from April to October both from a high perch in a tree and while feeding.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds at varying heights of shrubs and trees; rarely seen on the ground. Unlike most estrildids, negro-finches forage by searching leaves in a warbler-like fashion. Their diet consists

of small insects, caterpillars, berries and other small fruits, the oily cases of oil palm nuts, and small seeds. The bill, which is more slender than most estrildids, is probably an adaptation for this species' increased insectivorous portion of the diet.

reproductive biology

The mouth patterns of nestlings and the nest, a sphere with a side entrance, are some of the only features that associate this species with the family Estrildidae. Nesting material includes bark strips, leaf fibers, dry grass, and moss. A clutch is typically three to six white eggs.

conservation status

CITES: Appendix III. Not considered threatened by the IUCN.

significance to humans

Likely due to the lack of bright coloration and to the more insectivorous diet, this species has failed to become popular in the pet trade.

Green-winged pytilia

Pytilia melba

subfamily

Estrildinae

taxonomy

Fringilla melba Linnaeus, 1758.

other common names

English: Melba finch, melba waxbill; French: Beaumarquet melba; German: Buntastrild; Spanish: Pinzón Melba.

physical characteristics

4.7–5.1 in (12–13 cm). Sexually dimorphic with females lacking red on the head. Juveniles resemble a duller version of the female.

distribution

Senegal east across northern Nigeria and southern Niger to Ethiopia and Somalia, south through Tanzania to northern South Africa.

habitat

Prefers dry, open areas including semi-desert, thorn scrub, acacia woodland, grassland, savanna, and cultivated areas.

behavior

Found either singly or in pairs except at watering holes where small flocks might temporarily congregate. The call is a "seeeh," "wick" or "wit" note. The song, which is sometimes lengthy, is a series of whistles and trills interspersed with "kwik" notes.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on the ground eating mainly grass seeds and termites, although other seeds and insects are probably eaten.

reproductive biology

The nest is usually round or dome-shaped and built of grass and lined with feathers. Three to six white eggs are laid and incubated for 12–13 days. The breeding season lasts from November to June, peaking after the heaviest rains. Nests are often parasitized by the paradise whydah (Vidua paradisaea).

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Kept in aviculture where it proves to be a challenge to breed, requiring a variety of insects in the diet. In captivity males defend a territory against conspecific individuals as well as any bird showing red coloration on the head.

Crimson seedcracker

Pyrenestes sanguineus

subfamily

Estrildinae

taxonomy

Pirenestes sanguineus Swainson, 1837.

other common names

French: Pyréneste gros-bec; German: Karmesinastrild; Spanish: Pinzón Casca Nueces Rojo.

physical characteristics

5.1–5.5 in (13–14 cm). Sexes differ slightly. Males have a red head, nape, breast, and flanks. Females lack red on the flanks and are duller on the nape and breast. Juveniles lack red except on the rump and tail.

distribution

Southern Côte d'Ivoire to southern Senegal.

habitat

Prefers wet habitats including marsh, flooded rice fields, swamps, and undergrowth near water.

behavior

This shy species is found in pairs or small groups. The call is a sharp "zeet," while the song is described as a melodious warble, sometimes given during flight.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on or near the ground. Their diet is poorly understood, but, based in part on bill morphology, is presumed to be mostly seeds, especially those with hard coverings.

reproductive biology

Three to four white eggs are incubated for 16 days. The few nests described were composed mostly of reeds.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

In the past, this species could be sporadically found in zoos and aviaries, but it has failed to become established in aviculture.

Peters' twinspot

Hypargos niveoguttatus

subfamily

Estrildinae

taxonomy

Spermophaga niveoguttata Peters, 1868.

other common names

English: Red-throated twinspot, Peters' spotted firefinch; French: Sénégali enflammé; German: Tropfenastrild; Spanish: Pinzón Dos Puntos de Peter.

physical characteristics

4.7–5.1 in (12–13 cm). Sexually dimorphic; females lack the male's bright red face and breast. Juveniles similar to females but lack white spots on flanks and underparts.

distribution

Southern Somalia, south to northeastern South Africa, west to east-central Angola.

habitat

Found in grass or the undergrowth of habitats including grassland, evergreen thicket, forest edges, and other brushy cover often near water.

behavior

Usually found in pairs or small groups. This species is quiet and shy, but may give a "tseet" note. Its song is an insect-like trill.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on the ground, usually near cover, on a variety of seeds. A small part of the diet consists of insects.

reproductive biology

The spherical nest, usually composed of grass and other plant fibers, is built on the ground or low in a shrub. Three to six white eggs are incubated for 12–13 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

This species often becomes tolerant of humans and can frequently be found near human settlements. The ease by which they become adapted to human contact makes them likely aviary subjects.

Jameson's firefinch

Lagonosticta rhodopareia

subfamily

Estrildinae

taxonomy

Estrelda rhodopareia Heuglin, 1868.

other common names

English: Pink-backed firefinch; French: Amarante de Jameson; German: Rosenamarant; Spanish: Pinzón Candela de Jameson.

physical characteristics

3.9–4.3 in (10–11 cm). Sexually dimorphic; males bright red on head, breast, and underparts; females light brown except for bright red lores. Juveniles similar to females but lack red lores.

distribution

Central Ethiopia south to Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Zambia. Discontinuous populations in western Angola and in southwestern Chad.

habitat

Occurs in areas containing both low cover and ample grass including grassland, thicket, forest edges, bracken-briar, and thorn scrub.

behavior

Found in pairs or small groups. The call is a "ti-ti-ti-ti-ti" or a softer "tsit, tsit." The song is a melodious "we-we-we-we-we" or "weet-weet-weet-weet" with a whistling "feeeee" repeated several times.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on or near the ground on seeds of grasses and other plants, and occasionally on small invertebrates.

reproductive biology

The breeding period is at the end of the rainy season and the beginning of the dry season. The round nest is built by the male in small shrubs and made of grasses, rootlets, and other plant fibers. This species is the breeding host of the purple indigobird (Vidua purpurascens).

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

This species has occasionally been kept in aviculture, but never in great numbers.

Red-cheeked cordon-bleu

Uraeginthus bengalus

subfamily

Estrildinae

taxonomy

Fringilla bengalus Linnaeus, 1766.

other common names

English: Cordon-bleu, red-cheeked blue waxbill; French: Cordonbleu à joues rouges; German: Schmetterlingsastrild; Spanish: Coliazul Bengalí.

physical characteristics

4.9–5.1 in (12.5–13 cm). Sexually dimorphic; male has a red spot on cheeks, a pink bill, light brown or pink-brown legs; female lacks red spots on cheeks, feathers are paler than for the male. Juveniles lack blue on flanks and have a darker bill.

distribution

Southern Mauritania, east to Ethiopia, south to northern Zambia. An introduced population exists in Hawaii.

habitat

Occurs in grassland, savanna, thorn scrub, dry woodland, forest edges and clearings, gardens and villages, roadsides, and cultivated areas.

behavior

Found in pairs or small flocks during the breeding season. Otherwise, this species can gather in large sometimes mixed-species flocks. The call is a "tsee-tsee-tsee." The song is a "te tchee-wa-tcheee" or a "ssee-deedelee-deedelee-ssee-see."

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on the ground on a variety of seeds and insects, including termites which are occasionally caught in flight.

reproductive biology

Uses old Ploceus weaver nests or builds its own round nest of grass several meters off the ground. Three to six white eggs are incubated for 11 days.

conservation status

CITES: Appendix III. Not considered threatened by the IUCN.

significance to humans

This species becomes accustomed to humans and can be found in villages and gardens. It is also a commonly kept and bred aviary bird.

Common waxbill

Estrilda astrild

subfamily

Estrildinae

taxonomy

Loxia astrild Linnaeus, 1758.

other common names

English: St. Helena waxbill, barred waxbill, brown waxbill, pheasant finch; French: Astrild ondulé; German: Wellenastrild; Spanish: Astrilda Común.

physical characteristics

4.3–5.1 in (11–13 cm). Sexes are alike. Juveniles are paler than adults and have fainter barring.

distribution

Found naturally in southern Senegal, east to Ethiopia, south to South Africa, essentially throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa. Has been introduced in Brazil, Portugal, and many islands throughout the world including Hawaii, Tahiti, the Seychelles, Bermuda, and Puerto Rico.

habitat

Prefers areas with tall grass including marsh, reed beds, abandoned cultivated areas, gardens, grassy clearings or paths, and farms or plantations.

behavior

Being highly gregarious, this species is found in small flocks during the breeding season and larger flocks when not breeding. Calls include a "chip," "tchic," and "pit" while the song is described as a "tcher-tcher-preee," although it can be highly variable.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds mainly on a diversity of seeds taken both from growing plants and off the ground. Swarming termites as well as other insects make up a small portion of the diet.

reproductive biology

Builds a pear-shaped nest of grass stems at or near the ground. Four to six white eggs are incubated for 11–12 days. This species is the brood host for the pin-tailed whydah (Vidua macroura).

conservation status

CITES: Appendix III. Not threatened according to IUCN criteria

significance to humans

Commonly kept in captivity, this species has been bred in aviaries and cages and is readily offered for beginning aviculturists.

Red avadavat

Amandava amandava

subfamily

Estrildinae

taxonomy

Fringilla amandava Linnaeus, 1758.

other common names

English: Red munia, avadavat, strawberry finch, tiger finch; French: Bengali rouge; German: Tigerfink; Spanish: Bengalí Rojo.

physical characteristics

3.9 in (10 cm). Sexually dimorphic; females have less extensive spotting and red. Juveniles similar to females but have a darker

bill. Males are unique among estrildids due to their non– breeding or eclipse plumage with which they look more like the females.

distribution

Eastern Pakistan through India into Burma and south-central China with populations in southern Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam and on Java. Introduced populations in Japan, Hawaii, Fiji, the Philippines, Malaysia, Sumatra, Saudi Arabia, and Puerto Rico.

habitat

Occurs in grassy areas including marsh, cane fields, jungle clearings, open woodland, reed beds, edges of cultivated or inhabited areas, and gardens.

behavior

In pairs or small flocks except in winter when flocks may reach 100 or more birds. The call, given when perched or in flight, is a "tee" or "tsi" but can be quite variable. The song is a weak, but melodious warble. Females also give a shorter version of the song, although they utter it less frequently than do males.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds in vegetation and on the ground on a variety of grass seeds. Observations of captive birds suggest that a small quantity of insects is also consumed.

reproductive biology

Nests are placed on or near the ground and are composed of grass blades and stems as well as other plant matter. A nest is lined with soft materials such as feathers, vegetable down, and fine grass. Four to six white eggs are incubated for 11–12 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

This species is a popular cage bird that has been kept and bred in captivity for many years. In the pet trade, it is better known as the strawberry finch.

African quailfinch

Ortygospiza atricollis

subfamily

Estrildinae

taxonomy

Fringilla atricollis Vieillot, 1817.

other common names

English: Quailfinch, ground finch, partridge finch; French: Astrild-caille à lunettes; German: Wachtelastrild; Spanish: Astrilda Aperdizada.

physical characteristics

3.7–3.9 in (9.5–10 cm). A short tail and lark-like legs are indicative of this species' terrestrial nature. Sexes slightly differ; males have a black face and brown breast. Females are lighter in these areas. Juveniles similar to the female but have fainter barring and a darker bill.

distribution

Senegal east to western Cameroon. Southern Sudan to Angola and south to South Africa.

habitat

Found in open areas with patchy grass growth, often near water, including sandy grassland, marsh, farms and croplands, and recently mowed areas.

behavior

This shy species spends almost all of its time on the ground in pairs or small flocks, being seen only when flushed, one of the few reasons it ever takes flight. The call is a metallic "trillink" or "chwillink" while the song is a series of "click, clack, cluck" notes delivered rapidly and repeatedly.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on small grass seeds and on occasional spiders or insects.

reproductive biology

A dome-shaped nest of grass stems and blades is built on the ground. Four to six white eggs are incubated by both parents.

conservation status

CITES: Appendix III. Not considered threatened by the IUCN.

significance to humans

Has appeared in aviculture in very low numbers in the past, but is not a popular aviary subject, probably due to its shy and flighty disposition.

Diamond firetail

Stagonopleura guttata or Emblema guttata

subfamily

Poephilinae

taxonomy

Loxia guttata Shaw, 1796.

other common names

English: Diamond sparrow, diamond Java sparrow, spottedsided finch; French: Diamant à gouttelettes; German: Diamantamadine; Spanish: Pinzón Cola de Fuego Diamante.

physical characteristics

4.7 in (12 cm). The adult male is brown, above and including wings; rump and upper tail coverts are bright crimson, tail feathers black; forehead, crown of head, and hind neck ashy gray; lores black; throat white; sides of foreneck and flanks black, with some feathers having a subterminal white spot; breast, abdomen, and undertail-coverts white; bill vinous red; legs and feet dark gray; iris red. The adult female is very similar but usually smaller, with a narrower black band on foreneck, and paler lores.

distribution

East-central and southeastern Australia.

habitat

Inhabits savanna woodland, eucalypt forests, acacia scrub, mallee, orchards, cultivated areas, and parks and gardens.

behavior

Found in pairs or small, often mixed-species flocks. The contact call is a "twooo-heee" while the alarm call is a loud "tay tay tay." The song is described as a series of low-pitched rasping and buzzing notes. Roosts in specially built nests similar to those used for rearing young, but lacking an entrance tube and lining.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on the ground where it characteristically hops in search of a variety of seeds and insects.

reproductive biology

The breeding season is from August to January during which this species builds a grass nest with an entrance tube up to 6 in (15 cm) long. The nest is lined with fine grasses and feathers in which four to six white eggs are laid. The nest is sometimes built under or near those of raptors.

conservation status

Near Threatened. The decline in numbers is thought to be due to alterations of the natural habitat.

significance to humans

This species is the only firetail commonly kept in zoos.

Zebra finch

Taeniopygia guttata

subfamily

Poephilinae

taxonomy

Fringilla guttata Vieillot, 1817.

other common names

English: Spotted-sided finch, chestnut-eared finch; French: Diamant mandarin; German: Zebrafink; Spanish: Pinzón Zebra.

physical characteristics

3.9 in (10 cm). Sexually dimorphic; females lack the orange cheek patch and the white-spotted chestnut flanks found in adult males. Juveniles similar to females but have a dark bill.

distribution

Throughout most of the interior of Australia and parts of Indonesia.

habitat

Inhabits a wide variety of habitats but prefers open areas such as plains, savanna, woodland, mulga scrub, grassland, saltmarshes,

cultivated areas and farmlands, orchards, and inhabited areas and gardens. Water can always be found nearby.

behavior

A highly gregarious species, the zebra finch can be found in pairs or, more often, large flocks. The call is a "tya" or "tchee." The song, given by displaying males, is a mixture of trills and nasal notes.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on the ground on a variety of grass seeds and shoots. The ability to go long periods without water (up to 513 days in one study) and the pigeon-like manner of drinking has allowed this species to survive long periods of drought.

reproductive biology

Round nests made of variable materials are either built new or made by renovating roosting nests or other species' nests. Three to eight white eggs are incubated for 11–15 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

This species is the most commonly kept and studied estrildid and probably ranks in the top five of most commonly kept birds. Kept since the mid to late 1800s, this species has become domesticated with as many as 30 separate mutations and many combinations thereof developed. Strains developed in Germany and England are several times larger than the wild birds.

Double-barred finch

Taeniopygia bichenovii

subfamily

Poephilinae

taxonomy

Fringilla bichenovii Vigors and Horsfield, 1827.

other common names

English: Bicheno finch, owl finch, owl-faced finch, banded finch, ringed finch, black-ringed finch; French: Diamant de Bichenov; German: Ringelastrild; Spanish: Pinzón de Dos Barras.

physical characteristics

3.9–4.3 in (10–11 cm). Sexes alike. Juveniles are a paler version of adults. The double-barred finch is brown with white spots on the upper wings. The underparts and face are cream, with the face surrounded by a black ring. There is another black bar across the lower breast.

distribution

Northern and eastern Australia.

habitat

Inhabits dry, open areas including grass plains, open woodland, forest edges, cane fields, inhabited and cultivated areas, and parks and gardens.

behavior

Found in small flocks during the breeding season and in larger flocks when not breeding. Roosts communally in specially built nests. The call is a "tat, tat" or a "tiaat, tiaat." The song is a softer version of that of the zebra finch.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds among grasses and on the ground where it consumes a variety of seeds and undoubtedly a small quantity of insects. This species drinks in a pigeon-like manner.

reproductive biology

Breeds year-round with three to six white eggs laid. Builds an almost spherical nest of dry grass stems or uses old nests of other species.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Commonly kept and bred in captivity where it is known as the owl finch.

Pin-tailed parrotfinch

Erythrura prasina

subfamily

Erythrurinae

taxonomy

Loxia prasina Sparrman, 1788.

other common names

English: Pin-tailed nonpareil, long-tailed munia; French: Diamant quadricolore; German: Lauchgrüne papageiamadine; Spanish: Pinzón Loro de Cola Aguda.

physical characteristics

Male: 5.9 in (15 cm); female: 4.5–4.7 in (11.5–12 cm). Sexually dimorphic. Males have a longer tail, a blue face, and red rump,

tail, and belly. A yellow variant exists where the red is replaced with yellow. Females have less blue on the face, shorter tail, and a lack of red on the belly or breast. Juveniles resemble females but have a yellowish lower bill.

distribution

Laos south to Borneo and Sumatra.

habitat

Found in forest edges, secondary growth, rice fields, and bamboo.

behavior

Usually found in small flocks, but larger flocks can form especially in rice fields. The call is a "tseet-tseet" or "tsit-tsit" while the song is described as a series of clinking, crackling, and chirping.

feeding ecology and diet

This species has only been observed feeding on rice or bamboo seed heads in the wild, but in captivity it takes a diversity of seeds as well as leafy green vegetables.

reproductive biology

The round nest is built at variable heights and is made of bamboo blades and other plant fibers. Four to six white eggs are incubated 12–14 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

In Borneo, this species is a major pest on rice crops. Due to the bright coloration, this and other parrotfinch species are popular aviary subjects.

Pink-billed parrotfinch

Erythrura kleinschmidti

subfamily

Erythrurinae

taxonomy

Amblynura kleinschmidti Finsch, 1878.

other common names

English: Black-faced parrotfinch; French: Diamant à bec rose; German: Schwarzstirn-papageiamadine; Spanish: Pinzón Loro de Pico Rojo.

physical characteristics

4.3 in (11 cm). Sexes alike. Unusually shaped bill. They have a strikingly pale 1.5 cm bill. Black head color changing to blue. At the base of the bill the black is replaced by yellow-green up to the ear. The back is green, the upper tail coverts are red and the tail is black. They have pale feet and dark eyes. Juveniles have a dark-tipped bill.

distribution

Found only on Viti Levu, Fiji.

habitat

Found in mature rainforests and sometimes in cocoa plantations.

behavior

Found alone, in pairs, or in small family flocks, but may join mixed-species flocks when feeding. The call is a "tsee-tsee" or "chee-chee-chee." A formal song is not described but this species also utters a clicking sound.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on the ground and in trees on figs and other fruit, flower buds, and on diverse invertebrates. The unusually shaped bill is probably an adaptation for its insect-seeking methods whereby it cracks open dead stems of tree-ferns.

reproductive biology

Nests are made of bamboo, leaves, and small twigs and lichens.

conservation status

Endangered. The replacing of native trees in Fiji with those of non-native conifers for forestry is thought to be a major factor in the decline of this species.

significance to humans

None known.

Gouldian finch

Chloebia gouldiae

subfamily

Erythrurinae

taxonomy

Amadina gouldiae Gould, 1844.

other common names

English: Rainbow finch, painted finch, lady Gould, purple-breasted finch; French: Diamant de Gould; German: Gouldamadine; Spanish: Pinzón de Gould.

physical characteristics

4.9–5.5 in (12.5–14 cm). The most brightly colored estrildid, this species is sexually dimorphic; females have a shorter tail and a paler breast. Juveniles are a duller, paler version of the adults. Black-headed, red-headed, and yellow-headed varieties exist naturally in the wild. The black-headed is the common morph (75% of the population) while only one in several thousand is of the yellow-headed variety.

distribution

Fragmented areas in north-central Australia.

habitat

Found in dry grassland, plains, areas near water, forest edges, scrubland, and savanna woodland.

behavior

Found in flocks of up to several hundred individuals. This shy species tends to avoid areas inhabited by humans. The call is a "sit," "ssit-ssit," or a "sree." The song is a very soft, almost inaudible series of whispers, hisses, whinings, and clicks.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds among grasses on a variety of seeds, especially those of sorghum, and on diverse insects and spiders, especially during the breeding season. Drinks in a pigeon-like manner.

reproductive biology

Breeds from November to April during which it builds a globular nest without an entrance tube and sometimes without a roof. Occasionally this species will also use holes in trees or termite mounds as a nesting site. Four to seven white eggs are incubated for 14–15 days.

conservation status

Endangered. The decrease in numbers is thought to be due to widespread burning of grasses and increase in grazing within its native range.

significance to humans

Commonly kept and bred in captivity where young are often fostered by Bengalese or society finches, a domesticated form of the white-backed munia (Lonchura striata). In captivity this species has an unusually high predisposition to the air sac mite (Sternostoma tracheacolum).

African silverbill

Lonchura cantans

subfamily

Lonchurinae

taxonomy

Loxia cantans Gmelin, 1789.

other common names

English: Warbling silverbill, black-rumped silverbill, silverbill; French: Capucin bec-d'argent; German: Silberschnäbelchen; Spanish: Monjita Pico-de-plata.

physical characteristics

3.9–4.5 in (10–11.5 cm). Sexes indistinguishable; brown, belly white, rump and tail black. Juveniles have slightly paler underparts.

distribution

Southern Mauritania, east to Eritrea, south to northeastern Tanzania. Two Asian populations, one in southern Saudi Arabia and western Yemen, and one in southern Oman. Introduced populations are established in Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

habitat

Can be found in dry savanna, thorn scrub, acacia woodland, semi-desert, and inhabited or cultivated areas, usually near a water source.

behavior

This highly social species can be found in large, often dense, flocks. The call note is a sharp "cheep" or "tseep" while the

song is a series of rising and falling trills for which it is sometimes called the warbling silverbill.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on grass seeds picked from the growing plant or off the ground. Although it has been reported to eat aphids, insects are not a major part of its diet. This has been supported by captive birds, which rear their young solely on vegetable matter.

reproductive biology

Uses old weaver nests or sometimes builds a round nest of grass where three to six white eggs are incubated for 11–13 days.

conservation status

CITES: Appendix III. Not considered threatened by the IUCN.

significance to humans

Often found near human settlements, sometimes nesting in the eaves of houses. This species is commonly found in aviculture.

Spotted munia

Lonchura punctulata

subfamily

Lonchurinae

taxonomy

Loxia punctulata Linnaeus, 1758.

other common names

English: Scaly-breasted munia/mannikin/finch, barred munia, spice finch/bird, ricebird, nutmeg mannikin/finch, spotted mannikin, common munia; French: Capucin damier; German: Muskatamadine; Spanish: Capuchino Nutmeg.

physical characteristics

3.9–4.7 in (10–12 cm). Sexes alike with juveniles a paler brown and lacking the scaled pattern on the underparts.

distribution

India, southern China, and Southeast Asia including parts of Malaysia and Indonesia. Populations introduced in Australia, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Japan, and the Seychelles.

habitat

Inhabits open or semi-open habitats including cultivated and inhabited areas, parks and gardens, grassland, rice fields, and forest edges.

behavior

Found in large sometimes mixed-species flocks. The call is a repeated "kitty-kitty-kitty." The soft song is a "klik-klik-klik" followed by a series of whistles and ending with a "weeee," although it can be highly variable.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on grass seeds, including rice, both on the ground and on live plants. There are several reports of birds feeding on flattened roadkills, possibly as a source of minerals from bones. This species also feeds in human trash dumps taking scraps of bread and other food.

reproductive biology

As many as several hundred round nests of grass and bark can comprise a breeding colony. Three to seven white eggs are incubated for 14 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

This species is commonly kept and bred in captivity where it is known as the spice finch. Large numbers are caught for the pet trade, with no noticeable impact on population numbers except in Vietnam and Southeast Asia where the species is also caught in large numbers for human consumption and Buddhist religious purposes.

Java sparrow

Padda oryzivora

subfamily

Lonchurinae

taxonomy

Loxia oryzivora Linnaeus, 1758.

other common names

English: Ricebird, Java temple bird, Java finch, rice munia, paddy bird; French: Padda de Java; German: Reisfink; Spanish: Gorrión de Java.

physical characteristics

5.1–6.7 in (13–17 cm). Sexes alike. Upperparts are gray, the head and tail are black, the underparts are rosy, the cheeks are white, and the bill is bright pink to red. Young and immature Javas are dull brown and gray, with bill darker than that of adults.

distribution

Found naturally only on the island of Java. Introduced in many areas throughout the world including numerous south Pacific islands, southeast Asia, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Florida.

habitat

Found in open woodland, grassland and savanna, but more common in cultivated and inhabited areas.

behavior

Occurs in pairs or in small flocks, although large flocks usually gather in rice fields. The call is a "tchuk" while the song is a mixture of "diks," "tchuks," "wees," and clicks.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds in vegetation or on the ground on a variety of seeds, fruits, and small insects.

reproductive biology

Nest is built in tree holes or crevices in buildings. It is roundish in shape and composed of grass stems. Four to six white eggs are incubated for 13–14 days.

conservation status

CITES: Appendix II. IUCN considers this species Vulnerable. Causes of population decline in the native range include trapping of live birds for the pet trade, hunting for sport and food, and raiding of eggs from the nest to decrease their numbers and therefore their depredation of rice crops.

significance to humans

This species has long been kept in aviculture where it has been domesticated and where several color mutations have been developed. On its native island of Java, it is hunted for human consumption and persecuted for its impact on rice crops.

Red-headed finch

Amadina erythrocephala

subfamily

Lonchurinae

taxonomy

Loxia erythrocephala Linnaeus, 1758.

other common names

English: Red-headed weaverfinch; French: Amadine à tête rouge; German: Rotkopfamadine; Spanish: Capuchino de Cabeza Roja.

physical characteristics

4.7–5.1 in (12–13 cm). One of the more robust estrildids. The red-headed finch, as its name implies, has a bright, blood red head. Lores are buffish. The lower throat through the belly is marked with black and white scalloping with some chestnut feathers in the middle belly and then off-white in the lower belly areas. Females lack red on the head but may carry a few red feathers. Juveniles are a paler version of the female.

distribution

Southwestern Angola, east to western Mozambique, south to South Africa.

habitat

Inhabits semi-desert, savanna, dry grassland, thorn scrub, and the edges of cultivated and inhabited areas.

behavior

Found in small flocks. The call is a "chuk, chuk" or, while in flight, a "zree zree." The song is a series of soft buzzing notes.

feeding ecology and diet

This species both walks and hops as it feeds on the ground on a variety of seeds and insects.

reproductive biology

This species uses old nests of weavers (e.g. sociable weaver [Philetairus socius]) or sparrows, or sometimes holes in buildings. Three to eight white eggs are incubated for 12–14 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Occasionally kept in zoos and aviaries but not nearly as commonly as its relative the cut-throat finch (Amadina fasciata).

Resources

Books

Clement, P., A. Harris, and J. Davis. Finches and Sparrows. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.

Goodwin, D. Estrildid Finches of the World. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1982.

Pizzey, G. A Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980.

Restall, R. Munias and Mannikins. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997.

Simpson, K. and N. Day. The Princeton Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.

Zann, R. The Zebra Finch. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Zimmerman, D., D. Turner, and D. Pearson. Birds of Kenya and Northern Tanzania. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.

Periodicals

Stripling, R., A. Kruse, and D. Clayton. "Development of Song Responses in the Zebra Finch Caudomedial Neostriatum: Role of Genomic and Electrophysiological Activities." Journal of Neurobiology 48 (2001): 163-180.

Other

Birds Australia Nest. Birds Australia. 14 November 2001. <http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au/>.

2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. 14 November 2001. <http://www.redlist.org/>.

UNEP-WCMC Database. United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 20 November 2001. <http://www.unep-wcmc.org/>.

Joseph Allen Smith