Men's Movements

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Men's Movements

Men's movements are a collection of social, political, and philosophical organizations that seek to redefine men's relationship to their prescribed gender roles. Although male-centered organizations have existed throughout history, the organizations usually referred to as men's movements begin in the 1970s. They generally formed after second-wave feminist movements and sought to reform (or reassert) men's position in a society with new values. The earliest men's movements (those of the 1970s and 1980s) were largely profeminist, followed by a period of backlash agendas aimed at reclaiming rights that were thought to have been lost to women. From the 1990s onward, men's movements became highly formalized and aimed at niche groups with various interests, which makes it difficult to claim that men's movements as a whole share any particular ideology other than their general focus on men in society. The early profeminist movement was fairly small and had more female than male supporters, but as the focus turned away from supporting women toward male-focused agendas, overall participation has grown. Women are active in some organizations, although usually in small numbers, but many organizations either do not allow women as members or only allow them limited access to activities and trainings.

MYTHOPOETIC MOVEMENT

The most famous of the men's movements is the Mythopoetic Movement. It is based on the ideas of the U.S. poet Robert Bly (b. 1926), particularly those expressed in an interview he gave in 1982 published under the title "What Do Men Really Want? A New Age Interview with Robert Bly," and on Bly's 1990 publication Iron John: A Book about Men. In this book Bly relies heavily on mythology and religion scholar Joseph Campbell's (1904–1987) teachings about the archetypal nature of fairy tales, which he derived from Jungian analytical psychology. Bly used a fairy tale by the German linguists and folklorists brothers Jakob L.K. Grimm (1785–1863) and Wilhelm K. Grimm (1786–1859) called "Iron John" as a model for contemporary men and as a way of guiding men on a spiritual journey to reconnect with the deep masculine parts of themselves that modern society has hidden from them. It strives to reassert a primitive masculinity to allow men to deal with the pain of their lives and is thus a combination of essentialist and relativist gender constructions. The movement's basis in psychology shaped the application of its teachings: It kept away from overtly political issues related to men (which other movements focused on), and was concerned with the emotional, spiritual, and psychological well-being of men. The Iron John movement has several organizations, some more formal than others, associated with it, each with their own objectives. The general subjects of interest to the movement, however, are those traditionally associated with men: war, violence, the ability (or inability) to live up to ideals of masculinity, and how to be fathers to sons. Although members of the movement claim to be at least somewhat profeminist, the concept of the feminine and issues relating to women are usually excised from discussion or consideration.

The Mythopoetic Movement has often been ridiculed by people who claim that it prioritizes the emotional over the physical, thereby overturning masculine gender stereotypes. The movement does emphasize the emotional, but a devotee of the movement might claim that it seeks to reshape masculine gender roles rather than to overturn them. In fact, the physical is sometimes emphasized as a means of access to the emotional. Workshops and retreats often take place outdoors, and the stereotypical images of men beating drums and passing talking sticks are derived from this movement. The Mankind Project is an organization founded in 1984 based on ideas found in the Mythopoetic Movement. One of its programs is the New Warrior Training Adventure, a weekend retreat where men take part in the mythical hero's journey, described by Campbell, which resembles a tribal initiation rite. The retreats take place in wooded areas, and participants are required to leave behind cell phones, radios, and any other items that connect them with the outside world or provide comfort. The specific activities of these weekends remain secret, given that all participants are required to sign a confidentiality agreement, but sleep deprivation and physical exertion are highly rumored to be components. The financial structure of the organization, the secrecy of the weekend retreats, along with the setting, which critics claim is ideal for mind control activities, has caused many to label the organization a cult. Other activities of the Mankind Project include leadership training, mentoring of young men, veterans' assistance, and prison outreach. These programs stress the movement's ideas, but have come under much less scrutiny than the New Warrior Training Adventure.

PROMISE KEEPERS

The Promise Keepers is a Christian men's group founded by Bill McCartney (b. 1940) in 1990. Like the concept of Muscular Christianity promoted by the evangelist and one-time professional baseball player Billy Sunday (1862–1935) in response to first-wave feminism, Promise Keepers seeks to reassert the male as the head of the family, to whom women should willingly submit. In return for his wife's submission, the husband will lead the family in a gentle and loving way based on the model of Jesus Christ. They actively seek to overturn what they call the sissified status of men in the late twentieth century, including reimagining Jesus as a warrior figure. It is an antifeminist movement that seeks to reassert essentialist views of gender and to promote a conservative Christian agenda. As with most men's movements, it has a primarily white, middle-class membership. It has actively engaged in outreach to other racial groups, however, and attempts to overcome racial barriers between men as one of its goals. Promise Keepers functions through a series of events held in stadiums and sports arenas, at times attracting more than 100,000 men to a single event. The organization's membership peaked in October 1997 with a nationally televised event on the National Mall in Washington, DC, that attracted more than a million participants. Financial difficulties following the rally caused the organization to become volunteer run instead of having a paid staff, and admission costs to Promise Keepers events increased sharply in an effort to raise money. The change in organizational model and the increased expense are credited with the decline in popularity of the organization.

MILLION MAN MARCH

The Million Man March is unusual among men's movements in that it has a primarily nonwhite membership. The organization is devoted to a broad slate of social and economic justice goals centering on the African-American community. Since its inception the organization has been divided between those who wish to use the Million Man March events as a platform to demand redress of past racial injustice, and those who look to the African-American man as a catalyst for future change within their community. The second formulation is the more popularly promoted one and the one that most members claim to be in favor of. As with many of the other movement groups, the Million Man March encourages members to look to themselves, and specifically their role as men, to promote change and prosperity in the African-American community. One particularly large focus has been on the issue of fatherhood, as the African-American community has a higher percentage of out-of-wedlock births and children raised by single mothers than the national average. The Million Man March tries to work through black men to help other black men be responsible members of their families and their communities. The movement began as an event, with the hope of drawing 1 million African-American men to the National Mall in Washington, DC, on October 16, 1995 in an act of dedication to their communities. More than 800,000 men did participate that day, making it one of the largest rallies of its kind in history. Because it was originally an event, not an organization, the Million Man March suffered from a lack of direction following the march itself and has also been subject to its internal factional tensions. Although no other march of the size of the original has been held, regional marches are held periodically across the United States.