ROYAL SOCIETY

Dating itself from 1660, the Royal Society of London originated with informal gatherings that began fifteen years earlier and then received its Royal Charter in 1662 as one of the first institutions devoted to the advancement of science. It has been the model for many scientific organizations formed since, not only in the United Kingdom but throughout the world. An independent charitable organization whose members have been selected for their eminence in the fields of science, technology, or medicine since the middle of the eighteenth century, the Royal Society was historically influential in establishing the processes of science and the scientific method as we understand them today.

Historical Impact

From the earliest days of the Society, religious or political affiliation was not a membership criterion. In principle, anyone could be a member; there was even a membership category for foreign nationals. In practice, however, the difficulties of travel kept many potential members from joining a group that met weekly in London, and membership fees were steep enough to exclude many others. In addition, lack of government financing spurred the Society to seek members from the upper social strata who presumably would be generous with their support. This may have inhibited lower-ranked individuals from joining a group that set a high social tone (Hunter 1982). Moreover, it has been suggested that the evolving criteria used for establishing scientific credibility deliberately excluded women and people of color (Harraway 1997). It was not until 1945 that the first woman was elected to the Fellowship. It was not until the tail end of the twentieth century that programs addressing diversity issues were put in place.

Henry Oldenburg (1615–1677), a man of German birth, was the first secretary of the Society (from 1660 to 1677), and as such became responsible for soliciting reports from around the world for publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, the oldest science journal still in publication. He was also instrumental in devising methods to secure works against plagiarism, a common problem of the day. These processes were precursors of contemporary notions of peer review and the credit due the first to publish a result. Moreover, in assessing the credibility of reports received, the Royal Society played a central role in establishing scientific norms for impartiality and absence of bias.

The inductive method as expressed by Francis Bacon (1561–1626) was the source of inspiration for many early members of the Society, including Robert Boyle (1627–1691) and Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727). Adherents to this method proceed by gathering facts through experimentation and observation and then using such collected facts to infer general relationships. Boyle, one of the founding members, was instrumental in defining the experimental method, developing procedures for conducting, validating, documenting, and interpreting experiments. Newton served from 1703 to 1727 as the twelfth president of the Royal Society, the first scientist to hold the title.

Given the lack of external funding and the consequent need to solicit membership from the aristocracy, it was not until the 1800s that membership became the province of professional scientists. During this timeframe the government increasingly looked to the Royal Society for advice on matters of science and technology—a relationship that continues into the twenty-first century. The Royal Society also became increasingly successful in gaining government support for scientific expeditions, particularly to the Arctic and Antarctic. In mid-century, the government initiated a yearly science research grant program, the funds of which were administered by the Royal Society.

This century also saw increasingly successful efforts by the Royal Society to influence the legislative process. One notable example was an effort to modify the proposed language of the Cruelty to Animals Act of 1876, which would have eliminated experiments using animals not directly related to "saving or prolonging human life, or alleviating human suffering." The bill in its original form would have absolutely prohibited the use of dogs or cats in research. As passed, the prohibition against experimentation on cats and dogs was removed and restrictions generally loosened, though a license and inspection process was put in place (Hall 1984).

Recent Impact

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the goals of the Society are to "push back the frontiers of knowledge and to improve the quality of life in Britain and globally" (Royal Society 2005). The Society continues to publish the Philosophical Transactions as well as other peer-reviewed science publications, and rewards achievement through induction of new Fellows and by bestowing medals and other awards to deserving individuals. The Society also acts as the United Kingdom's Academy of Science, providing scientific advice on science policy issues such as funding, and on public policy issues with a scientific or technical component such as cloning. It further represents UK science internationally. The Society continues to act as a funding agency, providing grant support to researchers as well as resources for science and math teachers.

ETHICS OF SCIENCE. The Royal Society does not have a written ethics policy, though the "quality of life" clause in the Society's mission statement could be taken for the beginnings of one. The statutes of the society allow for expelling a Fellow for conduct injurious to the character or interests of the Society.

During his 2004 Anniversary Address to the Society, Lord Robert May, its president, addressed the work the Society had done over the previous year in assessing scientific rules of conduct, specifically in regards to biological research. Among a variety of other issues, May noted his concerns about the peer review process, the unwillingness of some to consider other scientific views, and publication policies.

SCIENCE IN SOCIETY. In 1985, the Royal Society published a report on the public understanding of society that took the view that the general public did not know enough about science to make informed decisions and that more education was needed to correct this. However, given the negative reaction to the handling of science issues since then, including public concerns about genetically modified foods, the Society's approach to policy issues that affect the public has changed.

One outcome of this change was the establishment of a Science in Society program. This program has several components, one of which, the Dialogue initiative, is set up as a series of workshops between scientists and people of all walks of life. The purpose of these workshops is to develop consensus recommendations on topics of science or technology. The Royal Society carries these recommendations forward to the appropriate policy makers. Recent topics included trust in science, genetic testing, and cybertrust and information security.

Another component of the Science in Society program is a scheme whereby individual Members of Parliament (MPs) and a scientist from their district are paired up and allowed to experience each other's world. The scientists are briefed on the workings of government and accompany their MP during their daily activities. The MPs reciprocate by spending time in the scientist's laboratory. The aim is to both establish mutual understanding as well as to develop relationships.

SCIENCE POLICY. Each year, the Society provides reports on a wide variety of policy issues. In early 2005, the major policy topics included animals in research, bioweapons, climate change, the military use of depleted uranium, the environment, stem cells and cloning, nanoscience and nanotechnology, infectious diseases in livestock, humans in research, and genetically modified plants.

Increasingly these reports include sections summarizing societal concerns and the various ethical viewpoints held by stakeholders. Generally these reports do not choose a specific ethical standpoint; leaving that to society and the legislative process, but there are exceptions. For example, the 2003 report Measuring Biodiversity for Conservation takes the view that as a minimum "each generation should pass on a set of opportunities no less than what itself inherited."

RUTH DUERR

SEE ALSO American Association for the Advancement of Science;National Academies;Newton, Issac.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Atkinson, Dwight. (1999). Scientific Discourse in Sociohistorical Context: The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1675–1975. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. A rhetorical and multidimensional analysis of the contents of the Philosophical Transactions and how that has changed over the life of the Royal Society.

Hall, Marie. (1984). All Scientists Now: The Royal Society in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Recounts the history of the Royal Society during the period where it transitioned from a society consisting largely of wealthy amateurs to its modern form where membership is selected based on scientific distinction.

Haraway, Donna J. (1997). [email protected]: Feminism and Technoscience. New York: Routledge.

Hunter, Michael. (1982). The Royal Society and its Fellows 1660–1700: The Morphology of an Early Scientific Institution. Bucks, UK: The British Society for the History of Science. A scholarly analysis of the membership and activities of the Royal Society during its formative years.

Hunter, Michael. (1989). Establishing the New Science: The Experience of the Early Royal Society. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell. A series of essays on the activities and problems faced by the Royal Society during its early years.

Purver, Margery. (1967). The Royal Society: Concept and Creation. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. A scholarly assessment of the activities that led to the formation of the Royal Society.

Royal Society of London. (1985). The Public Understanding of Science. London: Author.

Royal Society of London. (2003). Measuring Biodiversity for Conservation. London: Author.

INTERNET RESOURCE

Royal Society of London. (2005). Available from http://www.royalsociety.org/. A good overview of the Royal Society, its history, and current activities.