Ewenki

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Ewenki

ALTERNATE NAMES: Kamonikan; Suolun; Tongusi; Yakute
LOCATION: China; Mongolia
POPULATION: 30,200
LANGUAGE: Ewenki and Chinese
RELIGION: Traditional beliefs, Lamaism, and Christianity
RELATED ARTICLES: Vol. 3: China and Her National Minorities

INTRODUCTION

The ancestors of the Ewenki dwelled northeast of Lake Baikal and in the forest bordering on the Shilka River. They lived from hunting, fishing, and raising reindeer. The Ewenki are historically linked to the Shiwei (especially the Bei Shiwei and the Bo Shiwei), as recorded in the ancient books in the Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534). In 544, the Shiwei began to pay tribute to the Eastern Wei Dynasty (534–550). The imperial Tang Dynasty (618–907) set up a government office in the area where the ancestors of Ewenki dwelled. Later on, they moved eastward. A branch moved as far as the middle reaches of the Heilongjiang River. The ancient books in the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) called them "the forest people." Under the Ming (1368–1644) and the Qing (1644–1911) dynasties they were called "the northern mountains deer riding people." From 1633 to 1640, the Manchus of northeast China conquered the Ewenki (at that time called "Kamonikan" and "Suolun"), who had to pay tribute to the Qing imperial government. After the mid-17th century, because of the invasion of Manchu territory by czarist Russia, the Qing moved the Ewenki to the Nen River Valley, close to the Greater Xing'an Mountains. In 1732, the imperial Qing placed more than 1,600 "Kamonikan" soldiers in garrison in the Hulunbeir grassland. They were allowed to bring their wives and children along. They finally settled there and became the direct ancestors of the present-day Ewenki.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

The Ewenki amount to more than 30,200 people in 2000. They are mainly scattered in Inner Mongolia, living together with the Mongols, Daur, Chinese, and Oroqen. The region where they live in compact communities is called Ewenki Autonomous Qi County, a hilly grassland with more than 600 lakes as well as a large number of rivers flowing in all directions. Ewenki villages are also found in Nehe District in Heilongjiang Province.

LANGUAGE

Ewenki belongs to the Altaic linguistic family, Manchu-Tungusic group, Tungusic branch. There are three dialects but no writing system. Ewenki children are educated in schools set up in pastoral areas using Mongolian language, both oral and written. In agricultural and mountainous areas, however, Chinese language and characters are widely used.

Until the mid-20th century, the Ewenki living in different areas were called by various names: Suolun, Tongusi, Yakute, and so on. In 1957, according to their will, a unified name was adopted: Ewenki, which means "people living in the wooded mountains."

FOLKLORE

The origin of mankind is explained as follows in an Ewenki myth: After the creation of the sky and the earth, the god Enduli made 10 men and 10 women from the skeletons of birds. Encouraged by his success, he planned to make more men and women, 100 of each. He made men first, but in the process of his great work, he nearly ran out of bird skeletons. He had to use soil as a supplement to fashion the women. As a result, the women were weaker, a part of their body being made of soil.

The Ewenki have a special reverence for fire. This may be related to their tough Nordic environment and is reflected in one of their main myths. A woman was injured by a shower of sparks from the household hearth. Angered by her pain, she drew her sword and stabbed violently at the hearth until the fire died out. The following day, she tried in vain to light a fire. She had to ask for a burning charcoal from her neighbor. Leaving her house, she found an old woman crying miserably, with a bleeding eye. Replying to her queries, the old woman said: "It was you who stabbed me blind yesterday." The woman, suddenly realizing what had happened, kowtowed to the Fire God and asked for her forgiveness. The Fire God finally pardoned her. From then on, she never failed in lighting a fire. Up to the present, the Ewenki throw a piece of food or a small cup of wine into the fire as an offering before meals. However, sprinkling water on a fire or poking a fire with a sword during meat roasting is taboo.

RELIGION

The traditional beliefs of the Ewenki are rooted in shamanism and totemism, stressing worship of ancestors, animals, and nature. Special rituals are performed for Jiya (the livestock god) and fire. Fire should never be allowed to die out, even when Ewenki families migrate. Among the hunters, a number of rites and taboos demonstrate their reverence for the bear. When a bear is killed in hunting, they wrap its head, bones, and internal organs in birch bark or straw, then hang them in a tree. They kowtow, pretend to cry, and offer tobacco. In some areas, all the clans of the Ewenki have a bird totem, such as the eagle, swan, or duck. Whenever a bird flies overhead, they sprinkle a little milk in the air. Killing or doing harm to a bird is considered taboo, especially if the bird is one's own totem. Almost every clan has a shaman. He is not a professional, often playing the role of headman of a clan or a tribe and enjoying high status. The shaman explains the cause of disease, divines fortune and misfortune, exorcizes ghosts, and dances in a trance. He expects no reward.

In some pastoral areas, the Ewenki believe in Lamaism, the Tibetan form of Buddhism adopted by the majority of Mongols. In some areas, one finds communities belonging to the Eastern Orthodox Church, a remnant of czarist Russia's influence from the 17th to the 19th century.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

In agricultural areas, the festivals of the Ewenki are not different from those of the Chinese. In pastoral areas, their festivals include Aobao Gathering and the Mikuole Festival. Aobao is a Mongolian term meaning "a pile"; it consists of a pyramidal pile of stones and adobes, flanked by a certain number of poles from which float multicolored silk streamers. Some streamers are covered with sacred Buddhist inscriptions. The Aobao is regarded as the dwelling of God in shamanism. In some areas, the Aoboa is a large tree, called the Aobao tree. The Aobao Gathering, one of the most important festivals of the Ewenki, is held around June or July on the lunar calendar (Western calendar, between June 22 and August 21). Oxen and sheep are slaughtered as sacrificial offerings. The festival includes popular sporting events, such as horse racing and wrestling. The Mikuole Festival is essentially a fair of the stock raisers. It is held in the last ten days of lunar May (Western calendar, between June 11 and July 21). Horses are branded and their overlong manes are shaved; the sheep's ears are incised with the owner's mark. This is a special occasion for villagers to call on each other and to gather in dinner parties. The Ewenki also celebrate the Spring Festival (lunar New Year; Western calendar between January 21 and February 20), which is a common holiday for all the nationalities of China.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Regardless of gender, the young pastoral Ewenki start to look after calves at six or seven. Boys learn to ride a horse at seven and lasso and break in a horse shortly afterwards. Girls learn to milk cows at 10. The children pay due respect to their elders. Meeting them, the youngsters always salute by bending at the knee and cupping the hands in front of the chest. The seats and beds in the room are assigned on the basis of generation. Traditionally, the Ewenki practiced tree burial (or wind burial). The corpse was placed in a coffin or wrapped with bark or willow twigs and then hung high in a tree. The blowing of the wind, drenching of the rain, scorching of the sun, and beaming of the moon were regarded as effective in transforming the dead into a star. Ground burial is now more and more prevalent under the influence of the neighboring nationalities.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

"People coming from afar," the Ewenki say, "cannot carry their own house on their back; nor can we when we go out." The visit of a guest is always a happy event. A fur cushion will be offered by the host. The guest sits on the cushion wherever it is; any shift of its place is considered impolite behavior. The hostess will carry a birch wood tray and serve deer milk, deer meat, toasted cake, and homemade wild fruit wine. The host will pour a few drops of wine on the fire first, then takes a sip for himself and finally hands the cup over to the guest.

The huntsmen store their food, clothes, and tools in their storehouse in the forest, which is never locked. Any huntsman is allowed to take food from the storehouse as needed without prior agreement with the owner. He should, however, return the amount of food taken when he meets the owner.

Arranged marriages are now abandoned. The youngsters will not lose any opportunity to choose a partner. Unfortunately, opportunities are rather limited in the pastoral areas on account of the great distance between villages and of the clan structure of individual villages.

LIVING CONDITIONS

The traditional Ewenki house resembles an umbrella, more than 10 ft in height and 13 ft in diameter, framed by 25–30 poles covered with birch bark and roe or deer skin. One side, provided with a door, is used as the living room. The other three sides are all platforms for sleeping. A fiery pit is in the center, with a pan hanging over it. There is an opening at the top for ventilation. The tablet of the ancestors is attached to the top of the central wooden column.

In hunting areas, the house is a wooden cube. The walls are built by piling up logs. The roof is made of birch bark. In some areas, they live in Mongolian-style yurt.

Bicycles, horses, and cars are the main modes of transport of the Ewenki. The epidemic and endemic diseases of bygone days have now been controlled. Hospitals have been set up in various localities of the Ewenki Autonomous Qi County.

FAMILY LIFE

The Ewenki live in small patrilineal families. Since they need mutual help in hunting and in searching pastures, they form nomadic villages. Villages, whether nomadic or sedentary (agricultural), have a clan structure in which each family has blood ties with the other families.

Ewenki families are monogamous. Marriage practices retain remnants of clan society, such as the marriage of cousins and inter-clan marriage. In bygone days, arranged marriage was prevalent. The parents of two families "engaged" their children when they were just a few years old or even before they were born. This led to precocious marriage. As an alternative, the custom of "elopement marriage" emerged. The date of elopement is agreed upon by the young man and woman who are passionately in love. The parents of the male side prepare a new house beforehand and an old woman is waiting there for the eloping girl. After dark, the girl escapes from her family. Riding on horseback, she comes directly to the new house. The old woman unties the girl's eight braids and combs her hair into two large ones. This is a symbol that the marriage is now "legal." Before dawn, the couple goes to the man's paternal house and kowtows to the fire and to the tablet of his ancestors. Then, two persons are sent to the bride's family, first to offer hada (a ceremonial silk scarf) to her ancestors and then to kowtow. They explain their purpose in coming, ask forgiveness and promise obedience. After long hours of persuasion, the bride's parents finally agree. Consequently, all members of the clan congratulate the couple, who kowtow to the clan's ancestors, to the village Fire God, and to the bridegroom's parents. A sumptuous banquet follows, guests and relatives dancing and singing with utter delight.

There has been no inhibition of intermarriage between the Ewenki and other nationalities. The intermarriage with the Daur has a long history and is very popular. Some families and clans intermarried for generations. Thus, the Ewenki and the Daur are called two "familial nationalities."

CLOTHING

In former times, both sexes donned a long fur robe covering the ankles and a long coat down to the knees. The cuffs and the bottom of the women's robes were embroidered with multicolored figures and designs. They all wore fur hats. Today, they mostly wear cloth robes and cotton padded garments in winter. Urban Ewenki dress is similar to that of the Chinese.

FOOD

The Ewenki's staple food is animal meat, including deer meat, mutton, beef, and pork of wild hog, supplemented by grains, such as Chinese sorghum, corn, millet, oats, and buckwheat. On account of the Nordic climate, vegetables are scarce. They like roasted meat. "Cooked meat held in hand" is very popular during festivals. The meat, attached to the bone, is chopped in big pieces and is half-cooked with a little salt. They hold the big piece with their hand while eating. They like gruel with milk, which is also a sacrificial offering to the gods. The diet of Ewenki farmers is not much different from that of the local Chinese or Manchus.

EDUCATION

Most of the Ewenki were illiterate in the past. Today, primary school education in the Ewenki Autonomous Qi County has become popular. Eighteen middle schools (junior and senior) have been set up. Quite a number of youngsters enroll in the university. Compared to other nationalities, however, their education is at a low level.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

Ewenki folk songs, slow and unconstrained, evoke the vast expanses of the grassland. Dancing styles vary according to region and to occasions. A dance called Ahanba is performed by women at wedding ceremonies. There are no accompanying instruments; the tempo is set by the singers' voices. Each group consists of two to four dancers. In the beginning, they cry softly, "A-Han-Ba, A-Han-Ba," while swinging their arms. Then they turn face to face and bend their knees. The tempo is gradually hastened and the rhythm is intensified by the movement of their feet. Ultimately, the dance bustles in full swing. Another dance is performed by two young men. One of them is a hunter, the other dresses up as a wild hog. With their hands behind their back, they hit each other with their shoulders while roaring. A group led by a singer encircles the two actors, moves around a bonfire, and dances while singing.

Ewenki literature has been handed down orally; it includes myths, tales, folk songs, and riddles.

WORK

The frequent migrations of the Ewenki in the course of history have resulted in scattered communities. Because of the significant difference of natural environments in which they dwelled, their mode of production and lifestyle varied a great deal. Those living in Ewenki Autonomous Qi County and in Chen Barag Qi practice livestock husbandry; those dwelling in Butha Qi, Arun Qi, and Morin Dawa Qi have a mixed economy, half farming and half hunting; those inhabiting Nehe in Heilongjiang Province are farmers; those inhabiting Ergun Zuo Qi are huntsmen, riding deer while hunting, and are thus called "Deer back riding Ewenki."

SPORTS

The Ewenki start to ride, lasso, and break in horses early in their childhood. Later, they frequently gather to learn arrow shooting, high jumping, pole vaulting, long jumping, and skiing. Brave hunters and capable herdsmen have mastered these skills by the time they are adults. Horse lassoing is a popular competition mostly held on festivals.

As early as 1,300 years ago, the ancestors of the Ewenki, called Shiwei, fashioned a primitive form of skis. The skis used today by the Ewenki for hunting are but an improved version of the Shiwei "snow-sliding boards."

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Most of the Ewenki areas are provided with a movie theater and a television station. Film studios and television broadcasting stations have been set up in Inner Mongolia and Heilongjiang Province. Therefore, most of the Ewenki can enjoy watching television as daily entertainment. In hunting areas, old hunters are master storytellers, spinning tales about ancient and modern heroes in their fight against the harsh environment and wild animals; this is still the preferred form of entertainment.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

The Ewenki excel in designing and producing implements for daily necessities as well as toys from birch bark. Painting on the birch bark is a hallmark of the Ewenki. Canoes made of birch bark, besides their unique design, provide swift and easy transport on the many lakes and rivers of the Ewenki land.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Poverty and isolation are serious problems confronting the Ewenki. Community fragmentation, harsh environment, illiteracy, and the absence of a market economy, make it difficult to implement a short-term, global solution for the whole population. It seems the situation can only be improved gradually in the long run.

GENDER ISSUES

The Chinese constitution states that women have equal rights with men in all areas of life, and most legislation is gender neutral. However, there are continued reports of discrimination, sexual harassment, wage discrepancies, and other gender related problems. The gap in educational level between women and men is narrowing with women making up 47.1% of college students in 2005, but only 32.6% of doctoral students.

China has strict family planning laws. It is illegal for women to marry before 20 years of age (22 for men), and it is illegal for single women to give birth. The Family Planning Bureau can require women to take periodic pregnancy tests and enforce laws that often leave women with no real options other than abortion or sterilization. While minority populations were previously exempt from family planning regulations, policy has changed in recent years to limit minority population growth. Today, urban couples may have two children while rural couples may have three or four.

Prostitution and the sex trade is a significant problem in China involving between 1.7 and 5 million women. It involved organized crime, businessmen, the police, and government workers, so prosecution against prostitution has limited success. In 2002, the nation removed homosexuality from its official list of mental illnesses, and though it is still a taboo topic, homosexuality is increasingly accepted, especially in large, international cities.