JORDAN

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

Al-Mamlaka al-Urdunniyya al-Hashimiyya

CAPITAL: 'Ammān

FLAG: The national flag is a tricolor of black, white, and green horizontal stripes with a seven-pointed white star on a red triangle at the hoist.

ANTHEM: As-Salam al-Maliki (Long Live the King).

MONETARY UNIT: The Jordanian dinar (jd) is a paper currency of 1,000 fils. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 100, and 250 fils and notes of ½, 1, 5, 10, and 20 dinars. jd1 = $1.40845 (or $1 = jd0.71) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard, but some local and Syrian units are still widely used, especially in the villages.

HOLIDAYS: Arbor Day, 15 January; Independence Day, 25 May; Accession of King Hussein, 11 August; King Hussein's Birthday, 14 November. Muslim religious holidays include the 1st of Muharram (Islamic New Year), 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', and Milad an-Nabi. Christmas and Easter are observed by sizable Christian minorities.

TIME: 2 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated in southwest Asia, Jordan has an area of 92,300 sq km (35,637 sq mi). Jordan extends 562 km (349 mi) ne–sw and 349 km (217 mi) se–nw. Comparatively, the area occupied by Jordan is slightly smaller than the state of Indiana. It is bounded on the n by Syria, on the ne by Iraq, on the e and s by Saudi Arabia, on the sw by the Gulf of Aqaba, and on the w by Israel, with a total land boundary length of 1,635 km (1,016 mi) and a coastline of 26 km (16 mi).

Jordan's capital city, 'Ammān, is located in the northwestern part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

The Jordan Valley has a maximum depression of 392 m (1,286 ft) below sea level at the Dead Sea; south of the Dead Sea the depression, called Wadi'Araba, slowly rises to reach sea level about halfway to the Gulf of Aqaba. To the east of the Jordan River, the Transjordanian plateaus have an average altitude of 910 m (3,000 ft), with hills rising to more than 1,650 m (5,400 ft) in the south. Farther eastward, the highlands slope down gently toward the desert, which constitutes 88% of the East Bank. The Jordan River enters the country from Israel to the north and flows into the Dead Sea; its main tributary is the Yarmuk, which near its juncture forms the border between Jordan and Syria. The Dead Sea is the lowest point on the earth's surface, at 408 m (1,339 ft) below the level of the Mediterranean. The Dead Sea has a mineral content of about 30%.

CLIMATE

The Jordan Valley has little rainfall, intense summer heat, and mild, pleasant winters. The hill country of the East Bank—ancient Moab, Edom, and Gilead—has a modified Mediterranean climate, with less rainfall and hot, dry summers. The desert regions are subject to great extremes of temperature and receive rainfall of less than 20 cm (8 in) annually, while the rest of the country has an average rainfall of up to 58 cm (23 in) a year. Temperatures at 'Ammān range from about 4°c (39°f) in winter to more than 32°c (90°f) in summer.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Plants and animals are those common to the eastern Mediterranean and the Syrian Desert. The vegetation ranges from semi-tropical flora in the Jordan Valley and other regions to shrubs and drought-resistant bushes in the desert. About 1% of the land is forested. The wild fauna includes the jackal, hyena, fox, wildcat, gazelle, ibex, antelope, and rabbit; the vulture, sand grouse, skylark, partridge, quail, woodcock, and goldfinch; and the viper, diced water snake, and Syrian black snake. As of 2002, there were at least 71 species of mammals, 117 species of birds, and over 2,100 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Jordan's principal environmental problems are insuffi cient water resources, soil erosion caused by overgrazing of goats and sheep, and deforestation. Water pollution is an important issue in Jordan. Jordan has 1 cu km of renewable water resources with 75% used for farming activity and 3% used for industrial purposes. About 91% of the total population have access to pure water. It is expected that the rate of population growth will place more demands on an already inadequate water supply. Current sources of pollution are sewage, herbicides, and pesticides.

Jordan's wildlife was reduced drastically by livestock overgrazing and uncontrolled hunting between 1930 and 1960; larger wild animals, such as the Arabian oryx, onager, and Asiatic lion, have completely disappeared. Under a law of 1973, the government has prohibited unlicensed hunting of birds or wild animals and unlicensed sport fishing, as well as the cutting of trees, shrubs, and plants. As of 2003, 3.4% of Jordan's total land area is protected.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 7 types of mammals, 14 species of birds, 1 type of reptile, 5 species of fish, and 3 species of invertebrates. Endangered species in Jordan include the South Arabian leopard, the sand cat, the cheetah, and the goitered gazelle.

POPULATION

The population of Jordan in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 5,795,000, which placed it at number 104 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 37% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 108 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 2.4%, a rate the government viewed as too high. The government has allocated funds to improve education about reproductive health. The projected population for the year 2025 was 8,265,000. The population density was 65 per sq km (168 per sq mi), with the highest density in the northern Jordan River Valley. A portion of the population is nomadic.

The UN estimated that 79% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 2.30%. The capital city, 'Ammān, had a population of 1,237,000 in that year.

MIGRATION

In 2000 there were 1,945,000 migrants living in Jordan, accounting for approximately 40% of the total population. Of those migrants, 83%, or about 1,610,100 were refugees. In 2004 Jordan hosted 1,740,170 refugees and 12,453 asylum seekers. Also, in 2004, 243 Jordanians sought asylum in Canada and Sweden. The net migration rate estimated for 2005 was 6.42 migrants per thousand population. The government views the immigration level as too high, and the emigration level as too low.

There were 350,000 Jordanians in Kuwait before the 1990 Iraqi attack on Kuwait. Jordan sided with Iraq in the Gulf War, as a result most Jordanians were expelled from Kuwait. However, by 2001, there were 30,000 Jordanians in Kuwait, counting 9,000 as employed. In 2003, there were an estimated 400,000 Jordanian expatriates working outside the country, most in oil-rich Arab Gulf countries. Worker remittances in 2003 amounted to $2.2 billion, up 2.2% from 2002.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Ethnically, the Jordanians represent a mixed stock. Most of the population is Arab (approximately 98%), but, except for the Bedouin nomads and seminomads of the desert and steppe areas, this element is overlain by the numerous peoples that have been present in Jordan for millennia, including Greek, Egyptian, Persian, European, and Negroid strains. The Palestinian Arabs now resident in Jordan tend to be sedentary and urban. Perhaps 1% of the population is Armenian, and another 1% is Circassian. There are also small Kurd, Druze, and Chechen minorities.

LANGUAGES

Arabic is the official language of the country and is spoken even by the ethnic minorities who maintain their own languages in their everyday lives. The spoken Arabic of the country is essentially a vernacular of literary Arabic; it is common to neighboring countries as well but is quite different from the spoken language in Egypt. There also are differences between the languages of the towns and of the countryside, and between those of the East and West banks. English is widely understood by the upper and middle classes. About 1.7 million people are registered as Palestinian refugees and displaced persons; most of these are citizens.

RELIGIONS

Islam is the state religion, although all are guaranteed religious freedom. Most Jordanians (about 95%) are Sunni Muslims. Of the racial minorities, the Turkomans and Circassians are Sunni Muslims, but the Druzes are a heterodox Muslim sect. Christians constitute about 4% of the population and live mainly in 'Ammān or the Jordan Valley; most are Greek Orthodox or Roman Catholic. Other officially recognized denominations include Melkite, Armenian Orthodox, Maronite, Assyrian, Anglican, Lutheran, Seventh-Day Adventist, United Pentecostal, and Presbyterian. Groups registered as religious societies by the government include Baptists, Free Evangelicals, Nazarenes, the Christian Missionary Alliance, and Assemblies of God. There are some members of the Coptic church; these are primarily Egyptian immigrants. The Baha'is are mainly of Persian stock. Chaldean and Syriac Christians are also represented. A tiny community of Samaritans maintains the faith of its ancestors, a heterodox form of the ancient Jewish religion. There are numerous missionary groups within the country.

The constitution provides for religious freedom with the stipulation the all religious practices are within the semblance of "public order and morality." Non-Muslims are not permitted to proselytize to Muslims. Conversion from Islam to other faiths is not expressly prohibited, but converts face a great deal of legal and social discrimination. Certain Muslim and Christian holidays are celebrated as national holidays. The Royal Institute for Interfaith Studies and the Royal Academy for Islamic Civilization research are government-sponsored organizations that promote tolerance and understanding between Muslims and Christians.

TRANSPORTATION

Jordan's transportation facilities are underdeveloped, but improvements have been made in recent years. The third development plan (1986–90) allotted jd445 million for transportation. A good road network links the principal towns and connects with Syria, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia. In 2003 Jordan's road system totaled 7,364 km (4,580 mi), all of which were paved. In 2003, there were 315,250 passenger cars and 107,920 commercial vehicles.

The rail system, as of 2004, consisted of some 505 km (314 mi) of narrow-gauge single track, and is a section of the old Hijaz railway (Damascus to Medina) for Muslim pilgrims. It runs from the Syrian border through 'Ammān to Ma'an, where it connects with a spur line to the port of Al-'Aqabah. Reconstruction of the section from Ma'an to Medina in Saudi Arabia, which had been destroyed in World War I, was undertaken in the early 1970s as a joint venture by Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.

Al-'Aqabah, Jordan's only outlet to the sea, is situated at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba, an arm of the Red Sea. The port was initially developed after the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, which cut off Arab Palestine and Transjordan from Mediterranean ports; substantial development did not begin until the 1960s. The port has been enlarged for general use, including terminals for loading potash and fertilizers. In 2005 Jordan had 20 merchant ships of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 78,814 GRT.

Jordan had an estimated 17 airports in 2004. As of 2005 a total of 15 were paved, and there was also one heliport. The major airport is the Queen Alia International Airport, about 30 km (19 mi) south of 'Ammān, which was opened in the early 1980s. Aqaba Airport is the other international airport. The government-owned Alia-Royal Jordanian Airline operates domestic and international flights. In 2003, about 1.313 million passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

As part of the Fertile Crescent connecting Africa and Asia, the area now known as Jordan has long been a major transit zone and often an object of contention among rival powers. It has a relatively well known prehistory and history. Neolithic remains from about 7000 bc have been found in Jericho, the oldest known city in the world. City-states were well developed in the Bronze Age (c.3200–2100 bc). In the 16th century bc, the Egyptians first conquered Palestine, and in the 13th century bc, Semitic-speaking peoples established kingdoms on both banks of the Jordan. In the 10th century bc, the western part of the area of Jordan (on both banks of the Jordan River) formed part of the domain of the Hebrew kings David and Solomon, while subsequently the West Bank became part of the Kingdom of Judah. A succession of outside conquerors held sway in the area until, in the 4th century bc, Palestine and Syria were conquered by Alexander the Great, beginning about 1,000 years of intermittent European rule. After the death of Alexander, the whole area was disputed among the Seleucids of Syria, the Ptolemies of Egypt, and native dynasties, such as the Hasmoneans (Maccabees); in the 1st century bc, it came under the domination of Rome. In Hellenistic and Roman times, a flourishing civilization developed on the East Bank; meanwhile, in southern Jordan, the Nabataean kingdom, a native Arab state in alliance with Rome, developed a distinctive culture, blending Arab and Greco-Roman elements, and built its capital at Petra, a city whose structures hewn from red sandstone cliffs survive today. With the annexation of Nabataea by Trajan in the 2nd century ad, Palestine and areas east of the Jordan came under direct Roman rule. Christianity spread rapidly in Jordan and for 300 years was the dominant religion.

The Byzantine phase of Jordan's history, from the establishment of Constantinople as the capital of the empire to the Arab conquest, was one of gradual decline. When the Muslim invaders appeared, little resistance was offered, and in 636, Arab rule was firmly established. Soon thereafter, the area became thoroughly Arabized and Islamized, remaining so to this day despite a century-long domination by the Crusaders (12th century). Under the Ottoman Turks (1517–1917), the lands east of the Jordan were part of the Damascus vilayet (an administrative division of the empire), while the West Bank formed part of the sanjak (a further subdivision) of Jerusalem within the vilayet of Beirut.

During World War I, Sharif Hussein ibn-'Ali (Husayn bin 'Ali), the Hashemite (or Hashimite) ruler of Mecca and the Hijaz, aided and incited by the United Kingdom (which somewhat hazily promised him an independent Arab state), touched off an Arab revolt against the Turks. After the defeat of the Turks, Palestine and Transjordan were placed under British mandate; in 1921, Hussein's son 'Abdallah was installed by the British as emir of Transjordan. In 1923, the independence of Transjordan was proclaimed under British supervision, which was partially relaxed by a 1928 treaty, and in 1939, a local cabinet government (Council of Ministers) was formed. In 1946, Transjordan attained full independence, and on 25 May, 'Abdallah was proclaimed king of the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. After the Arab-Israeli War of 1948, King 'Abdallah annexed a butterfly shaped area of Palestine bordering the Jordan (thereafter called the West Bank), which was controlled by his army and which he contended was included in the area that had been promised to Sharif Hussein. On 24 April 1950, after general elections had been held in the East and West banks, an act of union joined Jordanian-occupied Palestine and the Kingdom of Transjordan to form the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Th is action was condemned by some Arab states as evidence of inordinate Hashemite ambitions. Meanwhile, Jordan, since the 1948 war, had absorbed about 500,000 of some 1,000,000 Palestinian Arab refugees, mostly sheltered in UN-administered camps, and another 500,000 nonrefugee Palestinians. Despite what was now a Palestinian majority, power remained with the Jordanian elite loyal to the throne. On 20 July 1951, 'Abdallah was assassinated in Jerusalem by a Palestinian Arab, and his eldest son, Talal, was proclaimed king. Because of mental illness, however, King Talal was declared unfit to rule, and succession passed to his son Hussein I (Husayn ibn-Talal), who, after a brief period of regency until he reached 18 years of age, was formally enthroned on 2 May 1953.

Between the accession of King Hussein and the war with Israel in 1967, Jordan was beset not only with problems of economic development, internal security, and Arab-Israeli tensions but also with diffi culties stemming from its relations with the Western powers and the Arab world. Following the overthrow of Egypt's King Faruk in July 1952, the Arab countries were strongly influenced by "Arab socialism" and aspirations to Arab unity (both for its own sake and as a precondition for defeating Israel). Early in Hussein's reign, extreme nationalists stepped up their attempts to weaken the regime and its ties with the United Kingdom. Notwithstanding the opposition of most Arabs, including many Jordanians, Jordan maintained a close association with the United Kingdom in an effort to preserve the kingdom as a separate, sovereign entity. However, the invasion of Egypt by Israel in October 1956, and the subsequent Anglo-French intervention at Suez, made it politically impossible to maintain cordial relations with the United Kingdom. Negotiations were begun to end the treaty with Britain, and thus the large military subsidies for which it provided; the end of the treaty also meant the end of British bases and of British troops in Jordan. The Jordanian army remained loyal, and the king's position was bolstered when the United States and Saudi Arabia indicated their intention to preserve Jordan against any attempt by Syria to occupy the country. After the formation of the United Arab Republic by Egypt and Syria and the assassination of his cousin, King Faisal II (Faysal) of Iraq, in a July 1958 coup, Hussein turned again to the West for support, and British troops were flown to Jordan from Cyprus.

When the crisis was over, a period of relative calm ensued. Hussein, while retaining Jordan's Western ties, gradually steadied his relations with other Arab states (except Syria), established relations with the USSR, and initiated several important economic development measures. But even in years of comparative peace, relations with Israel remained the focus of Jordanian and Arab attention. Terrorist raids launched from within Jordan drew strong Israeli reprisals, and the activities of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) often impinged on Jordanian sovereignty, leading Hussein in July 1966, and again in early 1967, to suspend support for the PLO, thus drawing Arab enmity upon himself. On 5 June 1967, an outbreak of hostilities occurred between Israel and the combined forces of Jordan, Syria, and Egypt. These hostilities lasted only six days, during which Israel occupied the Golan Heights in Syria, Egypt's Sinai Peninsula, and the Jordanian West Bank, including all of Jerusalem. Jordan suffered heavy casualties, and a large-scale exodus of Palestinians (over 300,000) across the Jordan River to the East Bank swelled Jordan's refugee population (700,000 in 1966), adding to the war's severe economic disruption.

After Hussein's acceptance of a cease-fire with Israel in August 1970, he tried to suppress various Palestinian guerrilla organizations whose operations had brought retaliation upon Jordan. The imposition of military rule in September led to a 10-day civil war between the army and the Palestinian forces (supported briefly by Syria which was blocked by Israel), ended by the mediation of other Arab governments. Subsequently, however, Hussein launched an offensive against Palestinian guerrillas in Jordan, driving them out in July 1971. In the following September, Premier Wasfi al-Tal was assassinated by guerrilla commandos, and coup attempts, in which Libya was said to have been involved, were thwarted in November 1972 and February 1973.

Jordan did not open a third front against Israel in the October 1973 war but sent an armored brigade of about 2,500 men to assist Syria. After the war, relations between Jordan and Syria improved. Hussein reluctantly endorsed the resolution passed by Arab nations on 28 October 1974 in Rabat, Morocco, recognizing the PLO as "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people on any liberated Palestinian territory," including, implicitly, the Israeli-held West Bank. After the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty of 1979, Jordan joined other Arab states in trying to isolate Egypt diplomatically, and Hussein refused to join further Egyptian-Israeli talks on the future of the West Bank.

After the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982 and the resulting expulsion of Palestinian guerrillas, Jordan began to coordinate peace initiatives with the PLO. These efforts culminated in a February 1985 accord between Jordan and the PLO, in which both parties agreed to work together toward "a peaceful and just settlement to the Palestinian question." In February 1986, however, Hussein announced that Jordan was unable to continue to coordinate politically with the PLO, which scrapped the agreement in April 1987. The following year the King renounced Jordan's claim to the West Bank and subsequently patched up relations with the PLO, Syria, and Egypt. In 1990, owing largely to popular support for Saddam Hussein, Jordan was critical of coalition efforts to use force to expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Relations with the United States and the Gulf states were impaired; Jordan lost its subsidies from the latter while having to support hundreds of thousands of refugees from the war and the aftermath. Jordan's willingness to participate in peace talks with Israel in late 1991 helped repair relations with Western countries. In June 1994, Jordan and Israel began meetings to work out practical steps on water, borders, and energy which would lead to normal relations. And, later that year, Jordan and Israel signed a peace treaty, ending the state of war that had existed between the two neighbors for decades. Relations with the major players in the Gulf War also improved in the years after the war. In 1996, Jordan and Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Kuwait were well on the way toward establishing normal relations.

Internally in the 1980s, Hussein followed policies of gradual political liberalization which were given new impetus by serious rioting over high prices in 1989. In that year, for the first time since 1956, Jordan held relatively free parliamentary elections in which Islamists gained more than one-third of the 80 seats. Martial law was ended in 1991 and new parliamentary elections were held in 1993. The King's supporters won 54 seats with the Muslim Brotherhood and its allies taking 18 places, the largest bloc of any party. However, the 1997 elections were boycotted by a number of opposition groups, who complained of unfair election laws, and the new upper house of parliament appointed by King Hussein did not include any members of Islamist groups.

In 1998 Hussein underwent treatment for cancer in the United States and delegated some of his powers to his brother, crown prince Hassan, who was next in the line of succession to the throne. The following winter, however, Hussein named his son Abdallah heir apparent. On 8 February 1999 King Hussein died, ending a 46-year reign; his funeral was attended by dignitaries from countries throughout the world. King Abdallah II pledged his support for the Middle East peace process, a more open government, and economic reforms requested by the IMF. However, there was widespread uncertainty about how the untested 37-year-old heir would meet the challenges thrust upon him.

His first year in power reassured many observers, both at home and abroad. Domestically, he pushed through a series of trade bills that helped pave the way of the country's admission to the WTO, which came in April 2000, and declared his intention of implementing wide-ranging administrative and educational reforms. On the international front, Abdallah played a role in the resumption of talks between Israel and Syria and also took a firm stance against the presence of Islamic extremists in his own country, driving the radical Hamas organization out of Jordan.

Abdallah dissolved parliament in June 2001, elections were postponed twice, and were held in June 2003. Independent candidates loyal to the king won two-thirds of the seats. In October 2003, a new cabinet was appointed following the resignation of Prime Minister Ali Abu al-Ragheb. Faisal al-Fayez was appointed prime minister. The king also appointed three female ministers. In April 2005, a new cabinet was sworn in, led by Prime Minister Adnan Badran, after the previous government resigned amid reports of the king's unhappiness over the pace of reforms.

Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Jordan enacted a series of temporary laws imposing sharp restrictions on the right to public assembly and protest. A law broadened the definition of "terrorism," and allowed for the freezing of suspects' bank accounts. The number of offenses carrying the death penalty was increased, and journalists who publish articles which the government deems harmful to national unity or to be incitement to protests were subject to three years' imprisonment.

In October 2002, senior US diplomat Laurence Foley was assassinated outside his home in 'Ammān. In April 2004, eight Islamic militants were sentenced to death for their role in the assassination.

In March 2005, Jordan returned its ambassador to Israel after a four-year absence. Jordan had recalled its envoy after the start of the al-Aqsa intifada in 2000.

GOVERNMENT

Jordan is a constitutional monarchy based on the constitution of 8 January 1952. The king has wide powers over all branches of government. The constitution vests legislative power in the bicameral national assembly, composed of a 55-member senate and a 110-member lower house of representatives (chamber of deputies). Senators are appointed by the king for renewable four-year terms; the chamber of deputies is elected by secret ballot for a four-year term, but the king may dissolve the chamber and order new elections. Six seats in the chamber of deputies are reserved for women. There is universal suffrage at age 18, women having received the right to vote in April 1973; general elections were held in 1989, 1993, 1997, and 2003. In February 1999, King Abdallah II succeeded to the throne following the death of his father, King Hussein.

The national assembly is convened and may be prorogued by the king, who also has veto power over legislation. The executive power of the king is administered by a cabinet, or council of ministers. The king appoints the prime minister, who then selects the other ministers, subject to royal approval. The ministers need not be members of the chamber of deputies. In the prolonged emergency created by the wars with Israel and by internal disorders, especially after 1968, King Hussein exercised nearly absolute power. The national assembly, adjourned by the king in 1974, met briefly in 1976 to amend the constitution; parliamentary elections were postponed indefinitely because of the West Bank situation, and the Assembly was then dissolved. In 1978, King Hussein established a national consultative council of 60 appointed members. The national assembly was reconvened in 1984, as King Hussein sought to strengthen his hand in future maneuvering on the Palestinian problem. Political parties were legalized in 1992. The freely elected parliaments of 1989 and 1993 played an increasingly active and independent role in governance, with open debate and criticism of government personalities and policies. However, new press restrictions were imposed by 1997, and a majority of opposition groups boycotted the elections that year. King Abdallah dissolved parliament in June 2001 and postponed elections until summer 2002; they were once again postponed and finally held in June 2003.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Political parties were abolished on 25 April 1957, following an alleged attempted coup by pan-Arab militants. In the elections of 1962, 1963, and 1967, candidates qualified in a screening procedure by the Interior Ministry ran for office, in effect, as independents. The Jordanian National Union, formed in September 1971 as the official political organization of Jordan and renamed the Arab National Union in March 1972, became inactive by the mid-1970s. In 1990, the election law was amended to ban bloc voting or by party lists, substituting instead a "one person, one vote" system. In 1992, political parties were again permitted and 22 were authorized to take part in elections. The principal opposition group has been the Islamic Action Front, the political arm of the Muslim Brotherhood.

In the parliamentary elections of 8 November 1993, 22 political parties fielded candidates, representing a wide range of political views. Seats were widely dispersed among a range of largely centrist parties supportive of King Hussein's IMF-modeled reforms and his pro-Western stance. The largest bloc of seats, however, was won by the Islamic Action Front, an arm of the Muslim Brotherhood. In 1997, nine pro-government parties, hoping to gain leverage against the large Islamist bloc in upcoming elections, banded together to form the National Constitutional Party. However, the grouping won only a total of three seats, and the Islamic opposition boycotted the elections altogether. Only six parties fielded candidates. Independent pro-government candidates representing local tribal interests won 62 out of the 80 contested seats; 10 seats were won by nationalist and leftist candidates; and 8 by independent Islamists.

In the 2003 elections for the chamber of deputies, independents won 89.6% of the vote, or 92 seats; the Islamic Action Front won 10.4% of the vote or 18 seats. One of the six seats reserved for women was awarded to an IAF candidate. The turnout was 57%.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Eastern Jordan is divided into 12 governorates—Ajlun, Al' Aqabah, 'Ammān, Irbid, Balga, Jarash, Al Karak, Ma'ān, Ma'dabā, Az Zarqā', Al Mafraq, and Aţ Tafilah—each under a governor appointed by the king on the recommendation of the interior minister. The towns and larger villages are administered by municipal councils. A new municipal elections law provides for the election of half the council members, while the other half are government appointees. Mayors and council presidents are appointed by the council of ministers. Smaller villages are headed by a headman (mukhtar ), who in most cases is elected informally.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

There are six jurisdictions in the judiciary: four levels of civil and criminal jurisdiction, religious jurisdiction, and tribal courts. The civil code of 1977 regulates civil legal procedures. The Supreme Court, acting as a court of cassation, deals with appeals from lower courts. In some instances, as in actions against the government, it sits as a high court of justice. The courts of appeal hear appeals from all lower courts. Courts of first instance hear major civil and criminal cases. Magistrates' courts deal with cases not coming within the jurisdiction of courts of first instance. Religious courts have jurisdiction in matters concerning personal status (marriage, divorce, wills and testaments, orphans, etc.), where the laws of the different religious sects vary. The Shariah courts deal with the Muslim community, following the procedure laid down by the Ottoman Law of 1913. The Council of Religious Communities has jurisdiction over analogous cases among non-Muslims. Tribal courts, which have jurisdiction in most matters concerning tribe members, are losing their importance as more people take their cases to the government courts instead.

In 1991, the state security court, which hears security cases in panels of at least three judges, replaced the martial law court. Under 1993 amendments to the state security court law, all security court decisions may be appealed to the court of cassation on issues of law and weight of evidence. Prior to 1993, the court of cassation reviewed only cases involving death or imprisonment for over 10 years, and review was limited to errors of law.

Although the judiciary is independent, it is subject to political pressure and interference by the executive branch. The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, and home. Police must obtain a judicial warrant before conducting searches.

Jordan drew up a comprehensive plan to modernize its judicial system. The 11-point 2002–06 judicial reform plan sought to enhance the efficiency of the court system and to strengthen judicial independence, among other initiatives.

ARMED FORCES

In 2005, the Jordanian armed forces had 100,500 active personnel with 35,000 reservists. The Army numbered 85,000 personnel and was equipped with 1,120 main battle tanks, 19 light tanks, more than 226 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 1,350 armored personnel carriers, and 1,233 artillery pieces. The Air Force had 15,000 active personnel, including 3,400 air defense personnel. Equipment included 100 combat capable aircraft, including 85 fighters and another 15 used for training. The Air Force also had over 40 attack helicopters. The Jordanian Navy had an estimated 500 active members. The service's major naval units consisted of 20 patrol/coastal vessels. Paramilitary forces consisted of the Public Security Directorate with an estimated 10,000 members. The Jordanian defense budget in 2005 totaled $956 million. Jordan had peacekeepers stationed in 11 regions or countries around the world.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Jordan became a member of the United Nations on 14 December 1955 and belongs to ESCWA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, UNESCO, UNIDO, WHO, IFC, IMF, and the World Bank. Jordan became a member of the WTO in 2000. It is one of the founding members of the Arab League and also participates in the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, the Arab Monetary Fund, the Council of Arab Economic Unity, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and G-77. It is a partner in the OSCE.

Jordan has greatly benefited from the work of UNICEF and of UNRWA, which helps the Palestinian refugees. Jordan and Israel signed a peace treaty in 1994 and exchanged ambassadors the following year. The country has supported UN missions and operations in Kosovo (est. 1999), Ethiopia and Eritrea (est. 2000), Liberia (est. 2003), Sierra Leone (est. 1999), East Timor (est. 2002), Georgia (est. 1993), and Haiti (est. 2004), among others. Jordan is a member of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Jordan is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the London Convention, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Jordan's economy has been profoundly affected by the Arab-Israeli conflict. The incorporation of the West Bank after the war of 1948 and the first exodus of Palestinians from the territory that became Israel tripled the population, causing grave economic and social problems. The loss of the West Bank in 1967 resulted not only in a second exodus of Palestinians but also in the loss of most of Jordan's richest agricultural land and a decline in the growing tourist industry. The 1970–71 civil war and the October 1973 war also brought setbacks to development plans. The steadying influence has been foreign funds. An estimated 80% of annual national income in the early 1980s came from direct grants from and exports to oil-rich Arab countries and from remittances by Jordanians working there. Also important to the economy has been Western economic aid, notably from the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany. The economy expanded rapidly during 1975–80, growing in real terms by an average of 9% a year, but the growth rate slowed to 5% in 1985, primarily from reductions in aid from other Arab states because of their declining oil receipts. The onset of the recession in Jordan in the mid-1980s followed by the economic collapse of 1988–89 and the Gulf conflict in 1990 left the country with an unemployment rate of approximately 30–35%, high inflation, and about 25–30% of the population living below the poverty line.

When in 1989 Jordan was unable to service its external debt due to 100 repayment commitments, the Jordanian government concluded an agreement with the IMF to pursue a series of economic reforms across a five year period (that is, by 1993) in exchange for bridge finance: the budget deficit was to be reduced from 24% of GDP to 10% of GDP; the current account balance was to improve from a deficit equivalent to 6% of GDP to a balanced position; export earnings were to grow from $1.1 billion in 1989 to $1.7 in 1993; and the rate of inflation was to drop from 14% in 1989 to 7% in 1993. The Gulf War interrupted this program, as the Jordanian government came out on the side of Iraq, and presumably in favor of a completely different way of solving its economic vulnerability; that is, through association with an enlarged and empowered Arab state. The international economic embargo against Iraq during the Gulf War meant that Jordan lost a lucrative export and re-export market. The loss of Iraq's oil supplies resulted in Jordan having to pay the market price for oil imports from Syria and Yemen. The balance of annual aid transfers, some $200 billion, promised by the Arab oil states in 1990, failed to take into consideration the influx of some 230,000 Jordanian nationals from Kuwait that resulted from the Iraqi invasion. They imposed a strain on government services and added to the pool of unemployment.

In 1994 Jordan entered into another three-year structural adjustment program financed by IMF's Extended Fund Facility (EFF). On 26 October 1994 Jordan signed a peace treaty with Israel that contained protocols for economic reform and regional integration. The fiscal year 1994/95 saw real GDP growth of about 6% and inflation of only about 3–3.5%. In order to build on these gains, and to incorporate the opportunities offered by the peace accord, a new three-year program was negotiated under the EFF, which ran officially from 6 February 1996 to 8 February 1999. In this case, the program fell well short of its targets, as real GDP growth slowed to an annual average of 1%, and budget deficits as a percent of GDP increased to 10% instead of decreasing as envisioned.

In April 1999 another three-year structural adjustment program was embarked upon, this time with finance from both the EFF and the Compensatory and Contingency Financing Facility (CCFF) of the IMF. The program called for privatization, tax reform, trade liberalization, and increased foreign investment. Advances were made in all these areas. The government divested itself of shares in over 50 corporations, among the most important being the sale of a 10.5% share in the Jordan Telecommunications (JT) in an initial public offering (IPO) on the 'Ammān Stock Exchange (ASE) in October 1999, and a further sale of 40% to a France Telecom/Arab Bank Consortium in January 2001. All or portions of the subsidiaries of the national airline, the Royal Jordanian, were privatized, including the sale of 80% of Aircraft Catering Center to the Alpha British Company. By November 2002, the ASE had attained a capitalization of over $7 billion. Tax reforms included the lowering of top rates on personal and business income taxes, the elimination or reduction of a number of subsidies and exemptions, phased introduction of a value-added tax (VAT) regime, and, in connection with trade liberalization reforms, the reduction of many customs and tariffs.

In 2000, Jordan acceded to the WTO, a condition of which was the elimination of most laws limiting foreign investment. On 28 September 2001 the US Congress passed a separate Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with Jordan. In the period 1999 to 2002, the biggest single stimulus to the Jordanian economy came from the Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZs), a type of industrial estate authorized in a 1998 agreement among Jordan, Israel, and the United States, whereby manufactured exports from a QIZ could enter the US market duty free provided it contained at least 35% local content. QIZs particularly have nurtured a fast growing textile export industry. The targets set by the IMF-monitored program for 1999–2002—including annual growth of 3–4%, inflation held to 2–3%, a budget deficit reduced to 4% of GDP by 2001, and a strengthening of the country's foreign reserve position—were all substantially met despite the eruption of the second Palestinian intifada in late 2000 and the global economic slowdown from 2001 forward. Real GDP growth rose steadily from 3.1% to 4% to a projected 5.2% from 1999 to 2002.

Inflation, as measured by consumer prices, was negligible, falling from 3.1% in 1998 to 0.6%, 0.7%, and 1.8% for the period 1999–2001. An increase in inflation in 2002 to 3.5% is attributable mainly to administered price increases, particularly for electricity and petroleum products, as subsidies were removed. The government's annual deficit as a percent of GDP was at 3.7% in 2001, better than the program's 4% target, but in this case progress was not uninterrupted: the deficit rose to 4.7% of GDP in 2000 and was projected at 4.1% for 2002. There was, however, uninterrupted progress in terms of net public debt as a percent of GDP, which fell from 105.1% of GDP in 1999 to a projected 88.2% in 2002. Part of this improvement stemmed from some debt forgiveness by the United States and the European Union. As of the end of 2002, five Paris Club reschedulings of Jordan's sovereign debt—from February 1992, June 1994, May 1997, May 1999, and July 2002, respectively—were being paid down. On its foreign reserve position, according to the IMF, Jordan's net usable international reserves in the period 1999 to 2002 were on average sufficient to cover a little over seven months of imports, up from only a four-month coverage in 1998. In May 2002, Jordan's international reserves were close to $3 billion.

In November 2001, the government introduced its Plan for Social and Economic Transformation (PSET), a program of health and education spending and transfer payments to the poor amounting to 4% of GDP and to be financed in such a way from grants and revenues so as not to add to the country's debt. PSET particularly aims at dealing with Jordan's chronic unemployment problem, which due in part to Malthusian population growth dynamics, worsened slightly—from 12.7% in 1998 to 14.7% in 2001—during the latest period of economic growth. Population growth is such that the 8.6% growth in nominal GDP between 1999 and 2001 produced only a 2.4% increase in per capita income. In July 2002 the IMF announced a two-year standby agreement with Jordan for sdr85.28 million (about $113 million) to support both the PSET and the continuing program of economic reforms. The Jordanian economy has managed to continue to improve in 2002, with the second Palestinian intifada unfolding next door.

The economy expanded by 6.2% in 2004, up from 3.6% in 2003; in 2005, the GDP growth rate was estimated at 6.5%. The inflation rate was fairly stable, and at 3.4% in 2004 it did not pose a major problem to the economy. The unemployment rate was tagged at 15%, although unoffi cial numbers show it to be as high as 30%. The war in Iraq, started in 2003, has significantly influenced the economy of Jordan—the former was an important trade partner and the main provider of oil.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Jordan's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $27.7 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $4,800. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 5.5%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 3.9%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 3.5% of GDP, industry 29.9%, and services 66.7%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $2.201 billion or about $415 per capita and accounted for approximately 22.1% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $1,234 million or about $233 per capita and accounted for approximately 12.6% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Jordan totaled $7.65 billion or about $1,441 per capita based on a GDP of $9.9 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 5.1%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 32% of household consumption was spent on food, 17% on fuel, 5% on health care, and 8% on education. It was estimated that in 2001 about 30% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

The Jordanian labor force numbered an estimated 1.46 million people in 2005, with an additional 300,000 workers employed abroad. As of 2001 (the latest year for which data was available), the service industry accounted for an estimated 82.5% of the nation's workforce, with industry at 12.5%, and agriculture at 5%. The official unemployment rate was reported at 15% in 2004. However, it is estimated that the unofficial rate may be as high as 30%.

Workers have the right to form unions and must register to be legal. The General Federation of Jordanian Trade Unions, formed in 1954, was comprised of 17 trade unions in 2002. Approximately 30% of the labor force is unionized. Unions are allowed to collectively bargain but they are not allowed to strike or demonstrate without a permit. Labor disputes are mediated by the Ministry of Labor. The government does not adequately protect employees from antiunion discrimination.

The national minimum wage was $114 per month in 2002 for all sectors except agriculture and domestic labor. This amount does not provide the average family with a living wage. The minimum working age is 16 and this is effectively enforced by the Ministry of Labor except for children working in family businesses or on family farms. The standard workweek is 48 hours, with up to 54 hours per week for hotel, restaurant, and cinema employees.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture still plays a role in the economy, although 40% of the usable land consists of the West Bank, lost to Jordan since 1967. As of 2003, only 4.5% of all land in Jordan was utilized for crop sown feed production. Rain-fed lands make up 75% of the arable land, while the remaining 25% is partially or entirely irrigated and lies mostly in the Jordan Valley and highlands. While the system of small owner-operated farms, peculiar to Jordan among the Arab countries and originating in the Land Settlement Law of 1933, limits the number of large landowners and shared tenancy, the minuscule holdings have inhibited development. Agriculture accounted for 2% of GDP in 2003.

Production of principal field crops in 2004 included wheat, 50,000 tons; barley, 30,000 tons; and tobacco, 2,000 tons. Prominent vegetables and fruits produced in 2004 included tomatoes, 415,000 tons; eggplant, 52,000 tons; cucumbers, 100,000 tons; and cabbages, 28,000 tons. Over 16 million fruit trees that year produced 147,000 tons of citrus, 160,700 tons of olives, 51,000 tons of bananas, and 28,000 tons of grapes. The output of fruits and vegetables has been encouraging, in part because of increased use of fertilizers, herbicides, and plastic greenhouses by the nation's farmers in the Jordan Valley.

Irrigation schemes and soil and water conservation programs have received emphasis in Jordan's economic development. The 77-km (48-mi) East Ghor Canal, substantially completed in 1966 and reconstructed in the early 1970s after heavy war damage, siphons water from the Yarmuk River and provides irrigation for about 13,000 hectares (32,000 acres). Water conservation in other areas has been undertaken with the rehabilitation of old water systems and the digging of wells. As of 2003, an estimated 75,000 hectares (185,000 acres) were irrigated.

The cooperative movement has made progress in the agricultural sector; the Central Cooperative Union, established in 1959, provides seasonal loans and advice to local cooperatives. The Agricultural Credit Corporation, founded in 1960, provides low-cost loans to finance agricultural investments.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Raising livestock for both meat and dairy products is an important part of Jordanian agriculture. Animal husbandry is usually on a small scale and is often of the nomadic or seminomadic type indigenous to the area. The large nomadic tribes take their camels into the desert every winter, returning nearer to the cultivated area in summer. The camels provide transportation, food (milk and meat), shelter, and clothing (hair); the sale of surplus camels is a source of cash. Sheep and goat nomads make similar use of their animals. Imported milk and meat are sold at subsidized prices.

Animal products account for about one-third of agricultural output. Sheep and goats account for 90% of the livestock and are raised for both meat and milk. The Awasi is the major breed of sheep used, and the goat is the Baladi. In 2005, the number of sheep was estimated at 1,671,000, goats at 444,000, and cattle at 69,000 head. Jordan had an estimated 25 million chickens in 2005; poultry meat production was 121,000 tons that year. Meat production from cattle and sheep reached 8,700 tons in 2005. Production of fresh milk from cattle, sheep, and goats was 252,700 tons in 2005. Jordan produces about 30% of its needs in red meat and 50% of milk.

FISHING

Fishing is unimportant as a source of food. The rivers are relatively poor in fish; there are no fish in the Dead Sea, and the short Gulf of Aqaba shoreline has only recently been developed for fishing. The total fish catch was only 1,131 tons in 2003.

FORESTRY

Jordan formerly supported fairly widespread forests of oak and Aleppo pine in the uplands of southern Jordan, both west and east of the Jordan River, but forestland now covers less than 1% of the total area. Scrub forests and maquis growths are the most common; the olive, characteristic of the Mediterranean basin, is widely cultivated. The important forests are around Ajlun in the north and near Ma'an. By 1976, some 3,800 hectares (9,400 acres) had been newly planted as part of a government afforestation program. From 1976 to 1991, an additional 10,000 hectares (24,700 acres) also was reforested. Roundwood production was 257,000 tons in 2004. Imports of forestry products totaled $167 million in 2004.

MINING

Jordan in 2004 was the world's fifth-largest producer of phosphate, and ranked sixth in the world in the output of potash. Jordanian exports in 2004 totaled $3.26 billion, of which minerals and associated products accounted for 21%. Among Jordan's exports in 2004, potash accounted for $231 million, followed by: fertilizers (made from phosphate rock and potash), $175 million; phosphate rock at $166 million; phosphoric acid at $90.5 million; and cement at $30 million. Jordan also produced common clay, feldspar, natural gas and petroleum (for domestic consumption), gravel, gypsum, kaolin, lime, limestone, marble, crushed rock, salt, silica sand, steel, dimension stone, sulfuric acid, and zeolite tuff. In 2004, Jordan mined no metals, although it had deposits of copper, gold, iron, sulfur, titanium, and, in the Dead Sea, bromine and manganese.

Phosphate mine output (gross weight) in 2004 was 6.223 million metric tons. Phosphate reserves totaled 1 billion tons.

Production of potash crude salts—from Dead Sea potassium—was a record 1.929 million metric tons in 2004, down from 1.961 million metric tons in 2003. The World Bank has estimated that of the dissolved solids contained in the Dead Sea, 33 billion tons were sodium chloride and magnesium chloride and about 2 billion tons were potassium chloride.

Copper deposits between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba remained undeveloped. Other potential for progress lay in the availability of bromine, dolomite, glass sands, iron, lead, oil shale, tin, travertine, and tripoli.

ENERGY AND POWER

Jordan, with miniscule deposits of petroleum, and natural gas, must rely upon imports to meet its petroleum and natural gas needs.

Jordan had proven oil reserves of only 445,000 barrels as of 1 January 2002. Production in 2004 averaged 40 barrels per day, while consumption in that same year averaged 103,000 barrels per day. As a result, oil imports in that year came to an estimated 100,000 barrels per day. Refinery output in 2002 averaged 80,780 barrels per day.

Jordan has proven natural gas reserves of 3.256 billion cu m as of 1 January 2002. Production and consumption in 2002 each came to 10.95 billion cu ft. All output was marketed.

Almost all of Jordan's electrical power generating capacity is based on the use of fossil fuels. In that year, generating capacity totaled 1.661 million kW, with conventional thermal capacity accounting for 1.650 million kW. Hydropower accounted for 0.010 million kW of capacity, and geothermal/other capacity accounted for 0.001 million kW. Electric power production in 2002 totaled 7.642 billion kWh, with conventional thermal sources producing 7.587 billion kWh. Hydropower sources produced 0.052 billion kWh and geothermal/other produced 0.003 billion kWh.

INDUSTRY

With government encouragement, industry plays an increasingly important part in Jordan's economy. In 1990, the manufacturing sector contributed 15% to GDP at factor cost. Manufacturing output fell by 2.9% in 1991 due to the adverse impact of the Gulf War. In 1992, the sector grew by 6.2%. In 2001, industry as a whole accounted for 26% of GDP, while manufacturing contributed 17%. The sector grew at an annual rate averaging 6.7% between 1988 and 1998. Most industrial income comes from four industries: cement, oil refining, phosphates, and potash. Cement production has been rising since the 1980s.

In 1998, the government sold 33% of the Jordan Cement Factories Company (JCFC) to La Farge of France as part of its program of privatization begun in 1996. The 60-year old Jordan Phosphates Mine Company (JPMC) has a monopoly on phosphate mining in Jordan. In 2002 the government negotiated the sale of a 40% stake in JPMC to the Potash Company of Saskatchewan. The Arab Potash Company, a pan-Arab company, was granted a 100-year monopoly for potash mining in Jordan when it was founded in 1956. As of 2003, the government holds 52% and is seeking to sell 26%.

Jordan's one oil refinery is in Az-Zarqa', which has a capacity of 90,4000 barrels per day. Oil is supplied to it from Iraq by a fleet of 1,500 trucks traveling across 600 miles of desert highway. Iraq sells oil to Jordan on terms of one-half free and one-half with a 40% discount of the price above $20/barrel. Since 1998 Jordan and Iraq have been agreed in principle to replace the oil trucks with a pipeline, estimated to cost $350 million. In 2002, Jordan was formally receiving bids for the first stage of the projects. The government holds 52% in a 100-year monopoly. The trade between Jordan and Iraq suffered once the US offensive against Iraq started in 2003.

In 2005, industry accounted for 29.9% of the GDP, and it employed 12.5% of the workforce; agriculture had only a 3.5% share in the economy, and it employed 5% of the workforce; services came in first, with a 66.7% share in the economy, and a 82.5% share in the labor force. The industrial production growth rate was 7.5%, higher than the GDP growth rate in the same year.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Expenditures for research and development (R&D) for the period 1996-2002 (the latest period for which data was available) totaled 6.33% of GDP. High technology exports in 2002, totaled $48 million, or 3% of manufactured exports. A dozen institutes offer scientific training. The Islamic Academy of Sciences, founded in 1986, is an international organization that promotes science, technology, and development in the Islamic and developing worlds. The Jordan Research Council, founded in 1964, coordinates scientific research in the country. The Royal Scientific Society, founded in 1970, is an independent industrial research and development center. All three institutions are in 'Ammān. In 1996 Jordan had 13 universities and colleges offering courses in basic and applied science. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 26% of college and university enrollments. In 1998, Jordan had 1,977 researchers actively engaged in R&D per million people.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Lack of proper storage facilities, inadequate transportation service, and a lack of quality controls and product grading have been chronic handicaps to Jordanian trade. However, these deficiencies have been alleviated, directly and indirectly, under progressive development plans. Traditional Arab forms of trade remain in evidence, particularly in villages, and farm products generally pass through a long chain of middlemen before reaching the consumer. In 'Ammān, however, Westernized modes of distribution have developed and there are supermarkets and department stores as well as small shops. Some local investors are beginning to take an interest in the potential for foreign franchises.

Business hours are from 8 am to 1 pm and from 3:30 to 6:30 pm, six days a week. Shops close either on Friday for Muslims or on Sunday for Christians. Banks stay open from 8:30 am to 12:30 pm and from 3:30 to 5:30 pm, Saturday through Th ursday.

FOREIGN TRADE

Jordan has traditionally run a trade deficit with imports at least doubling exports. During the 1990s, fertilizers accounted for about a quarter of Jordan's commodity exports and amounted to almost a quarter of the world's total exports of crude fertilizers (23%). However, in 2000, Jordan's fertilizer exports plummeted, accounting for a mere 7.6% of exports. No particular commodity now dominates Jordan's export market, but key exports include

apparel (8.9%), medical and pharmaceutical products (8.6%), and paper products (4.7%). Other important exports are industrial machinery (4.8%) and vegetables (6.4%).

In 2004, exports reached $4.2 billion (FOB—Free on Board), while imports grew to $8.7 billion (FOB). The bulk of exports went to the United States (28.9%), Iraq (17.6%), India (7.1%), and Saudi Arabia (5.6%). Imports included manufactured goods, machinery and transport equipment, crude oil and petroleum products, food and live animals, and mainly came from Saudi Arabia (19.8%), China (8.4%), Germany (6.8%), and the United States (6.8%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Jordan's chronically adverse trade balance has long been offset by payments from foreign governments and agencies, especially from Jordan's oil-rich Arab allies, and by remittances from Jordanians working abroad, chiefly in Saudi Arabia. During the Gulf War, expatriate remittances and aid from Arab countries dropped sharply, causing the improvement of the trade deficit to halt. Th is trend continued into the mid-1990s despite an increasing surplus in the services sector. Although Jordan enjoyed a balance of payments surplus in 2000 of around 11% of GDP, the country suffers from a chronic trade deficit, largely due to its reliance on foreign oil. Annual imports usually amount to more than double the exports.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2002 the purchasing power parity of Jordan's exports was $2.5 billion while imports totaled $4.4 billion, resulting in a trade deficit of $1.9 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001 Jordan had exports of goods totaling $2.3 billion and imports totaling $4.3 billion. The services credit totaled $1.48 billion and debit $1.73 billion.

Exports of goods and services reached $4.7 billion in 2004, up from $4.4 billion in 2003. Imports increased from $6.9 billion in 2003 to $7.2 billion in 2004. The resource balance was consequently

negative in both years, slightly improving from -$2.515 billion in 2003, to -$2.482 billion in 2004. The current account balance was positive, decreasing from $429 million in 2003 to $182 million in 2004. Foreign exchange reserves (including gold) decreased to $3.9 billion, covering more than six month of imports.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Central Bank of Jordan, founded in 1964 with a capital of jd2 million and reorganized in 1971, is in charge of note issue, foreign exchange control, and supervision of commercial banks, in cooperation with the Economic Security Council. In 1995, the Central Bank established the dinar as a fully convertible currency for noncapital remittances. In November of that year the bank announced a fixed dollar-dinar rate for current payments. Because of Jordan's IMF-led structural adjustments and trade and investment liberalizations, it became the first Arab country to receive credit ratings from both Standard and Poor and Moody's.

The banking system includes, besides the Central Bank, thirteen commercial banks (five of which are branches of foreign banks), five investment banks, two Islamic banks, one Industrial Development Bank, and several other institutions. Commercial banks have a tradition of being both small, with a low capital base, and highly conservative. The Arab Bank, by far the largest "high street" bank, and the Housing Bank are the largest banks in Jordan. Jordanian banks have acted rapidly to fill the banking void in the Occupied Territories, since the agreement between the PLO and Israel transferred administrative authority to the Palestinians. State banks include the Arab Bank, The Bank of Jordan, Cairo 'Ammān Bank, Jordan-Kuwait Bank, and the Jordan National Bank. Commercial banks included those of Jordan, other Arab countries, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Foreign commercial banks in Jordan include the British Bank of the Middle East, Citibank (US), the Arab Land Bank, and the Arab Banking Corporation (Jordan). The late 1970s and 1980s saw an expansion of niche institutions, such as four investment banks, six specialized credit institutions (three of which are under public ownership), four nonbanking financial institutions, and one Islamic bank. Unfortunately, many of these have been either too small to have had a strong impact on the provision of credit, or have replicated the approach of the commercial banks. Since 1992, moneychangers have been able to operate legally, having been closed down in February 1989, but their area of operation has been heavily circumscribed.

Loans are extended by the Jordan Industrial Bank, Agricultural Credit Corp., Jordan Co-operative Organization, and other credit institutions.

The 'Ammān Financial Market (AFM) has been in existence since the late 1970s. Like most of the equity markets in the Middle East, the AFM is small and lacking in the dynamism that has seen markets in Latin America and Asia take off over the past ten years. A total of 115 companies were listed in 1997, making the AFM second in the Arab world only to Egypt, which quoted some 700 stocks. The capitalization of the AFM stood at around $5 billion, putting it level with Bahrain, but ahead of Oman and Tunisia. In 1996, the government instituted a law allowing foreigners to invest in the AFM. In 1999, the 'Ammān Stock Exchange (ASE) was established as a privately managed institution. There were 149 listed public-shareholding companies at that time, with a market capitalization of approximately $6 billion. As of 2004, a total of 192 companies were listed on the ASE, which had a market capitalization of $18.383 billion that year. In 2004, the ASE General Index rose 62.4% from the previous year to 4,245.6.

INSURANCE

The Al Ahlia Insurance Co. and the Jordan Insurance Co. offer commercial insurance. Several US and British insurance companies have branches or agents in Jordan. A new insurance law in 1998 brought about stricter regulation of the industry. In 1999, there were 26 national insurance companies operating in Jordan and one foreign insurance company. In 2003, the value of all direct premiums written totaled $220 million, of which nonlife premiums accounted for $192 million. In that same year, Middle East was Jordan's top nonlife insurer with gross written nonlife premiums of $15.2 million. The country's top life insurer that same year was American Life Insurance (Alico), with gross written life premiums of $18.4 million.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Jordan has had to rely on foreign assistance for support of its budget, which has increased rapidly since the 1967 war. During the late 1980s, Jordan incurred large fiscal deficits, which led to a heavy burden of external debt. Efforts at cutting public expenditures reduced the budget deficit from 21% of GDP in 1989 to 18% in 1991. The Persian Gulf War, however, forced Jordan to delay the IMF deficit reduction program begun in 1989.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Jordan's central government took in revenues of approximately $3.6 billion and had expenditures of $4.6 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$1 billion. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 77.7% of GDP. Total external debt was $8.459 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2003, the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues were jd2,364.2 million and expenditures were

jd2,387.6 million. The value of revenues were us$16,763 million and expenditures us$16,310 million, based on a official exchange rate for 2003 of us$1 = jd.14104 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 30.6%; defense, 21.7%; public order and safety, 8.9%; economic affairs, 3.2%; environmental protection, 3.7%; housing and community amenities, 2.5%; health, 10.3%; recreation, culture, and religion, 1.9%; education, 14.9%; and social protection, 2.4%.

TAXATION

A new income tax law went into effect in 2002 that reduced the top income tax rate to 25% from 30%. The new law also equalized the level of tax exempt income for men and women, at jd1,000 for both sexes. Income tax rates range from 5–25%, with the average tax payer paying a marginal rate of 5%.

As of 2005, Jordan's corporate tax structure was divided into three tax rates, each targeted to the type of business operated. Hospitals, hotels, industrial, mining, construction, and transportation companies are subject to a 15% rate. Banks and financial institutions are subject to a 35% rate, while foreign exchange dealers, insurance, telecommunications, trade, and other companies are subject to a 25% rate. Capital gains on shares and depreciable assets are subject to a tax rate of 35%. For financial companies and banks, 75% of capital gains stemming from the sale of shares are subject to the tax, while other companies are exempt. In January 2001 Jordan entered the second phase of its transformation to a value-added tax (VAT) regime, a reform begun in 1996. The VAT rate is 13%, and in 2001 about 25 new commodities were added to its coverage, including some food products, tobacco, coffee, soft drinks, new cars, heavy-duty vehicles, and paper products. Businesses with sales less than jd250,000 a year are exempt from registering for the VAT. There are no capital gains or net worth taxes on individuals and social security taxes are paid jointly by employers and employees.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Customs and excise duties used to provide a large portion of all tax revenues, but following accession to the World Trade Organization, they are no longer so high. All imports and exports are subject to licenses. Import duties are levied by CIF (cost, insurance, and freight) value, with a 0–30% rate. There is also a 13% value-added tax (VAT) that is applied to both imported and domestically produced goods. Jordan grants preferential treatment to imports from Arab League countries, under bilateral trade agreements that exempt certain items from duty and under multilateral trade and transit agreements with Arab League countries. Jordan also signed a bilateral free trade agreement (FTA) with the United States in October 2000.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

In the past there was little foreign investment in Jordan apart from the oil pipelines, but in the early 1970s, the government began offering liberal tax inducements, including a six-year corporate tax holiday for firms established in 'Ammān and a tax holiday of up to 10 years for those outside the capital. 100% foreign ownership of local enterprises is permitted in some cases. In 1980, the government formed the Jordanian Industrial Estates Corp. near 'Ammān to attract new industries to planned industrial complexes; investors were granted two-year income tax exemptions. Jordan also has established four free-trade zones, at Al-'Aqabah, Az-Zarqa', the Queen Alia International Airport, and along the Syrian frontier, near the Jordan-Syria rail link.

In 1995, Jordan hosted an international conference on investment in the kingdom as part of its recent opening to international investment. It also announced intentions to begin selling off government shares in major enterprises, including telecommunications and the Royal Jordanian Airlines. In 1997, the country had $1.2 billion in foreign exchange reserves.

In 1999, with the succession of King Abdullah II to the throne, significant steps have been taken towards encouraging further foreign investments in the country. Official FDI numbers are not available, but UNCTAD estimates show that total FDI inflows rose to $787 million in 2003. In 2004, the Jordan Investment Board approved investment projects for around $134 million, while the total FDI stock was estimated at around $11 billion.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Before the upheavals caused by the war of 1967, the government had begun to design its first comprehensive development plans. The Jordan Development Board, established in 1952, adopted a five-year program for 1961–65 and a seven-year program for 1964–70, which was interrupted by war. In 1971, a newly created National Planning Council, with wide responsibility for national planning, prepared the 1973–75 plan for the East Bank, with a planned total outlay of jd179 million. The main objectives were to reduce the trade deficit, increase the GNP, expand employment, and reduce dependence on foreign aid. At least 60% of the planned projects were completed, and a new five-year plan was instituted on 1 January 1976.

The 1976–80 plan entailed outlays of jd844 million (at 1975 constant prices) and achieved an annual GDP growth rate of 9.6%, below the goal of 11.9%. Notable development projects included port expansion at Al 'Aqabah and construction of Queen Alia International Airport. The 1981–85 development plan allocated funds totaling jd3,300 million and projected an economic growth rate of 10.4% annually (17% for industry and mining, 7% for agriculture). The plan envisaged completion of large potash and fertilizer installations, as well as the first stage of construction of the 150 m (492 ft) Maqarin Dam project on the Yarmuk River, which would store water for irrigation. This project also was to extend the East Ghor Canal 14 km (9 mi) from Karama to the Dead Sea. The Maqarin Dam project was shelved indefinitely, however.

The 1986–90 development plan allocated jd3,115.5 million, to be shared between the public sector (52%) and the private and mixed sector (48%). The goals of the plan were the following: realization of a 5.1% annual growth rate in the GDP; creation of 97,000 new employment opportunities; a decrease in imports and an increase in exports to achieve a more favorable balance of trade; expansion of investment opportunities to attract more Arab and foreign capital; development of technological expertise and qualified personnel; attainment of a balanced distribution of economic gains nationally through regional development; and expansion and upgrading of health, education, housing, and other social services.

Between 1953 and 1986, Jordan received development assistance from the IBRD and other international agencies, other Arab countries, the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States. The United States provided nearly $1.7 billion in nonmilitary assistance and more than $1.4 billion in military aid. Aid from Arab oil-producing countries totaled $322 million in 1984. The April 1989 riots in Jordan led to a new surge of aid transfers. Arab grants to Jordan in 1989 fell between $360 million and $430 million. Political dissatisfaction in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia at Jordan's policy during the Gulf crisis resulted, however, in the Gulf states denying further direct grant assistance.

In 1988, Jordan began working with the IMF on restructuring its economy. These plans were thrown into considerable disarray by political events in the Gulf (most notably Jordan's ill-conceived support of Iraq in the face of global opposition to that country's 1990 invasion of Kuwait), but new agreements were concluded in 1991, as Jordan began to institute democratic reforms. Foremost in the IMF plan are reductions in government spending, taming of inflation, increasing foreign exchange, and decreasing government ownership of economic enterprises. In the economic plan of 1996–98, Jordan was expected to decrease its ownership of enterprises from 1994's level of 64% to 55% by 1998.

The economy expanded by 6.5% in 2005, and was expected to continue to grow in subsequent years at an average rate of about 5%. Private consumption, helped by remittances from abroad, will be the main growth engines. Other sectors that will push the economy upward are construction and real estate, power generation, and telecommunications.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The social insurance system provides old-age, disability, and survivor benefits, as well as workers' compensation. Public employees and workers over the age of 16 working in private companies with five or more employees are covered. Workers contribute 5.5% of their wages, employers pay 9% of payroll, and the government covers any deficit. The retirement age is 60 for men and 55 for women if coverage requirements are met. A funeral grant of 150 dinars is also provided.

Women's rights are often dictated by Islam. Under Shariah law, men may obtain a divorce more easily than women, a female heir's inheritance is half that of a male, and in court, a woman's testimony has only half the value of a man's. Married women are required by law to obtain their husband's permission to apply for a passport. Women are discouraged from pursuing careers. The Criminal Code provides for lenient sentences for men accused of murdering female relatives they believed to be "immodest" in order to "cleanse the honor" of their families, and a number of these "honor killings" were reported in 2004. Violence against women and spousal abuse is common. The rights of children are generally well respected in Jordan, and the government makes an effort to enforce child labor laws.

Bedouins are entitled to full citizenship, but nonetheless experience professional and social discrimination. Freedom of speech and of the press are restricted by the government. Human rights violations by the government included police brutality, arbitrary arrest and detention, and there were also allegations of torture.

HEALTH

In 2004, Jordan had 205 physicians, 96 pharmacists, 55 dentists, and 275 nurses per 100,000 people. Medical services are concentrated in the main towns, but in recent decades the government has attempted to bring at least a minimum of modern medical care to rural areas. Village clinics are staffed by trained nurses, with regular visits by government physicians. As modern medicine has spread to the more remote areas, traditional methods have been dying out. The Ministry of Health, created in 1950, in cooperation with UNICEF, the World Health Organization, and the UNRWA, has greatly reduced the incidence of malaria and tuberculosis. In 1996, there were only 11 reported cases of tuberculosis per 100,000 people. Trachoma, hepatitis, typhoid fever, intestinal parasites, acute skin inflammations, and other endemic conditions remain common, however. In 2000, 96% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 99% had adequate sanitation. Health care expenditure was estimated at 8% of GDP.

In 2005, average life expectancy was 78.24 years. As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 24.6 and 2.6 per 1,000 people. About 50% of married women (ages 15 to 49) used contraception as of 2000. The infant mortality rate was 17.35 per 1,000 live births in 2005. Under age five mortality has been reduced dramatically from 149 in 1960 to 30 in 2000 for every 1,000 live births. Immunization rates for children up to one year old were: tuberculosis, 93%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 87%; polio, 94%; and measles, 69%. As of 1999, rates for DPT and measles, respectively, were 97% and 94%. Only four cases of polio were reported in 1994; none were seen in 1996. As of 2000, an estimated 8% of all children under five were malnourished.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 600 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 500 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

A general housing shortage in the mid-1960s was aggravated by the influx of West Bank refugees after the 1967 war, and Jordan still lacked adequate housing in the early 1980s. During 1981–86, some 42,300 new residential building permits were issued. According to 1994 national statistics, there were 831,799 housing units nationwide, including 467,715 apartments, 335,423 dar (traditional, detached structures of one or more rooms), 2,877 barracks, and 6,907 tents. About 80% of all dwelling units were owner occupied. Most residential units were made of cement bricks or concrete blocks. About 3% of all dwellings were described as mud brick and rubble constructions. The preliminary results of the 2004 census indicated a 44.7% increase in housing units from 1994; for a total of about 1,204,000 housing units nationwide. The average number of members per household was estimated at about 5.3.

EDUCATION

Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16. Ten years are devoted to primary education, followed by two years at the secondary stage. Vocational studies are offered as an option for secondary students. The United National Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) operates schools in refugee camps. The academic year runs from September to June. The primary languages of instruction are Arabic and English.

In 2001, about 31% of children between the ages of four and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 92% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 80% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 98% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 20:1 in 2003.

Jordan has five universities: the University of Jordan (founded in 1962), at 'Ammān; Yarmuk University at Irbid; Mut'ah University, in Karak governorate in southern Jordan; the University of Jordan for Science and Technology; and the Zaqa University established in 1993. In addition there are 53 community colleges; two of these are UNRWA schools on the East Bank for Palestinian students. In 2003, about 35% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 89.9%, with 95.1% for men and 84.7% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 5% of GDP, or 20.6% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The library at the University of Jordan has 670,000 volumes. In 1977, the department of Libraries, Documentation, and Archives was founded to establish the national library, which had 70,000 volumes in 2002. The University of Jordan for Women, founded in 1991, holds 17,000 volumes. The Library of the Jordan University of Science and Technology holds 100,000 books and 30,000 back issues of periodicals, subscribing to 518 titles. The Philadelphia University Library ('Ammān) holds about 78,642 volumes and 370 subscriptions to periodicals while Amman University Library has 77,500 books (in Arabic and in English) and over 340 titles of periodicals.

More than half of Jordan's museums are archaeological and historical. 'Ammān has four major museums: the Jordan Archaeological Museum, the Folklore Museum, the Popular Life Museum, and the Mosaic Gallery. The Department of Antiquities Museum is located in Salt. The Museum of Jordanian Heritage, one of the finest archeological museums in the country, is in Irbid, as is the Natural History Museum.

MEDIA

Public communications and broadcasting facilities are government controlled. Telephone and telegraph facilities were introduced soon after World War II. In 2003, there were an estimated 114 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 1,100 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 242 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

All radio and television broadcasts are controlled by the government. Radio Jordan transmits AM and FM broadcasts in English, and the television stations broadcast programs in English, Arabic, French, and Hebrew on two channels. A few private radio stations have been permitted to operate as entertainment programming. As of 1999, there were six AM and five FM radio stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 372 radios and 177 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 44.7 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 81 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were 21 secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

Jordan's four major daily newspapers (with 2002 estimated daily circulations) are Al-Dustour (Constitution, 100,000), Al-Rai (Opinion, 90,000), Sawt Ash-Shaab (Voice of the People, 30,000), and Jordan Times (15,000). All except the English-language Jordan Times are in Arabic; all are published in 'Ammān and are owned and operated by the private sector. Al-Rai is a government-controlled paper, founded after the 1970–71 civil war; Al-Dustour is 25% government owned. There are also weeklies and less frequent publications published in Arabic in 'Ammān. One weekly, The Star, is published in English. The press code, enacted in 1955, requires all newspapers to be licensed and prohibits the publishing of certain information, mainly relating to Jordan's national security, unless taken directly from material released by the government.

The constitution provides for freedom of speech and the press; however, in practice there are some significant restrictions on these rights. Private citizens can be prosecuted for slandering the Royal Family, and the Press and Publication Law of 1993 restricts the media coverage of 10 subjects, including the military, the royal family, and economic policy.

ORGANIZATIONS

Religious organizations still are of major importance, and membership in the hamula, the kinship group or lineage comprising several related families, also is of great significance as a framework for social organization. Literary and theatrical clubs have become popular, especially since World War II, but political organizations died out after the 1957 ban on political parties. Jordan serves as the home base for a number of multinational cultural and educational organizations, including the Islamic Academy of Sciences and the Arab Music Academy.

There are chambers of commerce in 'Ammān and other large towns. The Jordan Trade Association supports business owners with domestic and international holdings. Other labor and business organizations include the Jordan Exporters and Producers Association of Fruits and Vegetables and the Association of Banks in Jordan. There are several professional associations, particular those dedicated to research and education in medical and scientific fields.

National youth organizations include the Jordanian Association for Boy Scouts and Girl Guides, YMCA/YWCA, Junior Chamber, National Union of Jordanian Students, and the Orthodox Youth Education Society. There are a variety of sports associations and clubs, representing such pastimes as tennis, track and field, and badminton. The Alliance for Arab Women and the Jordanian National Committee for Women are based in 'Ammān.

The Noor Al-Hussein Foundation, founded in 1985, is a major national social welfare organization. The Red Crescent Society, Habitat for Humanity, and Caritas have national chapters.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

The East Bank is an area of immense historical interest, with some 800 archaeological sites, including 224 in the Jordan Valley. Jordan's notable tourist attractions include the Greco-Roman remains at Jerash (ancient Garasi), which was one of the major cities of the Decapolis (the capital, 'Ammān, was another, under the name of Philadelphia) and is one of the best-preserved cities of its time in the Middle East. Petra (Batra), the ancient capital of Nabataea in southern Jordan, carved out of the red rock by the Nabataeans, is probably the East Bank's most famous historical site. Natural attractions include the Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea, which—at 392 m (1290 ft) below sea level—is the lowest spot on Earth. Biblical attractions include Bethany Beyond the Jordan, where Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist; and Mount Nebo, where Moses saw the Promised Land.

The beaches on the Gulf of Aqaba offer holiday relaxation for Jordanians, as well as tourists. Sports facilities include swimming pools, tennis and squash courts, and bowling alleys. Eastern Jordan has modern hotel facilities in 'Ammān and Al-Aqabah, and there are government-built rest houses at some of the remote points of interest. A valid passport and visa are required. Visitors may obtain a visa, for a fee, at most international points of entry.

About 1.6 million tourists arrived in Jordan in 2003. Of these visitors, 64% came from the Middle East. There were 19,698 hotel rooms with 37,859 beds and an occupancy rate of 33%. The average length of stay in 2003 was two nights. Tourism expenditure receipts totaled $1 billion that year.

In 2004, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in 'Ammān and the Dead Sea/Jordan Valley at $204. Other areas were estimated at $135 per day.

FAMOUS JORDANIANS

The founder of Jordan's Hashemite dynasty—the term stems from the Hashemite (or Hashimite) branch of the tribe of the Prophet Muhammad—was Hussein ibn-'Ali (Husayn bin 'Ali, 1856–1931), sharif of Mecca and king of the Hijaz.

As a separate Arab country, Jordan has had a relatively short history, during which only two men have become internationally known. The first of these was the founder of the kingdom, 'Abdallah ibn-Husayn (1882–1951). Although he was born in Hijaz and was a son of the sharif of Mecca, he made 'Ammān his headquarters. He was recognized as emir in 1921 and king in 1946. The second was his grandson, King Hussein I (Husayn ibn-Talal, 1935–99), who ruled from 1953 until his death. In June 1978, 16 months after the death by helicopter crash of Queen Alia (1948–77), Hussein married his fourth wife, the Queen Noor al-Hussein (Elizabeth Halaby, b.US, 1951). King Abdullah II (b.1962) has reigned since the death of his father in 1999.

DEPENDENCIES

Jordan has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Al Madfai, Madiha Rashid. Jordan, the United States, and the Middle East Peace Process, 1974–1991. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Brand, Laurie A. Jordan's Inter-Arab Relations: The Political Economy of Alliance Making. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994.

Dew, Philip and Jonathan Wallace (eds.) Doing Business with Jordan. Sterling, Va.: Kogan Page, 2004.

Knowles, Warwick M. Jordan Since 1989: A Study in Political Economy. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2005.

Lust-Okar, Ellen. Structuring Conflict in the Arab World: Incumbents, Opponents, and Institutions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Milton-Edwards, Beverley, and Peter Hinchcliffe. Jordan: A Hashemite Legacy. London: Routledge, 2001.

Moore, Pete W. Doing Business in the Middle East: Politics and Economic Crisis in Jordan und Kuwait. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Rollin, Sue. Jordan. 2nd ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 1998.

Ryan, Curtis R. Jordan in Transition: From Hussein to Abdullah. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.

Satloff, Robert B. From Abdullah to Hussein: Jordan in Transition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Seddon, David (ed.). A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2004.

JORDAN

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

Major Cities:
Amman

Other Cities:
Irbid, Jerash, Maān, Zarqa

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated February 1995. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

From as long ago as the Bronze Age, JORDAN has been a crossroads of the world. It is a mosaic of cultures, the spiritual capital of three great religions—Christianity, Islam, and Judaism—and today, a miracle of modern urbanization, with over half of the country's population clustered around the cities of Amman, Zarqa, and Irbid.

Jordan evokes images of the Bedouin, of Lawrence of Arabia, of spectacular deserts, and of warriors on camels. It has been home to a multitude of peoples and remains the repository of their relics. Canaanite cities, Roman and Byzantine palaces, Muslim shrines, and Crusader castles are all to be found in this land of contrasts. Here, the mountains rise in places to 5,700 feet and, at the Dead Sea, the earth falls nearly 1,300 feet below sea level. The mystery of the nomadic desert life and the splendor of ancient cities meet in Jordan. The nation is blessed with few natural resources, yet has compensated for this need with an increasingly educated population which has gone forth to fill professional and managerial needs throughout the Middle East.

MAJOR CITY

Amman

Amman, the capital of Jordan with a population of 1.3 million, is spread out over many steep hills. With an elevation ranging from about 2,450 to 2,950 feet above sea level, the city has a growing population of over one million. Here, in biblical times, was Rabbath Ammon, capital of the Ammonites, who were the descendants of Lot. The pharaoh, Ptolemy II, Philadelphus of Egypt (285-247B.C.), ruled the city; he rebuilt it and renamed it Philadelphia.

Beginning in 63 B.C., the city fell under Roman rule. Before that time, it had flourished as a member of the league of free cities known as the Decapolis. Briefly revived in the eighth century under the Ummayyad Arabs, the entire country deteriorated in the ninth century when the Arab capital moved from Damascus to Baghdad. During the Middle Ages, Amman was no more than a tiny village. It became the capital of Transjordan in 1921 and, today, is a major city, with new construction everywhere and constantly increasing traffic and noise.

Most city activity centers around the government. Amman is Jordan's principal trading center, the main clearing point for commercial goods, and the hub of manufacturing activity. The city grew rapidly after the Arab-Israeli wars of 1948 and 1967; following each war, large numbers of Palestinian Arab refugees and displaced persons from the West Bank became residents.

Amman's climate is moderate. Summer temperatures on the residential jebels (hills) range from 80°F to 95°F, but rarely exceed 100°F; the atmosphere is dry and even the summer evenings are usually cool. Many days are windy, and dust clouds occasionally blow in from the dry hillsides and nearby desert. Little rain falls from mid-April to mid-November. In winter, temperatures seldom go below 32°F, but the cold is penetrating, the wind frequently strong, and houses are difficult to heat. Rain falls often in January and February. Snow falls occasionally and even a moderately light snow can temporarily disrupt traffic and communications.

Education

Several schools in Amman are suitable for English-speaking students, including two nursery schools and a day-care center.

The American Community School was established in 1957 to provide a U.S. curriculum for American children in the city. It is primarily supported by tuition payments, but also receives assistance from the U.S. Department of State. Although most of the students are American, there are also children of other nationalities. The school year runs from late August until early June, and regular classes are augmented by instruction in music, sports, dancing, and other extracurricular activities. A choice of French, Spanish, or Arabic is offered, starting in fifth grade.

American Community School has an excellent curriculum, with high standards of instruction and achievement. Information is available from the U.S. Embassy in Amman.

The Amman Baccalaureate School was established in 1981 and offers a U.K., Jordanian, and International Baccalaureate type of curriculum, although there are some Americans enrolled in the school, and on staff.

Private schools in Amman offer English instruction in certain subjects in grades 10 and 11 only. Their school year extends from September through May. The College de La Salle, a Catholic school for boys, offers European history, physics, English literature and grammar, and mathematics. The Bishop School for Boys, which has been in operation since 1936, has courses in English grammar, literature, and history, plus physics, chemistry, and biology.

At the Ahliyya School for Girls, instruction is available in chemistry, physics, English literature and grammar, European history, art, and biology.

Several nursery schools (with day care) are available to Americans. Enrollment is international, and instruction is by English-speaking teachers. Openings are limited and waiting lists are long.

The University of Jordan is an accredited institution offering English-language instruction in the following fields: English literature, science, medicine, and a new course in classical Arabic taught especially for nonnative speakers of that language. The university also offers courses outside the degree-granting program; several foreign students are enrolled in these courses.

Archaeology is one of Jordan's most interesting activities. The presence in Amman of the American Center for Oriental Research gives focus to archaeological pursuits, and a group called the

Friends of Archaeology sponsors field trips and lectures.

A number of courses are taught at the YWCA in Amman, including music and Arabic. Dance is taught at the American Community School as an extracurricular activity.

Recreation

Jordan has a good network of main and secondary roads and a sufficient number of gasoline stations. For long car trips, tourists should fill gas tanks and take along plenty of boiled drinking water or bottled mineral water. Travel to areas not on or near the main highways is difficult, but not impossible; main roads have been improved considerably in the past few years. Good places to visit include:

• Ajlun, with the forest and medieval ruins of the fort of Qal'at al-Rabad, a military fortress built in the 12th century as a defense against Crusader armies.
• Aqaba, Jordan's only seaport, which has good swimming, scuba diving, and water-skiing. Hotel accommodations are available.
• Kerak (Al-Karak), a Moabite town having one of the finest Crusader castles in the Middle East. The town, called Le Crac des Moabites (by the Crusaders), was taken by Saladin late in the 12th century and by the Turks two centuries later. The restorations have made it an accessible and popular tourist spot. Kerak has about 10,000 residents today, including a number of Christian families whose origins lie in Crusader times.
• Madaba, where a sixth-century mosaic map of Palestine can be found in the Greek Orthodox Church. Other Mosaics are also open for viewing.
• Mount Nebo, from where, overlooking the Dead Sea, Moses is said to have viewed the Promised Land. Mosaic finds here are excellent.
• Petra, a unique city carved by the Nabateans (of the ancient land of Arabia) out of sheer red sandstone cliffs. Visitors ride on horseback through the Siq, the Silent City's mysterious approach, for about 45 minutes. Roman ruins are also located here.
• Qasr el-Amra, where a castle at Azraq (Qasr el-Azraq) near this site was used by Umayyad caliphs, and has early frescoes recently restored.
• Damascus, a colorful city with a rich history, a three-to four-hour drive from Amman, including stops at the Jordanian-Syrian border. It has a wonderful, inexpensive bazaar and an excellent museum. In late summer of each year, an international fair is held. Hotels are adequate, but rooms are in short supply during this period.

There are many opportunities for active sports in Jordan. Scuba diving, snorkeling, and deep-sea fishing facilities are available at the port city Aqaba, and there is freshwater fishing at Wadi Ziglab and Azraq. No hunting is allowed at the present time.

Three sports clubs—Al Hussein Youth City (or Sports City), the Orthodox Club, and the Royal Automobile Club—are open to foreign membership. Single male membership, however, is not permitted in these organizations.

Several hotels have swimming pools and health clubs. The Royal Racing Clubs sponsors horse and (occasionally) camel races in spring and summer.

Entertainment

A semiprofessional theatrical group present productions in English and Arabic. Workshops for children and adults are conducted throughout the year. Amman also has an amateur theater group which performs regularly. Concerts are usually presented by one of the foreign cultural associations such as the Royal Cultural Center, the British Council, the American Center, the Goethe Institute, or the Haya Arts Center. They also offer classes for adults and children in dancing, aerobics, art, language, and handicrafts. Many of these centers operate lending libraries. Local cinemas feature films in English (Hollywood productions) and Arabic. There are four modern movie theaters.

The Jerash Festival of Cultural and Arts takes place for two weeks each summer in the ruins of the ancient Greco-Roman city north of Amman. The festival offers international, regional, and local performances of drama, music, and dance as well as art displays, handicraft exhibitions, and children's activities. The festival is open to the public from afternoon until midnight.

The restaurants most frequented by foreigners serve either continental, Chinese, or Middle Eastern food. There are also American-style fast-food places. Music for dancing, discos, and even floor shows, are available at the Intercontinental, Holiday Inn, Marriott, Regency Palace, Amra, and San Rock hotels, as well as at a few nightclubs. The various sports clubs maintain restaurants for members and their guests.

The U.S. community participates in Rotary and Lions Clubs, both of which have active chapters in Amman. There also is a broad program of scouting for boys and girls.

OTHER CITIES

IRBID is a bustling industrial and agricultural hub in the extreme north, 53 miles northwest of Amman. This governorate capital of 260,000 residents lies near the Yarmūk River, which supplies irrigation for the fertile local fields and feeds numerous springs. Yarmūk University, founded here in 1976, is a multi-faceted, bilingual institution. English and Arabic are used in schools that range from arts and sciences to veterinary medicine. Irbid was the home for Bronze Age settlers, and is thought to have been a part of a Hellenistic league around the first century A.D.

JERASH is located north of Amman, less than an hours drive through the hills of ancient Gilead. The old provincial city has preserved some of the finest sites of its ancient Greco-Roman heritage. It is believed that the area has been inhabited since Neolithic times. Between the 1st century BC and the 3rd century AD, the city was part of Emperor Pompey's Decapolis, a ten-city commercial league of the Middle East. Today, the city of about 144,000 is the second largest tourist site in the country.

One of the most famous sights is the Triumphal Arch. The Arch once marked the grand entrance to the city. Now, however, the city entrance is through the South Gate, which leads directly to the Oval Plaza beneath the Temple of Zeus. Behind the Temple is the famous Hippo-drome, or South Theatre, built in the 2nd century, that seats about 3000 people. This theatre hosts the annual Jerash Festival of Culture and Arts that usually takes place in July. At the festival, visitors will enjoy a variety of cultural entertainment that includes music, plays, and dances. From the theater, a 660 meter long, column-lined street leads to the magnificent Temple of Artemis.

Walking tours take visitors through a variety of markets, temples, fountains, baths, gateways and other structures with beautifully preserved art and architecture. Tour programs are generally offered in one of four languages: French, English, German and Arabic.

Just north of Jerash, through pine forests and olive groves, you can visit the medieval town of Ajlun, which offers stunning examples of Arab and Islamic architecture. Qala'at Ar-Rabad, or Ajlun Castle, was built here in the 12th century by the nephew of Saladin, Usama Ibn Munqich. It served as a military fort and buffer to protect the region from invading Crusader forces.

There are not many places to stay in Jerash. Many visit the city on a day trip from Amman or Ajlun, which also has a few good hotels.

MAĀN is the capital of Maān Governorate, situated 60 miles south of the Dead Sea. The city of 31,000 serves as a departure point for excursions to the ancient ruins of Petra, 19 miles to the northwest. Maān lies on a major highway and is the southern terminus of a narrow-gauge railroad. Territorial status of the region was disputed from after World War I until 1965, when Saudi Arabia accepted placement of the Maān area within Jordan. Bedouin tribes inhabit this diffusely settled mountainous area.

ZARQA (also spelled Az-Zarkā') is an industrial city of 491,000, located 12 miles northeast of Amman. This was once the home of the handsome, proud Circassian people, and the former headquarters of the Arab League. Zarqa should not be confused with Zarqa Ma'in, a mineral springs center southeast of Amman.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is located in the heart of the Middle East and the Arab World. It is bounded on the north by Syria, on the east by Saudi Arabia and Iraq, on the south by Saudi Arabia and the Gulf of Aqaba, and on the west by Israel. It covers an area of approximately 35,000 square miles. Its size approximates that of the State of Indiana.

Most of Jordan's borders do not follow well-defined or natural features of the terrain. Rather, they were established by various international agreements, and, with the exception of the border with Israel, there are no major disputes. The precise delineation of the Jordanian-Israeli border is a key aspect of ongoing bilateral negotiations. In the 1967 war, the West Bank of the Jordan River, which Jordan had annexed in 1949, came under Israeli occupation. In 1988, King Hussein relinquished Jordan's claim to administrative control of the West Bank.

The country's terrain varies. On the eastern desert plateau, average elevation is 3,000 feet; in the west, mountains rise to 5,700 feet; and at the Dead Sea, terrain drops to the Earth's lowest land point of some 1,300 feet below sea level. Although historically an earthquake-prone region, no severe shocks have been recorded for several centuries.

Jordan's countryside offers a diversity of climate and scenery. Within easy driving distance of the capital city of Amman, one can visit Irbid's temperate highlands, Ajlun's majestic hills, the fertile Jordan Valley, the southern sandstone mountains, and the arid desert of the eastern plateau.

Inadequate rainfall is a chronic problem. Rainfall usually occurs only from November to April; the rest of the year has bright sunshine daily and low humidity. In the spring, a desert wind brings higher temperatures; daytime summer temperatures can be hot, but nights are usually pleasant, cool, and dry. Autumn is long and pleasant; winter often brings light snow to the mountains and to Amman; and spring carpets the country's grazing lands with beautiful wildflowers.

Population

Jordan has been home to many successive civilizations. Each group introduced new elements into the country's religion, language, and architecture—influences that are still seen today. Except for the Crusader period, Jordan has remained under Arab rule from the 7th century to the beginning of the 16th century by which time the Turkish Ottoman Empire had expanded to include many Arab Middle Eastern countries.

Predominately Arab and Moslem, the population of Jordan today is 5.2 million. The 1948 influx of Palestinian Arab refugees, the 1967 postwar waves of displaced persons from across the Jordan River, and the 1991 "returnees" from the Gulf States have resulted in a population nearly evenly divided between "East Bankers" and Palestinians. Several of the first wave of Palestinian refugees and displaced persons were given Jordanian citizenship, and, today, hold prominent government, commercial, and professional positions. The well over 200,000 refugees who still live in camps run by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) are not as assimilated into the Jordanian economy. In the aftermath of the Gulf War, an estimated 250,000 or more Palestinians and Jordanians returned to the country, increasing the country's population by 8 percent.

The population represents a mixture of traditions. To be a Bedouin, or to come from Bedouin stock, is a matter of pride for many Jordanians. They are known as people of strong character, with a deep sense of family and tribal pride. Harsh desert conditions have spawned a well-developed code of hospitality that is still expressed toward one another and toward foreigners.

In the wake of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus, a non-Arab Sunni Moslem minority, the Circassians, settled in Jordan. Despite their relatively small numbers, they have long been important in government, business, and similar pursuits. Today, Circassian families are prominent in land owning, commerce, the military, and industry.

Numbering roughly 6 percent, Christians form the largest non-Moslem category of Jordan's population. The principal points of concentration of the East Bank's indigenous Christians are the towns of al-Karak, Madaba, al-Salt, and Ajlun. Most of Jordan's Christian population are Eastern Orthodox, with large numbers of Roman Catholics as well. The kingdom's several Protestant communities have resulted generally from American and European missionary activities.

There are also small communities of non-Christian minority groups, which include the Druze, the Samaritans, and the Bahais.

Jordan's population continues to grow steadily at a rate of more than 3 percent. The population is also becoming more and more urbanized, with more than 50 percent of the people living in the three main cities of Amman, Zarqa, and Irbid.

In general, Jordanians are courteous, friendly, and dignified in their relations with Westerners. Many speak excellent English and are well educated, often having studied in the U.S. or at American institutions, such as the American University of Beirut. Although sometimes critical of U.S. Middle East policy, Jordanians, on a personal level, like Americans and treat them in a friendly and respectful manner.

Public Institutions

According to the 1952 Constitution, Jordan is a hereditary monarchy, in which the King forms and dismisses governments, may dissolve Parliament, and is the ultimate arbiter of domestic and foreign policy. The current King is Abdulla bin al-Huseein II.

The King sets the broad parameters of foreign and domestic policy, while the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers manage daily affairs. In recent years, the Parliament, consisting of an appointed 40-member Senate and a popularly elected 80-member Lower House has been seeking to assert greater influence over policy. The ending of martial law in 1992 contributed to the creation of a climate in which Jordanians feel relatively free to express their political views.

Government organization is centralized, with authority and resources almost entirely in the hands of the national government. National government ministries regulate, supervise, and provide public services. Local autonomy and self-government are not highly developed, although many municipalities and villages have elected councils.

Municipalities are organized into 12 Governorates, headed by a "Muhafiz" or Governor appointed by the King and Cabinet. In some cases, the Governorates are divided into subdistricts, overseen by appointed district officers who have the power to supervise and regulate affairs and who report to the National Ministry for Municipal, Rural, and Environmental Affairs.

The General Intelligence and Public Security Directorates have broad responsibility for internal security and wide powers to monitor segments of the population that may pose a threat to the security of the regime.

Since April 1989, when riots in the southern city of Ma'an led the government to speed up plans to hold parliamentary elections, Jordan has taken important steps toward political reform and greater respect for human rights. Jordan held free and open elections for the Lower House in 1989 and 1993. Government-ordered changes to the election law, following Parliament's dissolution in August 1993, angered fundamentalist Islamists and extreme leftists, who blamed the change for their losses at the polls in November.

Jordan is a member of the Arab League, the Organization of Islamic Conference, and the U.N.

Arts, Science, and Education

In 1921 when the Emirate of Transjordan was created, educational facilities consisted of 25 religious schools that provided a narrow, tradition-oriented education. Today, the Ministry of Education estimates that nearly one person out of three in the kingdom is a student in one of the thousands of schools offering varied curriculums.

Because so many Jordanians place great value on educational opportunities for their children as a means of self-improvement and a way to develop a responsible citizenry, much of the Arab World looks to Jordan as a source of educated skilled workers and a provider of educational services.

Public education is free and compulsory through grade 10. Secondary education through grade 12 is provided by both academic and vocational high schools for those primary school graduates with the highest scholastic achievement. Students follow a standardized curriculum that heavily emphasizes rote memorization. All students must take the "Tawjihi" examination at the end of their 12th year in school. The score on this exam is the major determinant of each student's educational future in Jordan.

At the post-secondary level, Jordan has students enrolled in many community colleges. Students who attend community colleges are those whose Tawjihi scores are not high enough to permit them to enter one of five universities.

The country's first university, the University of Jordan, has a beautiful campus in the suburbs of Amman, with an expanding curriculum, including agriculture, arts, science, medicine, dentistry, law, physical education, education, administrative sciences, nursing, and "sharia" (Islamic Law).

Jordan's second largest university, Yarmouk, is located in the northern city of Irbid. Yarmouk's curriculum focuses on liberal arts.

The Jordan University of Science and Technology, a relatively new institution, has programs in medicine, engineering, and technology.

Mu'tah University was founded in 1981 as a military college, and a civilian wing was added in 1986. In the past 5 years, it has grown into the third largest university in the country. It is located in the southern city of Kerak and draws most of its pupils from the region south of Amman. The largest department is English Language and Literature.

A fifth public university, al-Elbait, opened in September 1994. Located in the northern city of Mafraq, al-Elbait University presents a general curriculum in an atmosphere of "progressive Islamic values."

In comparison with other developing countries, Jordan has a high proportion of university graduates. Since only a small number of those students who are seeking higher education can be accommodated in one of Jordan's four public universities or in other state-operated institutions of higher education, many study abroad, especially in the U.S.

A new phenomenon began in 1990, with the creation of Amman National University, a private university system. These institutions will absorb many of the students who are now qualified for higher education but unable to gain public university seats or afford education in the West.

Unfortunately, students today are finding that their employment opportunities have worsened. The previously abundant job market in the Gulf has virtually disappeared, and the domestic economy cannot absorb all the graduates that are currently being produced. Many foreign workers from the Gulf have returned to Jordan, exacerbating an already bad economic situation.

Jordan has a fledgling but growing commitment to the arts, which are considered an important part of social development. The Ministry of Culture and National Heritage heads a varied program of art exhibitions and other activities, while private efforts are continually expanding. The Queen Noor Foundation actively promotes the arts, as well as other social concerns. With the assistance of the U.S. Information Service (USIS), the Queen Noor Foundation has established the National Music Conservatory of Jordan, which now provides instruction for students of piano and wind and string instruments. Another Queen Noor Foundation project, the Jerash Festival of Arts and Culture, has become an internationally recognized event that draws numerous performing groups to Jordan during July each year. The Jordan National Gallery boasts the finest collection of contemporary Arab art in the world. The Royal Cultural Center offers exhibits, stage presentations, and special-film programs and concerts by artists from the U.S. and other countries.

Commerce and Industry

Jordan is a small country with limited natural resources. Water is scarce; only about 10 percent of the land is arable. Rock phosphate, potash, and fertilizer are traditional exports and major sources of hard currency. Despite substantial development of the private sector since the mid-1970s, Jordan depends heavily on the outside world for energy, manufactured and consumer goods, and food.

Fueled by high levels of remittances by Jordanians working in the Gulf and financial aid from Arab States during the oil boom, Jordan's economy grew by an average of 10 percent a year between 1974 and 1982, with large increases in real investment and per capita income. This inflow of income allowed Jordan to develop its infrastructure, industries, and agriculture, and to expand government services. When the flow of money began to disappear in the mid-1980s, Jordan continued its expansion programs and, by 1988, had accumulated a foreign debt of more than $8.3 billion. As foreign exchange dwindled, the overvalued Jordanian dinar fell under pressure and was devalued in October 1988, realizing a 45 percent depreciation. When the government took steps to cut subsidies and increase revenues through commodity price increases, rioting broke out in the economically depressed south.

In part due to the riots, Jordan concluded a standby arrangement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1989, which included austerity measures and economic reforms. Other debt-rescheduling agreements were concluded or were being negotiated when Iraq invaded Kuwait. The Gulf Crisis cost Jordan several billion dollars from the loss of remittances, the suspension of aid from Arab countries, costs associated with the influx of refugees from Iraq and Kuwait, reduced shipping revenues from Aqaba Port, the decline of tourism, and the closing of export markets in Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Additionally, more than 250,000 Palestinians and Jordanians returned to Jordan from the Gulf, increasing the country's population by about 8 percent and straining government services and infrastructure. Jordan received some $1.32 billion in emergency financial assistance from Western countries, primarily Germany and Japan. These funds, however, were not enough to rebuild the economy, only to offset the crisis.

The influx of returnees from the Gulf brought benefits to Jordan as well. The savings they transferred into the kingdom helped fuel a 2-year real estate and building boom that lasted until mid-1993. Aggregate consumption demand increased, and store shelves were once again filled with consumer goods. Per capita income rose in 1992 for the first time since the devaluation of the dinar. Economic growth slowed, however, in late 1993. Many economic problems remain from the 1980s, including high unemployment. The large balance-of-trade deficit declined somewhat in 1994.

The post-Gulf War environment brought great changes to Jordan's economy. Industries, such as pharmaceuticals and garments grew rapidly and exploited new export markets. Amman showed signs of developing into a regional service center for health care and education as new hospitals and schools were established. The returnees from the Gulf brought skills that were in short supply in Jordan in fields such as computer software development and marketing.

The government has taken steps to ease its high debt burden and reform its economy. It successfully completed a 2-year standby arrangement with the IMF in 1994 and entered into a 3-year extended fund facility, which requires the government to implement an agenda of sectorial reform. The government has signed two debt-rescheduling agreements, covering most of Jordan's bilateral creditors that will restructure most of the kingdom's foreign debt. Foreign aid will still be required, in the near future, for Jordan to meet its obligations and implement development projects.

In 2000, Jordan became a member of the World Trade Organization, and it 2001 it became the fourth nation to establish a Free Trade Agreement with the U.S. Both are likely to positivity influence the economy, which has been growing slightly over 1% each year.

Jordan has entered into a period of unprecedented economic challenge and opportunity. The structural reform program is putting more pressure on the private sector to serve as the engine for economic growth. With its well-developed infrastructure and highly trained workforce, Jordan's economy would benefit from a reduction of Middle East tensions. Until there is calm, however, the country will not likely reach its economic potential.

Transportation

Local

Taxis (painted yellow) are available, but can be difficult to obtain in some residential areas, especially during off-hours, Fridays, and holidays. Most are now metered, and costs for trips within Amman are reasonable. Local buses and "service" or group taxis (painted white) are also available. However, because both of these operate on fixed routes and tend to be quite crowded, most Embassy employees use the individual metered taxis for travel within Amman. Generally, the taxis are in good condition, and the drivers speak sufficient English to understand simple directions. However, there have been some reports (lately) that, due to the large influx of people following the Gulf War, there are many drivers with no knowledge of the English language. Employees would be well served to learn simple Arabic phrases, such as: "Stop," "Turn left or right," etc. It is customary for men to ride in the front and women and small children in the rear.

For travel outside the city limits of Amman and to places outside of Jordan, such as Damascus (popular for shopping), many Embassy employees hire a "service." This can be done through most of the major hotels in the city.

Due to traffic hazards and road conditions, the Mission advises against making out-of-town trips after dark or in inclement weather.

Regional

Royal Jordanian Airlines (RJ) is the national carrier. With a fleet of modern planes, it maintains scheduled flights to New York, Montreal, New Delhi, Cairo, the Gulf, Athens, Rome, Paris, London, Bangkok, Singapore, and other major cities. Other Arab airlines, as well as British Airways, Air France, KLM, Alitalia, and Aeroflot operate to and from Amman. No American airline flies to Jordan now, but connections with TWA, American Airlines, United, or Delta can be made via London, Cairo, Frankfurt, Rome, Amsterdam, Paris, and other cities.

Communications

Telephone and Telegraph

Dependability of connection and service is good. Long-distance service (direct dial) via satellite linkup to the U.S. and to most European cities is excellent. Calls made from the U.S. to Jordan cost less than calls made from Jordan to the U.S.

FAX machines are common in Jordan.

Radio and TV

Radio Jordan broadcasts in English on AM and FM mediumwave, as well as shortwave for about 17 hours a day. Popular, classical, and Western music are featured, as well as talk shows and newscasts. FM reception of classical music programs from Jerusalem is possible for much of the day. Voice of America (VOA) and BBC broadcasts in English are available on medium-wave during part of the day; at other times, shortwave reception is best.

Jordan has a government-owned TV station. Limited English-language programming is available throughout the day. European-system TV sets (PAL) are required.

Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals

An English-language newspaper, the Jordan Times, is published in Amman daily (except Fridays). The International Herald Tribune, USA Today, and the main British dailies are for sale locally 1 or 2 days late. Time and Newsweek, as well as British and other European magazines, are on sale locally at high prices.

Paperbacks are available locally at more than double U.S. prices. The selection of hardcover books is limited. The USIS American Center has a library where books can be borrowed, at no charge, with a membership card. The British Council maintains a library as does the American Women of Amman, both open to the public for a modest fee.

Health and Medicine

Medical Facilities

Physicians are available for medical and surgical care, including obstetrics and pediatrics. Generally, they are either British or American trained. The al-Khalidi Hospital, a private modern hospital located near Amman's Third Circle, has an emergency room staffed 24 hours daily. It handles most emergencies and after-hours medical problems, illnesses, or accidents. There is a modern, medical laboratory near al-Khalidi Hospital.

The King Hussein Medical Center, also located in Amman, is another good facility. Under its auspices is the Queen Alia Heart Institute, which can be used for cardiac cases; the Farah Rehabilitation Center has a modern burn unit.

Dental care is good, and most orthodontic treatments are available. As with all local medical care in Jordan, the costs are lower than in the U.S.

Community Health

Endemic communicable diseases, including infectious hepatitis, typhoid, meningitis, TB, and schistosomiasis are found among the local population. They can be controlled by observing normal practical precautions, such as filtering and boiling drinking water, careful washing and soaking of fruits and vegetables, watching what you eat in restaurants, not swimming in fresh water, and regular immunizations, such as gamma globulin, typhoid, and meningitis. However, even these efforts will not eliminate completely the occasional case of intestinal disorders, such as amoebic dysentery and giardia lamblia.

Few outbreaks of cholera have occurred in Jordan in recent years. The country has also seen occasional outbreaks of polio and meningococcal meningitis. When such outbreaks occur, the Ministry of Health moves fast to contain the outbreaks and to keep the public informed. Malaria is not a problem in Jordan.

Dry, dusty weather, however, complicates lung, sinus, and other respiratory problems and may make wearing contact lenses uncomfortable. Many people suffer from allergies, especially in the spring.

Medical supplies are good, generally of Jordanian, American, British, French, German, or Swiss origin. Except for U.S. brands, medicines are often less expensive than in the U.S. If specific medicines are required, bring enough supplies until they can be secured locally. Contact lens wearers should bring eye-drops and cleaning solutions, because these can be difficult and expensive to obtain here.

Preventive Measures

Strict sanitation in the home regarding food and water is the best defense against disease. Filter and boil drinking water for 10 minutes. Local, good-quality pasteurized milk is normally available (the Jordan and Danish Dairies are recommended). Do not eat uncooked vegetables or salads without taking proper cleaning precautions and avoid locally made pastries and desserts sold by street vendors.

Children and adults should be immunized against tetanus, typhoid fever, polio, meningitis, and hepatitis B before arriving in Jordan. In addition, children should be immunized against whooping cough and diphtheria. Gamma globulin shots are recommended for protection against hepatitis for all adults and children over 12. Cholera boosters are optional. Adults should have oral polio boosters updated. Rabies can be a problem, so Mission personnel should be vaccinated against the disease before arriving at post and avoid contact with stray animals after arrival in country. (Also, vaccinate your pet.)

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1 …New Year's Day

Jan. 15 …Arbor Day

May 25…Jordanian Independence Day

June 9 …King Abdullah's Accession to the Throne

June 10 …Great Arab Revolt & Army Day

Nov. 14…King Hussein's Birthday

…Ramandan^*

…Id al-Fitr^*

…Id al-Adha^*

…Mawlid al Nabi^*

^*Variable, based on the Islamic calendar

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

TWA and other U.S. carriers provide flights to several European and Middle Eastern cities for connections to Amman. Many international carriers fly into Jordan.

Passports and visas are necessary for entry. Short-term visas (one to two weeks) are available at no charge on arrival in Amman. Persons whose passports contain Israeli visas or entry stamps are admitted only under special circumstances, and with great difficulty.

No vaccinations are required by Jordan. It should be noted, though, that there is some malaria risk in rural areas of the Jordan River Valley and the Kerak lowlands.

At present, pets are not quarantined in Jordan. To enter the country, all dogs and cats must have current health certificates and have been vaccinated against rabies not less than 30 days, nor more than 12 months, before entry. It is recommended that pets be isolated from Muslim guests.

Roman Catholic, Anglican, and nondenominational Protestant services are available in Amman in English, as are Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, and Protestant services in Arabic. The nondenominational Amman International Church has a full-time pastor. There are two American Jesuit priests attached to the Pontifical Mission for Palestine who celebrate masses in English at the College of St. John Baptist de La Salle.

Firearm importation is difficult to arrange. Current information can be sought at the time of visa application.

The time in Jordan is Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) plus two.

Local currency is the Jordanian dinar (JD), divided into 1,000 fils.

Jordan employs the standard metric system of weights and measures.

SPECIAL NOTE

Many Muslims object to having their pictures taken. Discretion should be used in photographing women, or scenes that could be interpreted as showing poverty. Military installations (bridges included) cannot be photographed.

The U.S. Embassy in Jordan is located on Jebel Amman, in Amman; telephone: 962 (6) 644-371; FAX: 962 (6) 659-720.

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:

Finlay, Hugh. Jordan and Syria: A Travel Survival Kit. Oakland, CA: Lonely Plant, 1987.

Fodor's Jordan and the Holy Land. New York: McKay, latest edition.

Garfinkle, Adam. Israel and Jordan in the Shadow of War. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991.

Hadidi, Adnan, ed. Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan. New York: Routledge, 1988.

Lunt, James. Hussein of Jordan: From Survivor to Statesman. New York: Morrow, 1989.

Wilson, Rodney, ed. Politics and the Economy in Jordan. New York: Routledge, 1991.

Jordan officially Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, kingdom (2005 est. pop. 5,760,000), 35,637 sq mi (92,300 sq km), SW Asia. It borders on Israel and the West Bank in the west, on Syria in the north, on Iraq in the northeast, and on Saudi Arabia in the east and south. Amman is the country's capital and largest city. In addition to the capital, important cities include Zarqa, Petra, Irbid, Aqaba, and Salt.

Land and People

Jordan falls into two main geographical regions. Eastern Jordan, which encompasses about 92% of the country's land area, is made up of a section (average elevation: 2,500 ft/760 m) of the Arabian Plateau that in the northeast includes part of the Syrian Desert. In the western part of the plateau are the Jordanian Highlands, which include Jabal Ramm (5,755 ft/1,754 m), Jordan's loftiest point. Extreme W Jordan is made up of a segment of the Great Rift Valley (which continues southward into Africa) and includes the Jordan River, the Dead Sea , and the Arabah (a dry riverbed).

The inhabitants of Jordan are mostly Arabs, largely of either Palestinian or Bedouin descent. There are small minorities of Armenians and Circassians. Arabic, the official language, is spoken by virtually everyone. Many in the higher socioeconomic groups also speak English. Over 90% of the people are Sunni Muslims; about 5% are Christians, most of whom are Greek Orthodox. There are also small Shiite Muslim and Druze communities.

Economy

In the early 2000s, Jordan had an official unemployment rate of about 15%, although the unofficial rate was almost twice that. Poverty and a large foreign debt remain major problems. Less than 5% of the country's land is arable, and farm output is further limited by the small size of most farms, inefficient methods of tilling the soil, and inadequate irrigation. The principal crops are citrus and other fruits and berries, tomatoes, cucumbers, grains, lentils, and olives. Many Jordanians support themselves by raising sheep, goats, and poultry.

Manufactures are largely limited to basic items such as clothing, construction materials, and consumer goods; some pharmaceuticals and inorganic chemicals are also produced. Nearly 50% of the country's industry is based in Amman. Numerous artisans make items of leather, wood, and metal. Phosphate rock, fertilizers, and potash are produced in significant quantities. Oil was discovered in 1982, and a small oil industry that includes petroleum refining has been developed. Tourism also contributes to the economy. During the 1970s and 80s aid from other Arab countries and remittances from Jordanian workers living abroad were important factors in the country's economy. A slowdown in both sources of income in the 1990s and early 2000s, as well as an influx of refugees, particularly Palestinians and Iraqis, has slowed economic progress.

The annual cost of Jordan's imports usually far exceeds its earnings from exports. The principal imports are crude oil, textile fabrics, machinery, transportation equipment, and manufactured goods; the main exports are clothing, pharmaceuticals, potash, phosphates, fertilizers, and agricultural products. Jordan's leading trade partners are the United States, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq.

Government

Jordan is a constitutional monarchy. Under the 1952 constitution as amended, the most powerful political and military figure in the country is the king, who is head of state. The government is headed by the prime minister, who is appointed by the monarch. The bicameral parliament consists of the 55-seat Senate, whose members are appointed by the king, and the 110-seat House of Deputies, whose members are popularly elected, with six seats reserved for women. Electoral constituencies, however, are gerrymandered in favor of the government. All legislators serve four-year terms. Administratively, Jordan is divided into 12 governorates.

History

The history section of this article is primarily concerned with the region E of the Jordan River; for the history of the area to the west, see Palestine .

Early History to Independence

The region of present-day Jordan roughly corresponds to the biblical lands of Ammon , Bashan , Edom , and Moab . The area was conquered by the Seleucids in the 4th cent. BC and was part of the Nabatean empire, whose capital was Petra , from the 1st cent. BC to the mid-1st cent. AD, when it was captured by the Romans under Pompey. In the period between the 6th and 7th cent. it was the scene of considerable fighting between the Byzantine Empire and Persia. In the early 7th cent. the region was invaded by the Muslim Arabs, and after the Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099, it became part of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1516 the Ottoman Turks gained control of what is now Jordan, and it remained part of the Ottoman Empire until the 20th cent.

After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, the region came under (1919) the government of Faisal I , centered at Damascus. When Faisal was ejected by French troops in July, 1920, Transjordan (as Jordan was then known) was made (1920) part of the British League of Nations mandate of Palestine. In 1921, Abdullah I (Abdullah ibn Husayn), a member of the Hashemite dynasty and the brother of Faisal, was made emir of Transjordan, which was administered separately from Palestine and was specifically exempted from being part of a Jewish national home. A Jordanian army, called the Arab Legion, was created by the British, largely through the work of Sir John Bagot Glubb .

In a treaty signed with Great Britain in 1928, Transjordan became a constitutional state ruled by a king, to be hereditary in the family of Abdullah I, who was placed on the throne by the British. The country supported the Allies in World War II, and, by a treaty with Great Britain signed in 1946, it became (May 25) independent as the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan.

Crisis and Conflict

By an agreement signed in 1948, Britain guaranteed Transjordan an annual military subsidy. Abdullah opposed Zionist aims, and when Palestine was partitioned and the state of Israel was established in 1948, Transjordan, like other members of the Arab League , sent forces to fight Israel (see Arab-Israeli Wars ). The troops of the Arab Legion gained control of most of that part of W central Palestine that the United Nations had designated as Arab territory. In Apr., 1949, the country's name was changed to Jordan, thus reflecting its acquisition of land W of the Jordan River. In Dec., 1949, Jordan concluded an armistice with Israel, and early in 1950 it formally annexed the West Bank, a move that was deeply resented by other Arab states, which favored the establishment of an independent state of Palestine. The annexation of the West Bank increased Jordan's population by about 450,000 persons, many of them homeless refugees from Israel.

In 1951, Abdullah was assassinated in Jerusalem by a Palestinian and was succeeded the following year by his grandson Hussein I . After a series of anti-Western riots in Jordan, Hussein early in 1956 dismissed Glubb as commander of the Arab Legion, and following the Suez crisis later in the year he ended Jordan's treaty relationship with Great Britain. In Feb., 1958, Jordan and Iraq formed the Arab Federation as a countermove to the newly formed United Arab Republic (UAR), but Hussein dissolved it in August, following the coup in Iraq that toppled the monarchy.

At the same time, the UAR called for the overthrow of the governments in Jordan and Lebanon. At the request of the Jordanian government, Britain sent troops to Jordan; tensions were soon reduced and by Nov., 1958, the troops had been withdrawn. For the next few years Jordan remained on poor terms with Iraq and the UAR. In 1961, Hussein was among the first to recognize Syria after it withdrew from the UAR. Following the establishment in 1963 of a revolutionary Jordanian government-in-exile in Damascus, a state of emergency was declared in Jordan. The crisis ended only after the United States and Great Britain announced their support of Hussein and the U.S. 6th Fleet was placed on alert.

In the mid-1960s, Jordanian politics were calm, Jordan's economy expanded as international trade increased, and Jordan was on good terms with Egypt. Following Egypt's declaration in 1967 of a blockade of Israeli shipping in the Gulf of Aqaba, Hussein signed a mutual defense pact with Egypt. Despite Israeli attempts to urge Jordan to abstain from battle, the two nations became embroiled in the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. As a result of the war, Israel captured and occupied the West Bank —the previously Jordanian territory located W of the Jordan River and the Dead Sea.

Jordan and the Palestinians

A large number of Palestinian refugees fled to Jordan during and after the war, and soon there was growing hostility between the Jordanian government and the Palestinian guerrilla organizations operating in Jordan. The guerrillas sought to establish an independent Palestinian state, a goal that conflicted with Hussein's intention of reestablishing Jordan's control over the West Bank. There was major fighting between the guerrillas and the Jordanian army in Nov., 1968; in Sept., 1970, the country was engulfed in a bloody 10-day civil war, which ended when other Arab countries (especially Egypt) arranged a cease-fire. The Palestinians suffered heavy casualties, and many of them fled to Lebanon and Syria, which shifted the locus of the Palestinian refugee problem. In July, 1971, the army carried out a successful offensive that destroyed the remaining guerrilla bases in Jordan. In Nov., 1971, Prime Minister Wasfi al-Tal was assassinated in Cairo by members of the "Black September" Palestinian guerrilla organization, which took its name from the month of the civil war in Jordan.

In 1972, Hussein proposed the creation of a United Arab Kingdom that would include the West Bank with the rest of Jordan. Predicated on Israel's withdrawal from the West Bank, the proposal was rejected by the other Arab states as well as Israel. Hussein survived an assassination attempt by a Palestinian in Dec., 1972. Jordan played a minor role in the Arab-Israeli War of Oct., 1973, sending a small number of troops to fight on the Syrian front. In 1974, Hussein complied with the Arab League's ruling that the PLO (see Palestine Liberation Organization ) was to be the single legitimate representative of the Palestinians.

Recent History

Jordan moved closer to Syria in the late 1970s and, along with other Arab countries, opposed the Camp David accords and the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty (1979). Jordan sided with Iraq in the Iran-Iraq War , despite Syrian threats, and sent large amounts of war materials to Iraq. In 1988, Hussein formally relinquished claim to the West Bank in acknowledgment of Palestinian sovereignty. He approved the creation of an independent Palestinian state in the West Bank, and Arabs residing in that area lost their Jordanian citizenship. Parliamentary elections were held in 1989 for the first time in 22 years.

Plagued by serious economic problems since the mid-1980s, Jordan received increased economic aid from the United States in 1990. However, the outbreak (1991) of the Persian Gulf War led to a repeal of U.S. aid to Jordan due to Hussein's support of Iraq (Jordan's major source of oil). Jordan also suffered a loss of aid from Saudi Arabia and Kuwait during the war. The country endured further economic hardship when approximately 700,000 Jordanian workers and refugees returned to Jordan as a result of the fighting in the Persian Gulf, causing housing and employment shortages. Not until 2001 did an accord again permit Jordanians to work in Kuwait.

Peace talks between Israel, Syria, Lebanon, and a joint Palestinian-Jordanian delegation began in Aug., 1991. In 1994 a peace agreement between Jordan and Israel ended the official state of war between the two nations, and Hussein went on to encourage peace negotiations between other Arab states and Israel. In 1993 political parties were again permitted to field candidates, resulting in Jordan's first multiparty elections in 37 years. The country's economy continued to decline, however, and the government became less tolerant of dissent. Laws restricting freedom of the press were instituted in 1997, and that same year Islamic parties boycotted the legislative elections, claiming they were unfair.

Hussein died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son, Abdullah II , who pledged to work toward a more open government and to ease restrictions on public expression. Although there was some progress in terms of economic development, the country continued to be dependent on tourism, which was hurt by its location between Israel and Iraq. Political liberalization was slow in coming. In 2001 parliament's term expired without new elections being called; they were postponed out of fear that popular sympathy for the Palestinians in their renewed conflict with Israel would lead to a victory for the Islamic parties.

The June, 2003, parliamentary elections resulted in a majority for the king's supporters; Islamists won 18 seats. In Apr., 2006, Jordan accused Hamas of planning attacks against targets in Jordan, saying that it had detained militants and seized weapons that had come in from Syria. The Nov., 2007, parliamentary elections resulted in sharp losses for the Islamists, who accused the government of fraud. The parliament was largely seen as ineffective, and two years later the king dissolved parliament and ordered preparations for a new election. The main Islamic opposition group boycotted the Nov., 2010, elections, which gave the king's supporters a parliamentary majority.

The proreform demonstrations that affected many Arab nations in early 2011 also occurred in Jordan, though they were generally smaller and more moderate than in other countries. The king made promises of reform, and in February appointed a new government that included some opposition figures, but antigovernment protests continued in subsequent weeks. In June the king announced plans for significant political and economic changes, but did not specify a timetable. He subsequently (October) appointed yet another new government to undertake political reforms.

Bibliography

See P. J. Vatikiotis, Politics and the Military in Jordan (1967); N. H. Aruri, Jordan: A Study in Political Development, 1921–1965 (1972); E. Kanovsky, The Economic Development of Jordan (1976); A. H. Cordesman, Jordanian Arms and the Middle East Balance (1983); C. Bailey, Jordan's Palestinian Challenge, 1948–1983, A Political History (1985); R. F. Nyrop, ed., Jordan (3d ed. 1987); J. Lunt, Hussein of Jordan (1989).

Jordan

Climate and Vegetation

The Transjordan plateau is a transition zone between a Mediterranean climate to the w and a desert climate to the e. Most of Jordan is desert or semi-desert. Parts of the w plateau have scrub vegetation. There are areas of dry grassland.

History and Politics

The Seleucids conquered the region in the 4th century bc. In the 1st century bc, the Nabatean Empire developed a capital at Petra. The Romans, led by Pompey, captured the region in the 1st century ad. In ad 636, Arab armies conquered the territory and introduced Islam. After the First Crusade, the region became part of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099).

In 1517, it joined the Ottoman Empire. After the defeat of the Ottomans in World War I, the area e of the River Jordan formed part of the British League of Nations mandated territory of Palestine. In 1921, the e region was administered separately as Transjordan. In 1928, it became a constitutional monarchy ruled by the Hashemite dynasty. In 1946, Transjordan achieved independence.

In 1948 the creation of the state of Israel led to the first of the Arab-Israeli Wars (1948–49). Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians fled to Jordan. Under the peace terms, Transjordan annexed the remaining Arab parts of Palestine (West Bank and East Jerusalem). This incensed the Palestinians and King Abdullah was assassinated in 1951. Hussein I acceded in 1953. In 1958, Jordan formed the short-lived Arab Federation with Iraq. The Six-Day War (1967) ended with the Israeli occupation of East Jerusalem and the West Bank: more than one million Palestinian refugees now lived in e Jordan.

Jordan became embroiled in a bloody civil war with Palestinian independence movements (1970). By 1971 Jordan had ejected all guerrillas operating from its soil. In 1974, King Hussein recognized the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) as the legitimate representative of the Palestinians. In 1988, Jordan gave up its claim to the West Bank and approved the creation of an independent Palestine. Jordan sided with Iraq in the Iran-Iraq War and the Gulf War.

Opposition parties were legalized in 1991, and the first multiparty elections held in 1993. In October 1994, King Hussain signed a peace treaty with Israel, ending the state of war that had existed since 1948. The border between Elat and Aqaba opened. Opposition parties, including the Islamic Action Front (IAF), boycotted elections in 1997. In 1999, Hussein died and his son, Abdullah, succeeded as King. Abdullah faced problems of maintaining political and economic stability, and implementing political reforms.

Economy

Jordan is a developing country (2000 GDP per capita, US$3500). It is the world's seventh largest producer of phosphates and potash. Slightly more than 50% of the land is farm or pasture land. Major crops include barley, citrus fruits, grapes, olives, and wheat. It depends on aid. Jordan has an oil refinery and produces natural gas. Tourism is developing rapidly and reforms are helping to expand the economy.

Political map

Physical map

Websites

http://www.nis.gov.jo/En; http://www.see-jordan.com

Jordan (Hashemite Kingdom of) An area under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire from 1518. It was liberated by the Arab Revolt of 1916, but came under British control as a League of Nations Mandate, as part of a wider area covering Palestine and Iraq. In 1921 the British turned Jordan into a separate Mandate under the Hashemite Abdullah ibn Hussein. With considerable British help, the latter created political and administrative state institutions, such as the Arab Legion. In 1948, the country became independent as Transjordan.

Its gains during the first Arab–Israeli War of 1948–9 proved to be a hollow victory, and became a fundamental burden for the next four decades. For after annexation of East Jerusalem and the West Bank, the original Transjordanian population of 400,000 suddenly found itself outnumbered by over 800,000 Palestinians, half of whom were refugees from areas that were now Israel. This put a tremendous strain on the economy, and challenged the domestic stability of the country through ethnic tensions between the Jordanians and the Palestinians. The newly acquired territories and Transjordan were united in 1950 as the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Domestic tensions reached a peak in 1951, when Abdullah was assassinated by a Palestinian. He was succeeded briefly by his son, Talal, and then his grandson, Hussein ibn Talal, who subsequently exerted firm control over the country's politics, buttressed by the loyality of his armed forces. In the 1950s the country's existence was fundamentally threatened by the pan-Arabism of its neighbours, Egypt and Syria.

Jordan lost its burdensome West Bank and East Jerusalem in the disastrous Six Day War with Israel, though this brought its Palestinian problems to a head. Not only did it lose important agricultural and industrial areas in the West Bank, but it now had to cope with an influx of one million Palestinian refugees, while Palestinian guerrillas such as the PLO were using Jordan as their base for attacks on Israel. These attacks put Jordan's sovereignty at risk from further external military confrontation, while the number of Palestinians in arms, and the formation of a virtual Palestinian rival government, became an internal threat to the Jordanian authorities. Consequently, the PLO was expelled, though this was not achieved without a bloody civil war in 1970–1. For this, Jordan became ostracized in the Arab world until 1974, when it accepted the decision of all other Arab states to recognize the PLO as the sole representative of the Palestinian people, even though this questioned Jordan's own claim to the West Bank. After the outbreak of the Intifadah, which demonstrated the allegiance of the Palestinians under Israeli occupation to the PLO, Jordan finally renounced its claims to its former territory in 1988 and entered a harmonious relationship with the PLO. It remained neutral during the Gulf War, during which it experienced a sharp economic downturn and a large influx of Palestinian and other refugees from Iraq and Kuwait. In 1993, the first multi-party elections since 1956 resulted in a clear victory for the loyalists against the Islamic fundamentalists. This strengthened further the authority of the King, under whom Jordan became the first Arab state to sign a peace agreement with Israel after the latter's recognition of the PLO on 26 October 1994. King Hussein encouraged the peace process until his death in 1999. He was succeeded by his son, Abdullah II, who spent the first years of his reign stabilizing his grip on power. He continued his father's ambivalent attitude towards the Palestinians, which encouraged their claims against Israel in order to deny them rights in Jordan. He cracked down on the operations of Hamas, and also faced opposition by terrorist groups directed by Osama Bin Laden. At the same time he pursued a conciliatory policy twards Iraq, from which Jordan acquired cheap oil imports.

Jordan ♂, ♀ Originally a name given to a child of either sex baptized in holy water that was, purportedly at least, brought from the River Jordan, whose Hebrew name, ha-yarden, means ‘flowing down’. It was in this river that Christ was baptized by John the Baptist, and medieval pilgrims to the Holy Land usually tried to bring back a flask of its water with them. The modern given name is either a revival of this, or else a transferred use of the surname that was derived from the medieval given name. It is more popular as a boy's name in Britain and as a girl's name in the United States.

Variants: Jorden, Jordin, Jordon; Jordyn ♀.
Short form: Judd ♂ (rare).

Jordan, previously known as Trans‐Jordan,was part of the Turkish empire in 1914 but after the First World War became a British mandate under the League of Nations. In 1946 the independence of Jordan was declared and a kingdom established under the Amir Abdullah. During the Gulf War of 1990 Jordan maintained a precarious neutrality.

Jordan

The people of Jordan are called Jordanians. Most of the population trace their heritage to more than one of the many people that lived in Jordan throughout history, including Greeks, Egyptianss, Persians, Europeans, and Africans. The Bedu, or Bedouin, nomads inhabit the desert.

Jordan ♂ (German) Crusader name.

Jordan •Abaddon, gladden, gladdon, Ibadan, madden, sadden •abandon, Brandon, Rwandan, Ugandan •Baden, Baden-Baden, Coloradan, garden, harden, lardon, Nevadan, pardon •Wiesbaden • bear garden •tea garden •Armageddon, deaden, leaden, redden •Eldon, Sheldon •Brendan, tendon •Dresden •Aden, Aidan, Haydn, laden, maiden •handmaiden •cedarn, cotyledon, dicotyledon, Eden, monocotyledon, Sweden •wealden •bestridden, forbidden, hidden, midden, outridden, ridden, stridden, unbidden •Wimbledon •linden, Lindon, Swindon •Wisden • Mohammedan • Myrmidon •harridan • hagridden • Sheridan •bedridden • Macedon • Huntingdon •Dryden, guidon, Leiden, Poseidon, Sidon, widen •Culloden, hodden, modern, sodden, trodden •Cobden • downtrodden •Auden, broaden, cordon, Gordon, Hordern, Jordan, warden •churchwarden • louden • bounden •loden, Snowdon •beholden, embolden, golden, olden •hoyden • Bermudan • wooden •Mukden • gulden • sudden •Blunden, London •Riordan • bourdon • bombardon •celadon • Clarendon •burden, guerdon