ZIMBABWE

Republic of Zimbabwe

CAPITAL: Harare

FLAG: The flag has seven equal horizontal stripes of green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow, and green. At the hoist is a white triangle, which contains a representation in yellow of the bird of Zimbabwe superimposed on a red star.

ANTHEM: God Bless Africa.

MONETARY UNIT: The Zimbabwe dollar (z$) is a paper currency of 100 cents. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 20, and 50 cents and 1 dollar, and notes of 2, 5, 10, and 20 dollars. z$1 = us$0.00007 (or us$1 = z$15190.8) as of 2005. These are official exchange rates, non-official rates vary significantly

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is used.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Independence Day, 18 April; Workers' Day, 1 May; Africa Day, 25 May; Heroes' Days, 11–13 August; Christmas Day, 25 December; Boxing Day, 26 December. Movable holidays are Good Friday, Holy Saturday, Easter Monday, and Whitmonday.

TIME: 2 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

A landlocked country of south central Africa, Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) lies between the Zambezi River on then and the Limpopo River on the s. It has an area of 390,580 sq km (150,804 sq mi), with a length of 852 km (529 mi) wnw–ese and a width of 710 km (441 mi) nne–ssw. Comparatively, the area occupied by Zimbabwe is slightly larger than the state of Montana. Bounded on the n and e by Mozambique, on the s by the Republic of South Africa, on the sw by Botswana, and on the nw and n by Zambia, Zimbabwe has a total boundary length of 3,066 km (1,905 mi). Zimbabwe's capital city, Harare, is located in the northeast part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Most of Zimbabwe is rolling plateau, with over 75% of it lying between 600 and 1,500 m (2,000–5,000 ft) above sea level, and almost all of it over 300 m (1,000 ft). The area of high plateau, known as the highveld, is some 650 km (400 mi) long by 80 km (50 mi) wide, and stretches northeast to southwest at 1,200–1,675 m (4,000–5,500 ft). This culminates in the northeast in the Inyanga mountains, reaching the country's highest point at Mt. Inyangani, 2,592 m (8,504 ft). On either side of the highveld is the middleveld, a plateau ranging from about 600–1,200 m (2,000–4,000 ft) in height. Below 610 m (2,000 ft) are areas making up the lowveld, wide and grassy plains in the basins of the Zambezi and the Limpopo.

The highveld is a central ridge forming the country's watershed, with streams flowing southeast to the Limpopo and Sabi rivers and northwest into the Zambezi. Only the largest of the many rivers have an all-year-round flow of water.

CLIMATE

Altitude and relief greatly affect both temperature and rainfall in Zimbabwe. The higher areas in the east and the highveld receive more rainfall and are cooler than the lower areas. Temperatures on the highveld vary from 12–13°c (54–55°f) in winter to 24°c (75°f) in summer. On the lowveld the temperatures are usually 6°c (11°f) higher, and summer temperatures in the Zambezi and Limpopo valleys average between 32–38°c (90–100°f). Rainfall decreases from east to west. The eastern mountains receive more than 100 cm (40 in) annually, while Harare has 81 cm (32 in) and Bulawayo 61 cm (24 in). The south and southwest receive little rainfall. Seasonal shortages of water are common.

The summer rainy season lasts from November to March. It is followed by a transitional season, during which both rainfall and temperatures decrease. The cool, dry season follows, lasting from mid-May to mid-August. Finally, there is the warm, dry season, which lasts until the onset of the rains.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The country is mostly savanna, although the moist and mountainous east supports tropical evergreen and hardwood forests. Trees include teak and mahogany, knobthorn, msasa, and baobab. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs are hibiscus, spider lily, leonotus, cassia, tree wisteria, and dombeya. There are over 4,400 species of plants throughout the country.

Mammals include elephant, lion, buffalo, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, gorilla, chimpanzee, baboon, okapi, giraffe, kudu, duiker, eland, sable, gemsbok, waterbuck, zebra, warthog, lynx, aardvark, porcupine, fox, badger, otter, hare, bat, shrew, and scaly anteater. There are at least 270 species of mammal in the country.

Snakes and lizards abound. The largest lizard, the water monitor, is found in many rivers, as are several species of crocodile. About 500 species of birds include the ant-thrush, barbet, beeeater, bishop bird, bulbul, bush-warbler, drongo, emerald cuckoo, grouse, gray lourie, and pheasant.

ENVIRONMENT

Among the most serious of Zimbabwe's environmental problems is erosion of its agricultural lands and deforestation. By 1992, deforestation was progressing at the rate of 70,000–100,000 ha per year, or about 1.5% of the nation's forestland. This same rate of deforestation was reported to the year 2000. The confinement of large segments of the population to relatively unproductive lands before independence put severe pressure on these lands, a substantial portion of which may have been irreversibly damaged.

Zimbabwe's air is polluted by vehicle and industrial emissions, while water pollution results from mining and the use of fertilizers. Zimbabwe's cities produce 0.5 million tons of solid waste per year. The nation has been estimated to have the highest DDT concentrations in the world in its agricultural produce.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 8 types of mammals, 10 species of birds, 6 species of amphibians, 2 species of invertebrates, and 17 species of plants. Zimbabwe has about half of the world's population of black rhinoceroses, an endangered species. Rare or threatened species include the cape vulture, black-cheeked lovebird, and brown hyena. For protection, the government has adopted a policy of shooting poachers on sight.

POPULATION

The population of Zimbabwe in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 13,010,000, which placed it at number 68 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 40% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 98 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 1.1%. The projected population for the year 2025 was 14,430,000. The population density was 33 per sq km (86 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 34% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.48%. The capital city, Harare, had a population of 1,469,000 in that year. Other large cities and their estimated populations included Bulawayo, 676,000; Chitungwiza, 321,782; Gweru, 137,000; Kwekwe, 88,000; Kadoma, 67,750; and Masvingo, 60,000.

The prevalence of HIV/AIDS has had a significant impact on the population of Zimbabwe. The UN estimated that 33.9% of adults between the ages of 15–49 were living with HIV/AIDS in 2001. The AIDS epidemic causes higher death and infant mortality rates, and lowers life expectancy.

MIGRATION

By early 1987, about 110,000 whites were estimated to have remained in Zimbabwe, about half the number since independence in 1980. There were also about 25,000 Coloured (of mixed race) and 10,000 Asians. Some 1.5 million people who had left for neighboring states during the civil war returned after independence, putting considerable strain on the new nation. In addition, by the end of 1992, famine and civil war in Mozambique had driven an estimated 136,600 Mozambicans into Zimbabwe. Between 1992 and 1996, 241,000 Mozambican refugees repatriated from Zimbabwe. As of 1999, Zimbabwe was hosting some 1,200 refugees, the majority of whom were from Somalia, Ethiopia, and countries in the Great Lakes region.

In the early 1990s, there were about 25,000 Zimbabwe-born whites and 14,000 Zimbabwe-born blacks living in South Africa. As of 1999, there was still a small but steady flow of Zimbabweans into South Africa and Botswana in search of better paid employment.

In 2000 there were 656,000 migrants living in Zimbabwe, including refugees. By 2004, there were 6,884 refugees and no asylum seekers. In that same year over 7,000 Zimbabweans sought asylum in South Africa, the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States. The net migration rate in 2005 was estimated as zero migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Africans make up 98% of the total population in Zimbabwe and are mainly related to the two major Bantu-speaking groups, the Shona (about 82% of the population) and the Ndebele (about 14%). Of the former group, the Korekore predominate in the north; the Zezuru are in the center around Harare; the Karanga are in the south; the Ndau and Manyika in the east; the Kalanga in the west; the Rozwi are spread throughout the country. The various clans of the Ndebele, more recent immigrants from the south, occupy the area around Bulawayo and Gwanda. Other groups account for 11% of the African populace and include the Tonga near Kariba Lake, and the Sotho, Venda, and Hlengwe along the southern border.

Whites make up 1% of the non-African population. Europeans are almost entirely either immigrants from the United Kingdom or South Africa or their descendants; those from South Africa include a substantial number of South African Dutch (Afrikaner) descent. There are small groups of Portuguese, Italians, and other Europeans. Asians and peoples of mixed ancestry make up the remaining 1%.

LANGUAGES

The Shona speak dialects of the same Bantu language, Shona. There are six major dialects: Karanga, Zezuru, Korekore, Manyika, Ndau, and Kalanga. The Ndebele speak modified versions of Ndebele (or Sindebele), which belongs to the Nguni group of southeast Bantu languages.

English, the official language, is spoken by most Europeans and by an increasing number of Africans.

RELIGIONS

Historically, Christianity, brought into the region by Portuguese traders and Jesuit priests in the late 1500s, has been the dominant religion of the nation. About 60–70% of the total population belong to various Christian denominations, with the largest being Roman Catholic (between 17–27% of the population). Certain regions of the country have traditional links to specific denominations, based on "areas of interest," which were created by missionaries from groups such as the Catholics, Methodists, Anglicans, Dutch Reformed, and the Salvation Army. As a result, individuals will often claim adherence to their local denomination.

There is a small Muslim community, estimated at less than 1% of the population. They are primarily immigrants from South Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa. There are also small numbers of Greek Orthodox, Jews, Hindus, Buddhists, and atheists.

A good number of indigenous churches have developed from the mainstream Christian churches. The Zimbabwe Assembly of God, a branch of the Assemblies of God Church, adheres strictly to Christian tenets and opposes incorporation of traditional practices and beliefs. Other groups such as the Seven Apostles, provide a mixture of traditional religious practices with Christianity. An organization known as Fambidzano formed in the mid-1970s to serve as a support coalition of indigenous churches. One of the goals of the organization is to provide continuing theological and biblical education for church leaders.

Belief in and practice of traditional religions is thought to be quite widespread, as it is sometimes practiced in conjunction with other established belief systems. The belief in and respect for traditional healers resulted in the organization of the Zimbabwe National African Traditional Healers' Association (ZINATHA), which provides licensing and regulation of healers.

In response to widespread belief in and fear of witchcraft, the government has initiated the Witchcraft Suppression Act (WSA), which prohibits the practice of witchcraft, but also calls for prosecution of those falsely accusing others of the practice or engaging in witch hunts. The act has helped protect those, particularly women, who have been falsely accused of witchcraft. However, members of ZINATHA are seeking an amendment to the law that would redefine certain terms. The Act defines witchcraft as "the use of charms and any other means or devices adopted in the practice of sorcery." The proposed amendment would refocus the law to prohibit any practices that are intended to cause harm.

Though relations between religious groups are generally amicable, some tensions exist between Christians and practitioners of traditional religions. In particular, Christian churches oppose traditional practices that allow polygamy and refuse the use of modern medicine. Some tension exists between the government and indigenous religions which refuse to participate in public health and vaccination programs because of religious beliefs in healing through prayer alone. The Zimbabwe Council of Churches, the Heads of Denominations, and the Evangelical Fellowship of Zimbabwe are ecumenical groups that promote interfaith dialogue and cooperation, while offering forums for discussion of social and political issues.

TRANSPORTATION

In 2004, the National Railways of Zimbabwe, a public corporation, operated 3,077 km (1,912 mi) of rail lines (all of it narrow gauge), of which 313 km (194 mi) were electrified. Rail links exist with Zambia, Mozambique, Botswana, and the Republic of South Africa. Electrification of the railroads was begun following independence. There were 18,338 km (11,395 mi) of road in 2002, of which 8,692 km (5,401 mi) were classified as paved. In 2003, there were 401,007 registered motor vehicles, including 347,007 passenger cars and 54,000 commercial vehicles.

The Mazoe and Zambezi rivers are used for transporting chrome ore from Harare to Mozambique. Important ports and harbors are at Binga and Kariba.

In 2004, there were an estimated 404 airports, but only 17 of which had paved runways as of 2005. Zimbabwe operates domestic, regional, and European flights. Harare and Bulawayo are the principal airports. In 1997, total scheduled traffic included 938 million passenger-km (583 million passenger-mi) and 153 million freight ton-km (95 million freight ton-mi) of flight. Zimbabwe's passenger airline is Air Zimbabwe, and its international cargo airline is Affretair. In 2003, about 201,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.

HISTORY

Evidence of Stone Age cultures dating back 100,000 years has been found, and it is thought that the San people, now living mostly in the Kalahari Desert, are the descendants of Zimbabwe's original inhabitants. The remains of ironworking cultures that date back to ad 300 have been discovered. Little is known of the early iron-workers, but it is believed that they were farmers, herdsmen, and hunters who lived in small groups. They put pressure on the San by gradually taking over the land. With the arrival of the Bantu-speaking Shona from the north between the 10th and 11th centuries ad, the San were driven out or killed, and the early ironworkers were incorporated into the invading groups. The Shona gradually developed gold and ivory trade with the coast, and by the mid-15th century had established a strong empire, with its capital at the ancient city of Zimbabwe. This empire, known as Munhumutapa, split by the end of the century, the southern part becoming the Urozwi Empire, which flourished for two centuries.

By the time the British began arriving in the mid-19th century, the Shona people had long been subjected to slave raids. The once-powerful Urozwi Empire had been destroyed in the 1830s by the Ndebele, who, under Mzilikaze, had fled from the Zulus in South Africa. David Livingstone, a Scottish missionary and explorer, was chiefly responsible for opening the whole region to European penetration. His explorations in the 1850s focused public attention on Central Africa, and his reports on the slave trade stimulated missionary activity. In 1858, after visiting Mzilikaze, Robert Moffat, Livingstone's father-in-law, established Inyati Mission, the first permanent European settlement in what is now Zimbabwe.

To forestall Portuguese and Boer expansion, both the British government and Cecil Rhodes actively sought to acquire territory. Rhodes, whose fortune had been made through diamond mining in South Africa, became especially active in gaining mineral rights and in sending settlers into Matabeleland (the area occupied by the Ndebele people) and Mashonaland (the area occupied by the Shona people). In 1888, Lobengula, king of the Ndebele, accepted a treaty with Great Britain and granted to Charles Rudd, one of Rhodes's agents, exclusive mineral rights to the lands he controlled. Gold was already known to exist in Mashonaland, so, with the grant of rights, Rhodes was able to obtain a royal charter for his British South Africa Company (BSAC) in 1889. The BSAC sent a group of settlers with a force of European police into Mashonaland, where they founded the town of Salisbury (now Harare). Rhodes gained the right to dispose of land to settlers (a right he was already exercising de facto). With the defeat of the Ndebele and the Shona between 1893 and 1897, Europeans were guaranteed unimpeded settlement. The name Rhodesia was common usage by 1895.

Under BSAC administration, British settlement continued, but conflicts arose between the settlers and the company. In 1923, Southern Rhodesia was annexed to the crown; its African inhabitants thereby became British subjects, and the colony received its basic constitution. Ten years later, the BSAC ceded its mineral rights to the territory's government for £2 million.

After the onset of self-government, the major issue in Southern Rhodesia was the relationship between the European settlers and the African population. The British government, besides controlling the colony's foreign affairs, retained certain powers to safeguard the rights of Africans. In 1930, however, Southern Rhodesia adopted a land apportionment act that was accepted by the British government. Under this measure, about half the total land area, including all the mining and industrial regions and all the areas served by railroads or roads, was reserved for Europeans. Most of the rest was designated as Tribal Trust Land, native purchase land, or unassigned land. Later acts firmly entrenched the policy of dividing land on a racial basis.

In 1953, the Central African Federation was formed, consisting of the three British territories of Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia), Nyasaland (now Malawi), and Southern Rhodesia, with each territory retaining its original constitutional status. In 1962, in spite of the opposition of the federal prime minister, Sir Roy Welensky, Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia withdrew from the federation with British approval. The federation disbanded in 1963. Southern Rhodesia, although legally still a colony, sought an independent course under the name of Rhodesia.

Political agitation in Rhodesia increased after the United Kingdom's granting of independence to Malawi and Zambia. The white-settler government demanded formalization of independence, which it claimed had been in effect since 1923. The African nationalists also demanded independence, but under conditions of universal franchise and African majority rule. The British government refused to yield to settler demands without amendments to the colony's constitution, including a graduated extension of the franchise leading to eventual African rule. Negotiations repeatedly broke down, and on 5 November 1965, Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith declared a state of emergency. On 11 November, the Smith government issued a unilateral declaration of independence (since known as UDI). The British government viewed UDI as illegal and imposed limited economic sanctions, but these measures did not bring about the desired results. In December, the UN Security Council passed a resolution calling for selective mandatory sanctions against Rhodesia. Further attempts at a negotiated settlement ended in failure. In a referendum held on 20 June 1969, the Rhodesian electorate—92% white—approved the establishment of a republic.

The British governor-general, Sir Humphrey Gibbs, resigned on 24 June 1969. The Legislative Council passed the constitution bill in November, and Rhodesia declared itself a republic on 2 March 1970. The United Kingdom called the declaration illegal, and 11 countries closed their consulates in Rhodesia. The UN Security Council called on member states not to recognize any acts by the illegal regime and condemned Portugal and South Africa for maintaining relations with Rhodesia.

Problems in Rhodesia deepened after UDI, largely as a result of regional and international political pressure, African nationalist demands, and African guerrilla activities. Members of the African National Council (ANC), an African nationalist group, were increasingly subjected to persecution and arrest. Nevertheless, guerrilla activity continued. The principal African nationalist groups, besides the ANC, were the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU).

A meeting took place in Geneva in October 1976 between the British and Smith governments and four African nationalist groups. Prominent at the meeting were Joshua Nkomo, the leader of ZAPU; Robert Mugabe, leader of ZANU; Bishop Abel Muzorewa of the ANC; and the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole, former leader of ZANU. Nkomo and Mugabe had previously formed an alliance, the Patriotic Front. The conference was unable to find the basis for a national settlement; but on 3 March 1978, the Smith regime signed an internal agreement with Muzorewa, Sithole, and other leaders, providing for qualified majority rule and universal suffrage. Although Bishop Muzorewa, whose party won a majority in the elections of April 1979, became the first black prime minister of the country (now renamed Zimbabwe-Rhodesia), the Patriotic Front continued fighting.

Meanwhile, the British government had begun new consultations on the conflict, and at the Commonwealth of Nations Conference in Lusaka, Zambia, in August 1979, committed itself to seeking a settlement. Negotiations that began at Lancaster House, in England, on 10 September resulted in an agreement, by 21 December, on a new, democratic constitution, democratic elections, and independence. On 10 December, the Zimbabwe-Rhodesian parliament had dissolved itself, and the country reverted to formal colonial status during the transition period before independence. That month, sanctions were lifted and a cease-fire declared. Following elections held in February, Robert Mugabe became the first prime minister and formed a coalition government that included Joshua Nkomo. The independent nation of Zimbabwe was proclaimed on 18 April 1980, and the new parliament opened on 14 May 1980.

Independence and Factionalism

Following independence, Zimbabwe initially made significant economic and social progress, but internal dissent became increasingly evident. The long-simmering rivalry erupted between Mugabe's dominant ZANU-Patriotic Front Party, which represented the majority Shona ethnic groups, and Nkomo's ZAPU, which had the support of the minority Ndebele. A major point of contention was Mugabe's intention to make Zimbabwe a oneparty state. Mugabe ousted Nkomo from the cabinet in February 1982 after the discovery of arms caches that were alleged to be part of a ZAPU-led coup attempt. On 8 March 1983, Nkomo went into exile, but returned to Parliament in August.

Meanwhile, internal security worsened, especially in Matabeleland, where Nkomo supporters resorted to terrorism. The government responded by jailing suspected dissidents, using emergency powers dating from the period of white rule, and by military campaigns against the terrorists. The government's Fifth Brigade, trained by the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and loyal to Mugabe, was accused of numerous atrocities against civilians in Matabeleland during 1983. By early 1984, it was reported that many residents in Matabeleland were starving as a result of the military's interruption of food supplies to the area.

Armed dissidents continued to operate in Matabeleland until 1987, and food supplies in the area continued to be inadequate. A round of particularly brutal killings—men, women, and children—occurred late in the year. The violence abated after the two largest political parties, ZANU and ZAPU, agreed to merge in December 1987.

A growing problem, however, was the political instability of Zimbabwe's neighbors to the south and east. In 1986, South African forces raided the premises of the South African black-liberation African National Congress in Harare, and 10,000 Zimbabwean troops were deployed in Mozambique, seeking to keep antigovernment forces in that country from severing Zimbabwe's rail, road, and oil-pipeline links with the port of Beira in Mozambique. Although Beira is the closest port to landlocked Zimbabwe, because of the guerrilla war in Mozambique about 85% of Zimbabwe's foreign trade was passing through South Africa instead.

Despite its reputed commitment to socialism, the Mugabe government was slow to dismantle the socioeconomic structures of the old Rhodesia. Until 1990, the government's hands were tied by the Lancaster House accords. Private property, most particularly large white-owned estates, could not be confiscated without fair market compensation. Nevertheless, economic progress was solid and Zimbabwe seemed to have come to terms with its settler minority. There was only modest resettlement of the landless (52,000 out of 162,000 landless families from 1980 to 1990) and when white farmers were bought out, black politicians often benefited. Some 4,000 white farmers owned more than one-third of the best land.

In March 1992, a controversial Land Acquisition Act was passed calling for the government to purchase half of the mostly white-owned commercial farming land at below-market prices, without the right of appeal, in order to redistribute land to black peasants. However, the government continued to move slowly and not until April 1993 was it announced that 70 farms, totaling 470,000 acres, would be purchased. Unease among whites grew, as did fear of unemployment, already at around 40%. Economic conditions also threatened to derail the Economic Structural Adjustment Program (ESAP) designed by the IMF and the World Bank. ESAP pressed for a market-driven economy, reduction of the civil service, and an end to price controls and commodity subsidies.

Meanwhile, in the March 1990 elections, Mugabe was reelected with 78.3% of the vote. The Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM) candidate, Tekere, received about 21.7% of the vote. For parliament, ZANU-PF got 117 seats; ZUM, 2 seats; and ZANU-Ndonga, 1 seat. There was a sharp drop in voter participation, and the election was marred by restrictions on opposition activity and open intimidation of opposition voters. At first, Mugabe insisted that the results were a mandate to establish a one-party state. In 1991, however, growing opposition abroad and domestically, even within ZANU-PF, forced him to postpone his plans. Sensing an erosion of political support, Mugabe restricted human and political rights, weakened the Bill of Rights, placed checks on the judiciary, and tampered with voters' rolls and opposition party financing. The government also suspended the investigation into the 1982–87 Matabeleland Crisis, a decision that prompted a November 1993 reprimand by the Organization of African Unity (OAU)'s Human Rights Commission.

As the economy sputtered, political opposition grew. In January 1992, Sithole returned from seven years of self-imposed exile in the United States. In July, Ian Smith chaired a meeting of Rhodesian-era parties seeking to form a coalition in opposition to Mugabe. Sithole and his ZANU-Ndonga Party, the United African National Congress, the largely white Conservative Alliance, and Edgar Tekere's ZUM were included. Students, church leaders, trade unionists, and the media began to speak out. In May 1992 a new pressure group, the Forum for Democratic Reform, was launched in preparation for the 1995 elections. Parliamentary and presidential elections in 1995 and 1996 though officially won by ZANU-PF, were discredited by opposition boycotts and low voter turnout. Then in 1997, a homegrown pro-democracy coalition was launched from the constituency for constitutional reform—the National Constitutional Assembly (NCA). The birth of the NCA dovetailed with the growing radicalization of the Zimbabwe Confederation of Trade Unions (ZCTU) and its transformation from a collective bargaining agent for organized urban industrial labor into a broad-based political opposition movement representing a wide spectrum of civil society, the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC). The official launch of the MDC at Rufaro Stadium on 11 September 1999 was followed by the first Congress at which Morgan Tsvangirai was elected president, and Gibson Sibanda his deputy. NCA supporters embraced the MDC as a vehicle for implementing the new constitution should the government be amenable to it.

The MDC's first test came in February 2000 at a national referendum for constitutional changes strongly pro-regime. On 12–13 February, voters soundly rejected the proposals much to the chagrin of the ruling party. The results signaled that ZANU-PF was not invincible, and they catapulted Morgan Tsvangirai and the MDC into a leading position heading into the 24–25 June parliamentary elections. Again threatened, Mugabe cracked down on the opposition. In the run-up to and aftermath of the elections, 34 people were killed, including Tsvangirai's driver and a poll worker who were killed in a gasoline-bomb attack. Officially, but without the sanction of international observers, ZANU-PF claimed 62 of 120 elective seats in the House of Assembly, with the MDC taking 57 seats with a turnout of 60% of eligible voters.

The credibility the regime was further damaged in the 9–11 March 2002 presidential polls, the conduct of which was declared fraudulent by the opposition and—with the exception of the African Union (AU) and Southern African Development Community (SADC)—by the international community. Officially, Mugabe garnered 53.8% of the vote to 40.2% for Tsvangirai while others claimed 6.0%. The government prevented as many voters as possible in urban districts favorable to the MDC from registering, reduced the number of urban polling stations by 50% over the 2000 elections, added 664 rural polling stations, conducted a state media barrage, and intimidated the opposition. By some reports, 31 people were killed in January and February and 366 tortured. The opposition mounted a legal challenge to the results while the Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe for one year.

By 2003, the country faced multiple crises. Owing to negative impacts of land grabbing, squatting, and repossessions of large white farms under the government's fast-track land reform program, some 400,000 jobs had been lost in commercial agriculture. Combined with a 90% loss in productivity in large-scale farming since the 1990s, some 5.5 million people in a population of 11.6 million were in need of food aid. Inflation had reached 228% and a fuel crisis threatened the nation. Strikes crippled production, prompting ever more severe repression by the government. More than 30% of the adult population was infected with the AIDS virus.

Given the devastating social impact of these issues, internal and diplomatic pressures were mounting for Mugabe to abandon his survival strategy in favor of a quick and clean exit strategy. One such move afoot was to offer the MDC a form of transitional government in exchange for cooperation in amending the constitution to allow a managed presidential succession and immunity from prosecution for the president and his followers in their retirement. However, there was a reluctance on the part of Tsvangirai's supporters to offer amnesty to a regime that had committed in excess of 550,000 cases of human rights violations ranging from murder, abduction, and rape to arson.

Tsvangirai was arrested and charged with treason in June 2003; he already had an outstanding treason charge from 2002 for attempting to assassinate Mugabe. In October 2004, Tsvangirai was acquitted of the 2002 treason charge. In August 2005, prosecutors dropped the remaining treason charges against Tsvangirai.

In a parliamentary election held in March 2005, the ZANUPF party won two-thirds of the vote. The opposition claimed the election was rigged, but the MDC won almost all urban seats in the second election in a row. From May to July of that year, tens of thousands of shanty dwellings and illegal street stalls were destroyed as part of a government clean-up program ("Operation Murambatsvina"—"Drive Out Rubbish"). In some cases the police forced people to knock down their own homes. In other cases, trucks and bulldozers moved in. The United Nations estimated the program left approximately 700,000 people homeless. The government's policy of moving city dwellers to rural areas only worsened the already dire consequences of food shortages. The main opposition to Mugabe's rule came from urban areas.

GOVERNMENT

Under the constitution of 18 April 1980, independent Zimbabwe had a bicameral parliament consisting of a house of assembly with 100 members, 20 of whom were elected by white voters, and 80 by persons on the common voters' roll, which included all voters except whites. The upper house, or senate, had 40 members, 14 of whom were chosen by the 80 assembly members elected from the common roll, 10 by the 20 white assembly members, 10 by the council of chiefs, and 6 nominated by the president on the advice of the prime minister. The racial basis of parliament could not be amended until 1987 unless by unanimous vote of parliament; amendment afterward needed only a 70% vote of the assembly. During the first 10 years of independence, the declaration of rights in the constitution could be amended only by a unanimous vote of the assembly; amendment of other clauses required a 70% majority. In August 1987, as soon as the constitution allowed, the separate representation for whites in parliament was abolished and the 20 seats were temporarily filled by representatives selected by the other 80 members.

After the 1990 elections, the two houses of parliament were merged into a single chamber of 150 members—120 elected by popular vote serving for five years, 10 traditional chiefs, 8 provincial governors, and 12 members appointed by the president. A constitutional change created an executive presidency and abolished the office of prime minister. ZANU leader Robert Mugabe assumed the presidency on 1 December 1987. Amidst controversy, he was reelected in March 1990, March 1996, and March 2002.

There is universal suffrage from age 18. The next presidential elections were scheduled for March 2008.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The Rhodesian Front Party, which dominated politics from its formation in March 1962 until the establishment of majority rule in 1979, advocated racial separation, division of land on a racial basis, and the protection of the Rhodesian whites. The party won all 20 Assembly seats reserved for whites in both the 1979 and 1980 elections, and in 1981, it changed its name to the Republican Front Party (RFP). Ian Smith, who served (1964–79) as prime minister, remained as party leader until his suspension from parliament in 1987. He was succeeded by Mark Partridge. The name of the party had previously been changed again to the Conservative Alliance Zimbabwe (CAZ). The CAZ won 15 of the 20 seats allotted to whites in the 1985 elections.

The principal black parties in Zimbabwean politics originated in the struggle for independence along ethnic lines. The Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) was formed in December 1961 and led by Joshua Nkomo. It was split in July 1963 by the creation of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), led by the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole, and later by Robert Mugabe. ZAPU's constituency was eventually reduced to the Ndebele minority, while ZANU gained wide support among the Shona ethnic group. Both ZAPU and ZANU took up arms against the government and in 1976 allied themselves in the Patriotic Front (PF).

After Bishop Abel Muzorewa accepted the Smith government's proposal for an internal constitutional settlement in 1978, his followers, now known as the United African National Council (UANC), emerged as the major party. In elections on 17–21 April 1979, the UANC captured a majority of 51 seats in the new Assembly, and Muzorewa became the nation's first black prime minister. The elections, however, were boycotted by the PF, which continued its armed opposition to the government.

Under British auspices, a new constitutional settlement obtained PF approval in 1979, and the elections of 27–29 February 1980 were contested by nine parties, including ZANU-Patriotic Front, led by Robert Mugabe, and ZAPU (which registered under the name Popular Front). Of the 80 Assembly seats elected from the common rolls, ZANU-Patriotic Front took 57, Popular Front (or ZAPU) 20, and UNAC 3. In the July 1985 elections, ZANUPF won 63 seats, PF-ZAPU, 15. After much enmity and bitterness during most of the 1980s, ZAPU and ZANU finally agreed to merge in late 1987 under the name of ZANU-PF and the merger was consummated in December 1989.

President Mugabe declared his intention to make Zimbabwe a one-party state by 1990. He regarded his party's victory in the 1990 elections as a mandate to proceed with his plans to establish ZANU-PF as the only legal party. He was soon turned away from that scheme by strong pressure from creditor governments abroad and a chorus of opposition domestically, including from within ZANU-PF. Zimbabwe got caught up in the general press throughout tropical Africa for greater decentralization of power and competitive party politics.

New parties began to emerge in the late 1980s and early 1990s in preparation for the expected elections in 1995. Tekere's Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM) contested the 1990 elections with some success. The UANC merged with ZUM in January 1994. In January, longtime Mugabe rival Sithole returned from exile and created his own party, also using the ZANU rubric of ZANUN donga or sometimes ZANU-Sithole.

In March 1993, former Chief Justice Enoch Dumbutshena launched the Forum Party, an outgrowth of the pressure group, Forum for Democratic Reform. The Democratic Party emerged from a split within ZUM.

In 1996 elections for Executive President, Robert Mugabe, the longtime ruler of Zimbabwe, won 93% of the vote, while his party, the Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front, won 98% of the available seats in elections held a year earlier. However, in both elections it was widely accepted that the result had been predetermined. The Zimbabwe government made little pretense of conducting a free and fair election.

Parliamentary elections were scheduled for April 2000, but were postponed until June. Two new strong political parties were formed to challenge Mugabe's ZANU-PF. The United Democratic Front (UDF) party was launched by Lupi Mushayakarara, former Rhodesian leader Ian Smith, Abel Muzorewa, and Ndabaningi Sithole, a pack of leaders that Mugabe dismissed as "ghosts of the past." A more formidable opponent emerged in the form of the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) led by Morgan Tsvangirai. The MDC successfully campaigned against a government sponsored draft constitution in the national referendum held in February 2000 with the government securing 45% of the national referendum votes against 55% for the opposition. The opposition argued that the draft constitution further entrenched executive rule allowing Mugabe to dissolve cabinet and parliament, and to rule by decree. Led by the MDC, opposition parties won nearly half of the seats in the House of Assembly in the June 2000 elections.

Parliamentary elections were held on 31 March 2005. ZANUPF won 78 of 150 seats, or 59.6% of the vote. The MDC won 41 seats, or 39.5% of the vote. One seat was secured by an independent candidate. The elections were not marked by violence as in the past, but the opposition claimed the elections were fraudulent. Human rights groups said that hundreds of thousands of "ghost voters" appeared on the electoral role. Other parties functioning in Zimbabwe were the National Alliance for Good Government (NAGG), the International Socialist Organization, the Shalom Reform Zimbabwe Party, and the Zimbabwe Labour Party. The next parliamentary elections were scheduled for 2010.

Challenges to the continued success of the MDC included leadership, credibility on the streets, articulation of position on contentious issues, and resource base. It remained to be seen whether the MDC could transform itself in a sustainable way from a broad-based civic movement opposed to Mugabe into an organized political entity representing and voicing the interests of a defined constituency all the while contesting power.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Each of the eight provinces of Zimbabwe is administered by a provincial commissioner appointed by the central government. Local services are provided by city, town, and rural councils. The Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Planning is charged with ensuring the establishment of local authorities where necessary and local adherence to legislation. In addition to the eight provinces, two cities have provincial status: Harare and Bulawayo.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The legal system is based on Roman-Dutch law and has been influenced by the system of South Africa. A four-member Supreme Court, headed by the chief justice, has original jurisdiction over alleged violations of fundamental rights guaranteed in the constitution and appellate jurisdiction over other matters. There is a High Court consisting of general and appellate divisions. Below the High Court are regional magistrate's courts with civil jurisdiction and magistrate's courts with both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Before independence, separate African courts had jurisdiction over cases involving traditional law and custom. Beginning in 1981, these courts were integrated into the national system.

The chief justice of the High Court is appointed by the president upon recommendation of the Judicial Service Commission. The Commission also advises the president on the appointment of the other judges.

In 1990 the Customary Law and Local Courts Act established a unitary court system made up of headmen's courts, chiefs' courts, magisterial courts, the High Court, and the Supreme Court. Under this system, customary law cases can be appealed through all levels to the Supreme Court.

The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial and the judiciary rigorously enforces this right. However, under Mugabe, the judiciary's reputation for independence from the executive branch has been compromised as the executive has refashioned the courts to conform with its dictates. Nevertheless, the High Court has ruled in favor in several of the MDC's elections petitions alleging violence and intimidation that obstructed the election process.

ARMED FORCES

Regular armed forces numbered 29,000 active personnel in 2005. The Army had an estimated 25,000 troops including a Presidential Guard. Armaments included 40 main battle tanks, most of which were listed as nonoperational, and 242 artillery pieces. The Air Force had 4,000 personnel with 50 combat capable aircraft, that included 13 fighters and 1 fighter ground attack aircraft. The service also had six attack helicopters. Paramilitary forces included the Zimbabwe Republic Police Force, with 19,500 members, and the Police Support Unit with 2,300 members. In 2005, the defense budget totaled $255 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Zimbabwe became a United Nations member on 25 August 1980 and belongs to ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the World Bank, the FAO, IAEA, UNESCO, UNIDO, and the WHO. It is also a member of the African Development Bank, the Commonwealth of Nations, the ACP Group, G-15, G-77, the African Union, the WTO, COMESA, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Preferential Trade Association (PTA) for eastern and southern Africa. Zimbabwe is part of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Zimbabwe is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Zimbabwe has developed one of the most diverse economies in Africa. It has abundant agricultural and mineral resources and a well-developed industrial sector and infrastructure. Average annual growth during the first postindependence decade was 2.9%, but grew at an annual negative growth rate (i.e. declined) of 7.2% between 2001 and 2005 with a peak of -10.6% in 2003. Problems abound, with an annual average inflation rate of 246% between 2001 and 2005 and the unemployment rate above 70% in 2002. It is estimated that over 70% of Zimbabwe's population currently lives below the poverty line. A small white elite continues to dominate economic resources, but repatriation of white farms caused the flight of white capital in 2000, and by 2003, the land reform program had created chaos and violence. Inflation seriously threatened the gold mining and tobacco industries.

The government remained committed to the 1991–95 Economic Structural Adjustment Program (ESAP), despite severe hardships the Program caused average Zimbabweans. Central to this program was the reduction of the civil service by 25% with some 32,000 jobs eliminated by 1994. Although Zimbabwe recovered from the effects of the devastating 1991–92 drought, which caused a decline of between 8% and 9% in the GDP, thousands remained chronically dependent on food support. During 2000–05 period, many of Zimbabwe's population struggled to afford basic commodities as inflation rose. The African Development Bank and the IMF granted loans to Zimbabwe in 1999 and 2000, but Zimbabwe's external debt had already risen to $5 billion in 2001 and is currently estimated to be $5.2 billion. Civil unrest threatens the ruling government of Robert Mugabe. High budget deficits, inflation, and the HIV/AIDS pandemic prevent economic stability. As of 2002, the IMF's program with Zimbabwe remained suspended because the country was not complying with the IMF's conditions, and Zimbabwe had not made payments to the IMF since 2001. The World Bank also suspended programs in 2000 due to Zimbabwe's falling into arrears on payments. Mugabe's greater exercise of control over the economy did not portend well for the future. In its April 2005 World Economic Outlook, the IMF projected that real GDP in Zimbabwe would contract by 1.6% in 2005 and that growth would be stagnant in 2006. The fall in GDP in 2005 represented the seventh consecutive year of decline. GDP in 2005 was 40% lower than in 1998 and it is projected that in 2010 it will be 57% lower than in 1998.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Zimbabwe's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $28.4 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $1,900. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at -4%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 266.8%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 17.9% of GDP, industry 24.3%, and services 57.9%.

Foreign aid receipts amounted to $186 million or about $14 per capita.

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Zimbabwe totaled $12.87 billion or about $982 per capita based on a GDP of $17.8 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 0.4%. Approximately 20% of household consumption was spent on food, 21% on fuel, 3% on health care, and 15% on education. It was estimated that in 2004 about 80% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2005, Zimbabwe's labor force was estimated at 3.94 million. As of 1996 (the latest year for which data was available), 66% of the workforce was engaged in agriculture, 24% in services, and 10% in industry. Growing unemployment remains a serious problem as new jobs fail to keep pace with the number of new job seekers. The unemployment rate in 2004 was estimated at 60%.

In 1981, the Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU) was formed as an umbrella organization for all trade unions and to promote the formation of a single trade union for each industry. As of 2002, about 25% of the salaried workforce were members of the 31 unions which formed the ZCTU. Spontaneous strikes and lockouts are banned. Government-mandated worker committees carry out many functions performed by unions elsewhere, and annual wage increases are mandated for all workers.

Since independence, a priority of the government's wage policy has been reduction of the huge variation in earnings among workers, partly by increasing minimum wages and by controlling increases in higher wage brackets. The monthly minimum wage in 2002 ranged from about us$14 for agricultural workers to us$30 in the manufacturing sector. Although children under the age of 15 are legally banned from employment, child labor is widespread in all aspects of the economy. Workplace safety and health continue to be problems. There are no general standards for the safety of the work environment. The government sets standards and enforces them on an inconsistent basis.

AGRICULTURE

In 2003, Zimbabwe had 3.3 million hectares (8.3 million acres) of arable land, covering 8.7% of the country's total land area. Most of what is now central Zimbabwe was sparsely populated when Europeans first settled into the region, gradually transforming the bush into fertile farmland. Since 2000, government policy changes have led to the seizure of 4,000 white-owned farms, and many who lost land have emigrated elsewhere in Africa or overseas. In 2003, agriculture accounted for 17% of GDP and 23% of exports.

In April 2000, some 35,000 guerilla veterans of Mugabe's Bush War revolution began expropriating hundreds of white-owned farms, frequently assaulting and occasionally murdering farmers. The farmland occupation cost millions of dollars in crop damage. Mugabe had promised to give each landless veteran z$50,000 as well as a monthly pension, but there was no money in the budget for it. Zimbabwe's High Court ordered police to evict the squatters from white farms, but the order was not enforced. Mugabe gave an implied approval of the confiscation by publicly declaring all white Zimbabweans as enemies of the state. The mainly white Commercial Farmers Union of Zimbabwe had been willing to negotiate redistribution of much of the farmland owned by whites, but Mugabe and the ruling ZANU-PF party were reluctant to settle. Previous land confiscations ordered by Mugabe have typically resulted in farmland left fallow or under the control of corrupt government officials. Crop production during 2002–04 fell by almost 25% compared with 1999–2001.

Since 1991, Zimbabwean agriculture has undergone a fundamental transition away from artificial producer and consumer prices, which were set far below world market levels. Many commercial farms changed from corn, cotton, and oilseed production to tobacco and horticultural activities because the government refused to permit producer prices to keep pace with rising input prices. About 63% of the economically active population was engaged in agriculture in 2000.

In the early 1990s, drought severely affected the output of every crop except tobacco. Corn, wheat, cotton, oilseed, coffee, and sugar outputs all declined by at least 75%. Tobacco production in 2004 was 80,000 tons. Corn production in 2004 totaled only 1,000,000 tons, down from 2,609,200 tons in 1996. In 2004, cotton production totaled 100,000 tons. Marketed production figures of other crops in 2004 were wheat, 80,000; sorghum, 80,000; soybeans, 93,000; peanuts, 150,000; coffee, 9,000; and sunflower seeds, 5,000. Rice, potatoes, tea, and pyrethrum are also grown.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

In 2005, some 5,400,000 head of cattle, 2,970,000 goats, 610,000 sheep, 610,000 hogs, 112,000 donkeys, and 28,000 horses were held. Chickens numbered about 23 million. Livestock raising is an important industry, which has been helped by increased diversification initiated after 1965. In 2005, beef production totaled 96,700 tons; pork, 27,500 tons; and goat meat, 12,800 tons. Fresh milk production from cows totaled 248,000 tons.

FISHING

There is some commercial fishing on Kariba Lake. Rural Zimbabweans fish the smaller lakes and rivers. The total catch in 2003 was estimated at 15,600 tons, with dagaas accounting for 67%.

FORESTRY

About 49% of Zimbabwe's land area is estimated to be forest, but this classification included scattered tree savanna and considerable areas of grassland likely to be reforested in the foreseeable future. Forestry is gaining importance in Zimbabwe. There are hardwood forests in the western part of the country and in the Victoria Falls area. About 100,000 tons of teak, mahogany, and mukwa (kiaat) are cut annually. Roundwood production totaled 9.1 million cu m (321 million cu ft) in 2004, with about 89% used as fuel wood. Sawn wood production that year was 397,000 cu m (14 million cu ft). Softwood afforestation projects have been undertaken in the eastern districts to supply local needs heretofore met by imports; however, the loss of woodlands may be as high as 1.5% per year.

MINING

Zimbabwe's chief minerals were coal, gold, copper, nickel and clays. Zimbabwe was a world leader in the production of lithium minerals, chrysotile asbestos, and ferrochromium, with more than half of the world's known chromium reserves. Zimbabwe was self-sufficient in most minerals, producing 35 commodities mainly from small-scale mines. The total value of mineral production totaled $804.3 million in 2003. Employment however in the mining and quarrying sector has declined between 1998 and 2002, dropping from 61,000 to 43,000 in 2002. The fall may be attributed to economic conditions that have forced many smaller mining operations to shutdown between 2000 and 2003. However, another 100,000 to 300,000 were thought to be employed in the panning for gold. Of total exports of $1.23 billion in 2003, mineral and manufactured metal exports accounted for $492.3 million, up from $426.6 million in 2002.

Gold production peaked in 1999 at 27,666 kg, but government policies caused a more than 50% drop to 12,564 kg in 2003. As a result, gold exports also fell, from $236.1 million in 1998 to $137.4 million in 2003. Gold historically had been a major export.

Although several major metals saw production increases in 2003, most of the other minerals saw production declines ranging from 5% to more than 60% in 2003. Among the reasons for the decline were: general domestic economic conditions compounded by the state-sanctioned expropriation of commercial farmlands which threatened to spill over to the mining sector, and the high incidence of HIV/AIDS—25% of the 15–49-year-old population was infected—added substantially to the mining sector's labor costs, through absenteeism, lost productivity, medical treatment, and skill replacement.

Output of other major minerals in 2003 included chromite (gross weight), 637,099 metric tons, down from 749,339 metric tons; asbestos, 147,000 tons, down from 168,000 in 2002; mine copper concentrate (metal content), 2,767 metric tons, up from 2,502 metric tons in 2002; mined nickel, 11,600 metric tons (estimated), up from 8,092 metric tons; lithium minerals (gross weight), 12,131 metric tons, down from 33,172 metric tons in 2002; black granite, 47,007 metric tons, down from 408,550 metric tons in 2002; iron ore (metal content), 184,000 tons, up from 136,000 in 2002; and marketable phosphate rock concentrate, 95,496 metric tons, down from 107,854 metric tons in 2002. The Madziwa nickel mine was closed down in 2000, the Mhangura Copper Mines were near depletion, and Munyati Copper Mines Ltd. suspended operations in 2000, following its abandoned sale. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, copper replaced gold and asbestos as the most valuable mineral, but its production has not kept pace with other minerals. Zimbabwe in 2003 also produced palladium, platinum, rhodium, selenium, silver, barite, hydraulic cement, clays (including montmorillonite bentonite and fire clay), emerald, feldspar, graphite, kyanite, limestone, magnesite, mica, nitrogen, rough quartz, sulfur, talc, and vermiculite. National PGM metal production grew in 2003 to an estimated 8,418 kg, up from 4,729 kg in 2002. No antimony, lead, zinc, diamonds, or iron oxide pigments were produced in 2003.

Gold panning was legal, but, by the Gold Trade Act, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe had a monopoly on purchasing and exporting of all gold and silver produced in the country. The revised code also permitted unlimited foreign exchange to companies that exported more than 75% of their production, and mining companies were allowed to keep 5% of their export earnings, to buy imported raw materials. Coal deposits in the Hwange area were substantial.

Excess government intervention in the economy and in staterun industries has been a major contributor to the growing number of closed mines and suspended projects, undermining the ability of the mining sector to generate more than 25% of export earnings. The government has been making efforts to privatize its interests in the energy, mining, and rail sectors, and to loosen its foreign exchange rules. Although the short-term outlook was not favorable, the natural resource endowment and a well-developed infrastructure remained in place.

ENERGY AND POWER

Zimbabwe relies heavily on hydroelectricity and coal for its energy needs. Wood is also important.

With no proven oil reserves or refining capacity, the country's demand for refined oil is met by imports. In 2002, imports of refined petroleum products averaged 21,560 barrels per day, of which distillates accounted for 11,490 barrels per day and gasoline 5,680 barrels per day. Demand for refined products averaged 22,330 barrels per day in that same year. A pipeline from the Mozambique port of Beira to Mutare provides the majority of Zimbabwe's refined petroleum and diesel oil; the rest comes from South Africa.

Coal reserves in Zimbabwe were estimated at about 809 million tons at the beginning of 1998. Production in 2002 totaled 4,068,000 short million tons, with much of that amount going to the coal-fired Hwange plant for electricity production. Imports of coal totaled 43,000 short tons that year.

Electrical production is shared with Zambia. In 2002, Zimbabwe produced 8.279 billion kWh of electricity, of which 54% was from fossil fuels and 46% from hydropower. Consumption of electricity in 2002 was 11.394 billion kWh. Installed capacity in 2002 was 1.961 million kW, of which 61.5% of capacity came from conventional thermal plants.

INDUSTRY

Zimbabwe has a substantial and diverse manufacturing base, which is partly a legacy of the international sanctions imposed over the five years prior to independence. Industry accounted for only 14% of GDP in 2001, however. Manufacturing was at its lowest level in 15 years in 2001 due to civil unrest. Food and beverages, minerals processing, chemical and petroleum products, and textiles account for the majority of the value added by manufacturing. Lower levels of consumer demand because of high prices have affected producers of many household goods, clothing, footwear, drink, and tobacco products.

The Zimbabwe Iron and Steel Corporation (ZISCO) was operating at 30% in 1996, and supplied 60% of local need. The Zimchem chemical refinery processes a range of chemical products. Cement is produced in large quantities. Zimbabwe also has a substantial cotton and textile industry. The textiles industry has lost some 17,000 jobs in recent years to foreign competition from South Africa, which used subsidies, export incentives, and tariff protection to support its textiles industry. The gold mining industry faced collapse and closure in 2000 because of a lack of foreign exchange. Gold output dropped by half in that year, and 46,000 jobs were in peril. The tobacco industry was also in danger of foreclosure due to farm repatriation. As of 2005, the dire condition of the economy (a severely problematic balance of payments situation, devaluation of the currency, desperate foreign currency shortage, high inflation, very high interest rates, a fall in exports, and fuel shortages) was damaging the operations and viability of the manufacturing, construction, and mining sectors, in addition to agriculture.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Much of Zimbabwe's research effort is directed at improvements in agriculture. The government's budget for agricultural research is administered by the Agricultural Research Council which is headquartered in Harare and operates seven research institutes, eight research and experiment stations, and the National Herbarium and Botanic Garden. In Harare, at the Blair Research Laboratory, simple, innovative technologies are being developed to improve Zimbabwe's water supply and sewage disposal. Other research organizations, all in Harare, include the Geological Survey of Zimbabwe, the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, and the Public Health Laboratory. The National University of Science and Technology, founded in 1990 at Bulawayo, has faculties of industrial technology and applied sciences. The University of Zimbabwe, founded in 1955 at Harare, has faculties of agriculture, engineering, medicine, science, and veterinary science. Degrees in agriculture and polytechnic studies are offered by seven colleges. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 24% of college and university enrollments. In 2002, high technology exports were valued at $21 million, or 3% of all manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Harare and Bulawayo are the country's principal distribution centers. They are linked by rail and road to smaller towns that serve as centers for their immediate rural areas. Head offices of most of the large companies are in one or the other of the two cities. There are supermarkets and department stores in Harare as well as few newer shopping centers offering a wider variety of goods. Many products are locally produced. Kwe Kwe serves as a processing and distribution center for livestock, tobacco, steel, and chrome. Mutare is a regional trading center. A chaotic, controversial land reform program and uncontrolled inflation have hindered the domestic trade and economy.

Business hours are generally from 8 am to 5 pm Monday through Saturday. Banks are open from 8:30 am to 2 pm Monday through Friday, except on Wednesday, when they close at noon. Saturday banking hours are from 8:30 to 11 am.

FOREIGN TRADE

Due to violence in 2000, the annual tobacco auction that usually provides 30% of Zimbabwe's foreign exchange earnings had less than 20% of its normal sales volume and sold bales at prices 15% lower than usual. Unmanufactured tobacco from Zimbabwe (30% of total exports) typically accounts for about 11% of the world's export market in that category.

Gold had been the second-largest export commodity, but gold revenues were down by almost 50% in 2000 due to high inflation rates in Zimbabwe and low world market prices for gold. Other important exports include cotton (9.2%), iron and steel (9.2%), sugar (4.7%), and nickel (4.4%).

In 2005 the principal exports in terms of monetary revenues were as follows: gold ($366 million), tobacco ($227 million), ferro-alloys ($185 million), and platinum ($121 million). During the same year the principal imports were as follows: fuels ($413 million), chemicals ($401.3 million), machinery ($271.4 million), and manufactured goods ($268.7 million).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Zimbabwe's imports grew by an average of 11% between 1988 and 1998, reflecting a relaxation of import controls and the inflow of capital goods needed for investment, but declined rapidly after 1998. The rapid rise of the current account deficit since 1989 was caused primarily by the surge in imports from the creation of the

Open General Import License (OGIL) list of items possible for importation without first obtaining a foreign exchange allocation from the government. With huge pent-up demand and future uncertainty about the program, importers rushed to take advantage of the opportunity, often hoarding several years' supply of items, which caused the trade deficit to balloon. After 1997, the amount of imports leveled off, and dropped rapidly in 1998. Due to the government's disastrous land reform programs, the commercial sector, as the traditional source of exports and foreign exchange, has suffered considerably.

The Economist Intelligence Unit reported that in 2005 the purchasing power parity of Zimbabwe's exports was $1.686 billion while imports totaled $2.053 billion resulting in a trade surplus of $367 million.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

Zimbabwe has a relatively well-developed financial sector, in sub-Saharan Africa, second only to that of South Africa. The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ) administers all monetary and exchange controls and is the sole bank of issue. The Zimbabwe Development Bank was established in 1983 as a development finance institution.

Five commercial banks and 10 merchant banks operate in Zimbabwe. Commercial banks include Barclays, Standard Chartered, Stanbic, the Zimbabwe Banking Corporation, and the Commercial Bank of Zimbabwe. Merchant banks include the Merchant bank of Central Africa, First Merchant Bank, Standard Chartered Merchant Bank, Syfrets Merchant Bank, National Merchant Bank of Zimbabwe. Commercial banks are obliged to maintain a statutory deposit ratio of 20%. The Post Office Savings Bank is an important savings institution. High inflation rates in the late 1990s prompted the government to print $250 million worth of Zimbabwean dollars in order to keep the state running, instead of depreciating the currency itself.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $2.4 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $3.3 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 21.52%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 57.2%.

The Zimbabwe Stock Exchange (ZSE), with floors in Harare, deals in government securities and the securities of many privately owned companies. The stock exchange opened in 1946. Until 1993, it was insignificant as a source of new capital, but the government allowed foreign investment through the ZSE, and by September 1995 the net foreign inflow exceeded us$125 million. In 1997, the value of shares traded more than doubled, but in 1998, there was an 88% decline in the value of shares traded because of social unrest and high interest rates. 2001 proved to be a banner year, however, with market capitalization at a soaring all-time high of just under $8 billion, and trading valued at $1.5 billion. The ZSE Industrial Index was up 158% for the year, at 46,351.9, despite the severe economic slowdown caused by President Robert Mugabe's policies. As of 2004, a total of 79 companies were listed on the ZSE, which had a market capitalization of $1.941 billion. In that same year, the ZSE Industrial index rose 173.3% from the previous year to 1,097,492.5. Trading value in 2004 totaled $136 million.

INSURANCE

Insurance companies must be registered with and licensed by the Registrar of Insurance, make security deposits with the treasury, file annual financial reports, and observe other government regulations. Principal types of insurance written are life, fire, automobile, employers' liability, and accident. Automobile third-party liability is compulsory. There were some 50 insurance companies doing business in Zimbabwe in the mid-1980s.

In 1996, insurance companies continued to complain about the persistence of regulations that they considered to be inappropriate in the liberalized environment. Two foreign-owned insurance companies were reported to be holding out against government localization requirements against which a deadline of 1 August 1993, for 51% local shareholding had been set. The requirement on insurance companies and pension funds to invest 55% in government securities was also felt to be too high. In 2003, the value of all direct insurance premiums written totaled $482 million, of which life insurance premiums accounted for $277 million. NicozDiamond was the country's top nonlife insurer in 2003, with gross written nonlife premiums of $195 million. In 2002, Old Mutual was the leading life insurer, with gross written life insurance premiums of $144.3 million.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Zimbabwe derives its principal revenues from income taxes, sales tax, customs and excise duties, and interest, dividends, and profits. Principal categories of expenditure are education, defense, debt service, and agriculture. Budgets for the 1970s and the 1980s were generally in deficit. Escalating fiscal deficits in the 1980s led to the implementation early in 1991 of an extensive reform program, which focused on fiscal deficit reduction and monetary reforms. A

severe drought in 1992, however, set back the program; the deficit rose to more than 10% of GDP in 1993, and 15% of GDP in 2000. In 1999, an estimated one-third of the total budget was spent on troops sent to the Congo. Pay raises from 60% up to 90% were given to the civil service and the army.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Zimbabwe's central government took in revenues of approximately us$1.4 billion and had expenditures of us$1.9 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -us$496 million. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 30.1% of GDP. Total external debt was us$5.17 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 1997, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were z$30,539.8 million and expenditures were z$36,454.4 million. The value of revenues in US dollars was us$36,314 million and expenditures us$43,346 million, based on a official exchange rate for 1997 of us$1 = z$0.841 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 25.0%; defense, 7.1%; public order and safety, 6.2%; economic affairs, 6.8%; housing and community amenities, 4.4%; health, 8.1%; recreation, culture, and religion, 0.1%; education, 24.2%; and social protection, 18.2%.

TAXATION

The corporate tax rate as of 2005 was 30% plus a 3% AIDS levy, down from a flat rate of 36.8%. A 5% levy is imposed on the net profits of banking institutions. New projects or enterprises in designated growth point area are taxed at 15% for five years. Other tax concessions are available for export manufacturers. Dividends paid to a Zimbabwean company are not taxable, but dividends paid to a foreign company are subject to 15% withholding if the company is stock exchange-listed, and 20% otherwise. Listed securities are exempt from capital gains tax, which is otherwise 20%. Withholding rates may be reduced or eliminated in double taxation agreements. Zimbabwe has tax treaties with at least 12 countries, including the United Kingdom, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, Canada, South Africa, Poland, Malaysia, Bulgaria, and Mauritius.

The primary tax on individuals is an income tax, which is based on a graduated scale of rates: 0%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, and 40%.

As of 2005, Zimbabwe had a value-added tax (VAT) with a standard rate of 15%, which was applied to most goods and services. Exempt from the VAT were rail or road passenger transport, financial, medical, educational and training services, long-term residential leases, tobacco, and fuel. Exports are zero-rated, as are prescribed drugs and tourist services. Tobacco sold on the auction floor is subject to a 1.5% levy. There are excise duties on alcoholic beverages, cigarettes, and tobacco. Other taxes include a betting tax, and stamp, transfer, and estate duties.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Zimbabwe uses the GATT system of tariff codes. Imports are subject to duty, import tax, and surtax. Capital goods are exempt from all three. Duties mostly range between 15% and 20% but can go as high as 60%. The surtax is 10% and sales tax is charged to the importer as the end-user. The customs duty for textiles is 5% and the duty for clothes is 15%.

Zimbabwe is a member of the 14-nation Southern African Development Community (SADC), which was formed to promote "regional integration," and the 22-nation Preferential Trade Area (PTA) of Eastern and Southern Africa, which provides reduced duties on trade between member countries.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

From independence in 1980 until 1991, the government was very defensive toward foreign investment, subjecting each proposal to careful scrutiny and requiring foreign investors to get permission from the Foreign Investment Center for the development of any new enterprise in Zimbabwe. Enterprises could be 100% foreign owned, especially in priority areas, but there was (and is) in effect a strong preference for joint ventures with at least 30% local participation.

In 1991 there was some revision of the regulations but the emphasis on indigenization remained at least as strong as the emphasis on the need to attract foreign investment. There is a long list of reserved sectors, but priority areas are offered a schedule of tax and tariff exemptions and incentives. Incentives are aimed at encouraging capital investments, the transfer of technology, the utilization of local raw materials, the development of rural areas, the use of labor-intensive methods, and the hiring of local personnel. Industries geared toward exporting that meet EPZ requirements receive tax holidays and customs free trade. In 1992, as part of a structural reform program under the IMF's Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF), the Zimbabwe Investment Centre (ZIC) was established as a one-stop shop for investment approval. In 1995, disbursements under the ESAF program were suspended for failure to meet IMF targets, and in 1996, the government substituted a second plan, the Zimbabwe Program for Economic and Social Transformation (ZIMPREST), whose operations investors have found much less satisfactory. By the late 1990s, political turbulence and the government's defiance of the IMF had greatly increased investor risk, and brought foreign direct investment flows to a standstill.

Foreign investment has played a crucial role in Zimbabwe's development. In 1998, foreign direct investment (FDI) in Zimbabwe totaled over $444 million; by 2001, FDI in-flow had fallen to $5.4 million. In the last three years (2003–05) FDI has all but dried up, as the government's focus on political objectives at substantial cost to the economy continue and a return to better policies and practices seems no closer. At the end of the 1970s, foreigners owned an estimated 70–80% of listed corporations. Today, offshore ownership of shares on the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange has fallen to approximately 25%.

There has been a comparable decline in foreign portfolio investment, reflected in the transformation of Zimbabwe's capital account balance, from a surplus in 1995 equal to 7.1% of GDP to a deficit in 2002 equal to 6.5% of GDP. The lack of foreign currency in the country has made investment even less attractive because of the near-impossibility of converting earnings out of the rapidly depreciating local currency, which the government in many cases restricts. The suspension of IMF funding, with its negative implications about the credit-worthiness of the country, has limited most business transactions to a cash basis. The situation was worsened in June 2003, when the IMF suspended Zimbabwe's voting rights in the organization for failure to make effective efforts to repay arrears of about $305 million to the fund. Zimbabwe's total arrears increased from $700 million at the end of 2001 to $1.5 billion at the end of 2002. Somewhat ironically, the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange (ZSE), founded in 1896 and open to foreign investment since 1993, has been the bestor second-best-performing emerging market stock exchange since 1999, propelled by inflation rates that in 2003 were reaching 300%.

Most foreign investment in Zimbabwe has roots in the colonial era, such as the mining conglomerate Anglo-American of Zimbabwe (AMZIM), and the timber company Lonrho, long the country's two largest investors. In 2001 Lonrho sold its timber holdings in Zimbabwe to Brotherhood Holdings Ltd. for a cash payment of $275 million. AMZIM, after selling off a number of subsidiaries, announced in June 2003 that it was relocating its headquarters to South Africa. Government policy allows squatters to take over, at times forcefully, white-owned commercial farms. When Zimbabwe was Rhodesia, white farmers, constituting less than 1% of the population, controlled over one-third of the land. Under Zimbabwe's investment regime investments in agriculture were discouraged and underutilized land was subject to fair-value purchase by the government for redistribution to family farmers. This policy primarily affected the 50% of the 11 million ha of agricultural estates created prior to independence. The United States provided some funding for a land-for-purchase program from 1980 to 1997, but by 1998 the government had rejected this gradualist approach as too slow. By 2003, over 4,000 white-owned farms had been taken against the will of the owners.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

A three-year transitional development plan was adopted for 1982–85. It called for investments in the public sector and assumed an average net growth rate of 8% per year. Manufacturing was to receive 23% of total investment, transport 14%, and agriculture 13%. Total investment fell 30% short of this goal. The Five-Year Development Plan for 1986–90 called for an annual growth rate of 5.1%, some 60% from public-sector investment and 40% from foreign sources. Education, defense, and debt service were the largest categories of government spending. During the 1990s, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) supported Zimbabwe's balance of payments, but in 1999 President Robert Mugabe declared that he would sever ties with the development fund. The president was not willing to "save" the economy under a structural adjustment plan because it would have effectively bankrupted the government. In 2000, economic development slid backwards as inflation spiraled, industries died, and agricultural production fell; but in terms of leveling the distribution of wealth between blacks and whites, it was a red-letter year.

Mugabe's radical land reform program, poor management of the economy, and interference with the judiciary have combined to prevent further investment and development. Shortages of food, fuel, and foreign exchange marked the early 2000s. The IMF adopted a declaration of noncooperation for Zimbabwe in 2002 and suspended its technical assistance to the country, due to the nonpayment of arrears. In 2003, the IMF suspended Zimbabwe's voting and related rights. That year, inflation stood at 385%, and economic and social conditions had deteriorated, including a rise in unemployment and poverty, and a worsening of the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the country. In February 2003, the government launched a National Economic Revival Program (NERP) designed to stabilize the economy. The Economist Intelligence Unit notes that since no fundamental changes in economic policy are expected, the economic collapse of recent years is expected to continue and real GDP is forecast to contract by 4.2% in 2006 and 1.5% in 2007. Inflation is forecast to remain firmly in triple digits as monetary policy will remain loose and the government will struggle to rein in spending, and because of ongoing food and foreign-exchange shortages and high world oil prices.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The social insurance system, instituted in 1993, has been updated in 2001, 2002, and 2003. All employed persons between the ages of 16 and 64 who are citizens or residents of Zimbabwe are covered. Old age pensions, disability, and survivorship benefits are provided under the program. Workers' compensation is available to all private-sector employees except domestic workers; government employees are covered under a state plan.

In 1993, a social security system was introduced providing old age, disability, and survivor's pensions. The program covers all employees between the ages of 16 and 65. Retirement is normally allowed at age 60. Free health care is provided for low-income families (about 75% of the population). Maternity benefits provide 70% of regular earnings for 90 days. Workers compensation insurance is provided for private sector employees. The State Disability Act provides coverage to public sector employees.

Domestic violence and abuse is common, and is on the rise due to economic stress and high unemployment. As of 2004, there was no legislation addressing domestic abuse, and officials often condone wife beating. Despite some legislative advances, women are bound by traditional customs which are discriminatory in areas of property ownership and inheritance. Sexual harassment in the workplace is prevalent. Rape, including politically motivated assaults, remain a huge and underreported problem. There are hundreds of thousands of orphans due to the large number of deaths from HIV/AIDS. Education is not compulsory, and schooling is not free.

There are numerous reports of human rights violations. Abuses included police killings, beatings, and torture, violation of privacy rights, and persecution of journalists. The government has generally failed to take action against those responsible for human rights abuses.

HEALTH

All health services are the responsibility of the Ministry of Health, which covers 50% of total health care expenditures provided by local authorities (with Ministry of Health grants), mission churches (also with grants), and industrial organizations and private services. The government has declared its intention to provide free medical services for all. Prior to independence, facilities for Africans were free, but these were greatly inferior to those available to Europeans. Zimbabwe has been focusing on building and/or upgrading rural health care centers and district hospitals and expanding rural health programs, such as immunization, control of diarrheal diseases, training of health care workers, and improving the supply and affordability of essential drugs. The local pharmaceutical industry is well developed. The Ministry of National Supplies operates the Government Medical Stores, which procures goods on behalf of the Ministry of Health. There were four tiers of health care delivery in Zimbabwe: 56 rural hospitals and 927 health centers (public and private) providing preventive and curative services; 55 district hospitals; 8 provincial and 4 general hospitals; and 5 central hospitals located in major cities. As of 2004, there were an estimated 6 physicians and 54 nurses per 100,000 people. About 85% of the population had access to health care services. An estimated 85% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 68% had adequate sanitation.

As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 24.6 and 24 per 1,000 people. About 54% of married women (ages 15 to 49) were using contraception. The fertility rate was 3.8 births per woman. Infant mortality was 52.34 per 1,000 live births in the same year, and life expectancy was only 39.13 years in 2005. Maternal mortality rates were high with an estimated 695 per 100,000 live births and the disease pattern for mothers and children was one of mainly preventable diseases. The government of Zimbabwe paid for 80% of the routine immunizations. The immunization rates for children under five were as follows: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 78%; polio, 79%; measles, 73%; and tuberculosis, 82% in 1994.

Guinea worm incidence has decreased from 1,570 cases in 1991 to 257 in 1995. Commonly reported diseases were malaria and measles. Tuberculosis continues to be a major health problem. Local campaigns are under way to control schistosomiasis, which affects a large percentage of the African population. An estimated 16% of children under five years old were considered malnourished.

The AIDS epidemic is among the worst in the world. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 24.60 per 100 adults in 2003, the fourth highest in the world. As of 2004, there were approximately 1,800,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 170,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003. Demographic surveys project that AIDS may increase child mortality rates nearly threefold by the year 2010 in Zimbabwe.

HOUSING

In rural areas, Africans live in villages and on farms in housing that is mainly of brick or mud and stick construction with thatch or metal roofs. The villages are usually small (except for the massive protected villages), with fewer than 100 inhabitants. Urban housing is generally of brick. According to the latest available information for 1980–88, total housing units numbered two million, with 4.2 people per dwelling. In 2000, the housing deficit was estimated at over one million units. In 2001, about 3.4% of the urban population lived in slums.

The Zimbabwe National Association of Housing Cooperatives (ZINAHCO) is an umbrella organization of over 1,000 national housing cooperatives. The organization was established as a means of providing advice to member groups on dealing with local and national authorities and to offer training in building techniques. In 2003, ZINAHCO was working to change urban building standards which dictate that hook-ups to public services must be in place before an owner may begin to build a home. The Cooperatives argue that for many of the urban poor living in slum shacks, it is more appropriate to first allow for the construction of permanent structures with communal utility services. Residents can then install utilities at a later date, as they can afford to do so.

EDUCATION

A unitary system of education under the Ministry of Education has replaced the dual system of separate educational facilities for Africans and non-Africans formerly maintained by the Rhodesian government. Education is free and compulsory for seven years between the ages of 6 and 13. Secondary education lasts for six years (four years lower and two years upper). The government has developed a strong vocational school and apprenticeship system.

Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 80% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 38% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 80.6% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 39:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 22:1. In 2003, private schools accounted for about 86.9% of primary school enrollment and 71.3% of secondary enrollment.

The University of Zimbabwe provides higher education on a multiracial basis. Other universities include the National University of Science and Technology and the Africa University, which is sponsored by the United Methodist church. In 2003, it was estimated that about 4% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in tertiary education programs. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 90%, with 93.8% for men and 86.3% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.7% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The National Free Library of Zimbabwe was founded in 1943 in Bulawayo as a national lending library and center for interlibrary loans. It has over 100,000 volumes. The Bulawayo Public Library holds about 100,000 volumes and operates a mobile library service. Other libraries include the Harare City Library, with 200,000 volumes and the Turner Memorial Library in Mutare. The National Archives of Zimbabwe, located in Harare, receives a copy of every book published in Zimbabwe, as does the Bulawayo Public Library. The library at the University of Zimbabwe is the largest in the country, with 500,000 volumes in the main library and branches. The Parliament of Zimbabwe holds a collection of 115,000 volumes.

The Zimbabwe Museum of Natural History (1901) at Bulawayo has geologic, ethnographic, historical, and zoological collections. A Railway Museum is also located in Bulawayo. Located in Harare are the Zimbabwe Museum of Human Sciences, with archaeological, historical, zoological, and other collections, the National Gallery of Zimbabwe, which displays works of national, regional, and European art, and the Queen Victoria Museum. There is a military museum in Gweru and a children's museum in Marondera.

MEDIA

The Ministry of Information, Posts, and Telecommunications provides telephone, telegraph, and postal services. In 2003, there were an estimated 26 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 131,000 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 32 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

The state-owned Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation controls all domestic broadcasting of television and radio. In total there were 7 AM and 20 FM radio stations in 1998. In 1997, there were 16 television stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 362 radios and 56 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 52.7 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 43 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were seven secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

There are a number of independent and government-owned newspapers in the country. The Herald (2002 circulation, 122,166) and the Chronicle (74,032) are owned by the Mass Media Trust (MMT), a holding company affiliated with the ZANU-PF. Though circulation figures were not available at this printing, The Daily News, an independent publication, is reported to have the largest circulation in the country. Major independent weeklies include The Financial Gazette, The Independent, and The Standard.

The constitution provides for free expression, but allows for legal limitations in the name of defense, public safety, public order, state economic interest, public morality, and public health. There is said to be a high degree of self-censorship employed by the media, though an increasingly independent press is sometimes critical of the government.

ORGANIZATIONS

The government encourages the development of agricultural and other cooperatives, which are seen as a means of improving the subsistence economy. The Zimbabwe National Chamber of Commerce has many branches. The Consumer Council of Zimbabwe is located in Harare. The Africa regional office of Consumers International is in Harare.

The National Arts Council of Zimbabwe is based in Harare. The Zimbabwe Medical Association and the Zimbabwe Scientific Association serve as both professional associations and educational/research organizations. The Wildlife Society of Zimbabwe is an educational and activist group for conservation and environmental issues.

National youth organizations include Youth for Christ, Junior Chamber, the Zimbabwe National Students Union, Zimbabwe Student Christian Movement, the Boy Scouts Association of Zimbabwe, The Girl Guides Association of Zimbabwe, and YMCA/YWCA. There are sports associations promoting amateur competition for athletes of all ages in a wide variety of pastimes, including softball, baseball, badminton, and track and field.

The Zimbabwe Association for Human Rights was established in 1994. Active groups for women's rights and social development include the Kunwana Women Association, the Musasa Project, the Zimbabwe Association of University Women, and the Zimbabwe Women's Bureau. Amnesty International, Habitat for Humanity, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, UNICEF, and the Red Cross have national chapters.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Tourist attractions include Victoria Falls and the Kariba Dam on the Zambezi River, numerous wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves, including Hwange National Park, the eastern highlands, the Matobo Hills, and the Zimbabwe ruins near Masvingo. There are safari areas in the Zambezi Valley below the Kariba Dam and at Tuli. Resort, camping, and fishing facilities are also available. South African visitors still account for the largest share of the tourist trade. Political progress in South Africa brightens the outlook for tourism in Zimbabwe. A passport, visa, onward/return ticket, and sufficient funds are required for travel to Zimbabwe. Precautions against typhoid, malaria, and hepatitis are recommended.

In 2001, approximately 2,067,864 tourists visited Zimbabwe. Tourism receipts for 2003 totaled us$44 million. In that year there were 5,766 hotel rooms with 12,053 beds and a 38% occupancy rate. The average length of stay was three nights.

According to 2005 US Department of State estimates, the cost of staying in Harare was us$301 per day, and at Victoria Falls, us$411 per day.

FAMOUS ZIMBABWEANS

The country's former name, Rhodesia, was derived from Cecil John Rhodes (1853–1902), whose company administered the area during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Lobengula (1833–94), king of the Ndebele, whose grant of the minerals concession in his territory to Rhodes in 1888 led to European settlement, headed an unsuccessful rebellion of his people against the settlers in 1893. Prominent African nationalist leaders are Joshua Nkomo (1917–99), leader of ZAPU; Bishop Abel Muzorewa (b.1925) of the United Methodist Church, who became the nation's first black prime minister in 1979; and ZANU leader Robert Gabriel Mugabe (b.1924), who became prime minister after independence and later first executive president; he has been head of state since 1980. Ian Smith (b.1919) was prime minister from 1964 to 1979. Many of the early works of the British novelist Doris Lessing (b.1919) are set in the Rhodesia where she grew up.

DEPENDENCIES

Zimbabwe has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Harmon, Daniel E. Southeast Africa: 1880 to the Present: Reclaiming a Region of Natural Wealth. Philadelphia, Penn.: Chelsea House Publishers, 2002.

Masters, William A. Government and Agriculture in Zimbabwe. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994.

Meldrum, Andrew. Where We Have Hope: A Memoir of Zimbabwe. London, Eng.: John Murray, 2004.

Owomoyela, Oyekan. Culture and Customs of Zimbabwe. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002.

Renwick, Robin. Unconventional Diplomacy in Southern Africa. New York: St. Martin's, 1997.

Rotberg, Robert I. Ending Autocracy, Enabling Democracy: The Tribulations of Southern Africa, 1960–2000. Cambridge, Mass.: World Peace Foundation, 2002.

Rubert, Steven C. and R. Kent Rasmussen. Historical Dictionary of Zimbabwe. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2001.

Sheehan, Sean. Zimbabwe. 2nd ed. Tarrytown, N.Y.: Benchmark Books/Marshall Cavendish, 2004.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Zimbabwe

SeeAcquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome(aids); Rich/Wealthy Families; Rural Families