MOZAMBIQUE

Republic of Mozambique

República Popular de Moçambique

CAPITAL: Maputo (formerly Lourenço Marques)

FLAG: The flag consists of broad stripes of green, black, and yellow, separated by narrow bands of white. Extending from the hoist is a red triangle; centered on the triangle is a yellow five-pointed star upon which is a white book over which are crossed the black silhouettes of a hoe and an AK47 rifle.

ANTHEM: Begins "Viva viva FRELIMO."

MONETARY UNIT: The Mozambique escudo (me), linked until 1977 with the Portuguese escudo, was in June 1980 renamed the metical (mt); it is a paper currency of 100 centavos. There are coins of ½, 1, 2½, 5, 10, and 20 meticais, and notes of 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 meticais. mt1=$0.00005 (or $1 =mt19,445) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is in use.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Heroes' Day, 3 February; Women's Day, 7 April; Workers' Day, 1 May; Independence Day, 25 June; Victory Day, 7 September; Day of Revolution, 25 September; Christmas, 25 December.

TIME: 2 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Located on the southeastern coast of Africa, opposite the island of Madagascar, Mozambique (Moçambique), formerly known as Portuguese East Africa, has an area of 801,590 sq km (309,496 sq mi), of which land constitutes 784,090 sq km (302,738 sq mi) and inland water 17,500 sq km (6,757 sq mi). Comparatively, the area occupied by Mozambique is slightly less than twice the size of the state of California. The country extends 2,016 km (1,253 mi) nne–ssw and 772 km (480 mi) ese–wnw. It is bordered by Tanzania on the n, the Indian Ocean (Mozambique Channel) on the e, the Republic of South Africa on the s, Swaziland, South Africa, and Zimbabwe on the w, and Zambia and Malawi on the nw, with a total boundary length of 7,041 km (4,375 mi), of which 2,470 km (1,535 mi) is coastline.

TOPOGRAPHY

Mozambique is 44% coastal lowlands, rising toward the west to a plateau 150 to 610 m (500–2,000 ft) above sea level and on the western border to a higher plateau, 550 to 910 m (1,800–3,000 ft), with mountains reaching a height of nearly 2,440 m (8,000 ft). The highest mountains are Namuli (2,419 m/7,936 ft) in Zambézia Province and Binga (2,436 m/7,992 ft) in Manica Province on the Zimbabwean border. The most important rivers are the Zambezi (flowing southeast across the center of Mozambique into the Indian Ocean), the Limpopo in the south, the Save (Sabi) in the center, and the Lugenda in the north. The most important lake is the navigable Lake Malawi (Lake Niassa); Lake Cahora Bassa was formed by the impoundment of the Cahora Bassa Dam. In the river valleys and deltas, the soil is rich and fertile, but southern and central Mozambique have poor and sandy soil, and parts of the interior are dry.

CLIMATE

Two main seasons, one wet and one dry, divide the climatic year. The wet season, from November through March, has monthly averages 27–29°c (81–84°f), with cooler temperatures in the interior uplands. The dry season lasts from April to October and has June and July temperatures averaging 18–20°c (64–68°f). The average annual rainfall is greatest (about 142 cm/56 in) over the western hills and the central areas, and lowest (30 cm/12 in) in the southwest.

A severe drought began to affect the central region of the country in 2001. As of 2005, the UN World Food Programme was still offering assistance to those who were most in need in the provinces of Maputo, Gaza, Inhambane, Manica, Sodala, and Tete, but the program was underfunded and there were an estimated 500,000 people still in need of assistance. Much of the same region suffered a flood in 2000 which affected 300,000 people.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Thick forest covers the wet regions, where there are fertile soils, but the drier interior, which has sandy or rocky soils, supports only a thin savanna vegetation. Extensive stands of hardwood, such as ebony, flourish throughout the country. Mozambique has elephants, buffalo, wildebeests, zebras, palapalas, hippopotamuses, lions, crocodiles, nyalas, and other southern African game species. As of 2002, there were at least 179 species of mammals, 144 species of birds, and over 5,600 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

The civil war combined with natural disasters from flooding and drought have created a life-threatening situation for the nation's people. According to a 1992 UN report, humans were the most endangered species in Mozambique. Other significant environmental problems include the loss of 70% of the nation's forests. The nation lost 7.7% of its forest and woodland between 1983 and 1993 alone. Mozambique has since launched reforestation projects, mostly involving the planting of conifers and eucalyptus.

The purity of the nation's water supply is also a significant issue. Surface and coastal waters have been affected by pollution. Mozambique has 99 cu km of renewable water resources. About 89% of the annual withdrawal is used in farming and 2% for industrial purposes. Only 76% of the nation's city dwellers and 24% of the rural population have access to improved water sources.

In 2003, about 8.4% of the total land area was protected, including the Marromeu Complex, a Ramsar wetland site. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 12 types of mammals, 23 species of birds, 5 types of reptiles, 3 species of amphibians, 21 species of fish, 4 types of mollusks, 1 species of other invertebrates, and 46 species of plants. Endangered species in Mozambique include the green sea, hawksbill, olive ridley, and leatherback turtles.

POPULATION

The population of Mozambique in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 19,420,000, which placed it at number 54 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 44% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 94 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 2.2%, a rate the government viewed as too high as it struggled to reduce poverty. The projected population for the year 2025 was 27,556,000. The population density was 24 per sq km (63 per sq mi), with about 60% of the population living in the central and southern coastal provinces.

The UN estimated that 32% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 4.22%. The capital city, Maputo (formerly Lourenço Marques), had a population of 1,221,000 in that year, while Beira had an estimated population of 500,000; Nampula, 314,965; and Nacala, 182,500.

The prevalence of HIV/AIDS has had a significant impact on the population of Mozambique. The UN estimated that 13% of adults between the ages of 15–49 were living with HIV/AIDS in 2001. The AIDS epidemic causes higher death and infant mortality rates, and lowers life expectancy.

MIGRATION

Between April 1974 and the end of 1976, an estimated 235,000 of the 250,000 Portuguese in Mozambique fled the country. Famine and war produced another exodus in the 1980s, but this time of blacks. An October 1992 peace agreement left 4.5 million internally displaced and 1.5 million refugees abroad. Of the latter, at the end of 1992, some 1,058,500 were in Malawi; about 200,000 in South Africa, 136,600 in Zimbabwe, 75,200 in Tanzania, 48,100 in Swaziland, and 26,300 in Zambia. By May 1993 about 750,000 people in both categories had returned home. Mozambique traditionally supplies seasonal farm workers to South Africa farmers.

In October 1992, the 16-year civil war ended with a peace treaty. Between 1992 and 1996, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) completed the largest repatriation project it has ever conducted in Africa. Over 1.3 million refugees returned to Mozambique from Malawi; 241,000 returned from Zimbabwe; 23,000 returned from South Africa, and 32,000 returned from Tanzania.

In 2000 there were 366,000 migrants living in Mozambique, including a small number of refugees. In 2004, there were 623 refugees and 4,892 asylum seekers. In that same year 151 Mozambicans applied for asylum in South Africa. In 2005, the net migration rate was an estimated zero, a significant change from 10.7 per 1,000 in 1990. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Nearly the total population (99.66%) is made up of indigenous tribal groups, including the Shangaan, Chokwe, Manyika, Sena, and Makua. Overall, there are 10 major ethnic clusters. The largest, residing north of the Zambezi, is the Makua-Lomwé group, representing about 37% of the total population. The Yao (Ajawa) live in Niassa Province. The Makonde live mainly along the Rovuma River. Other northern groups are the Nguni (who also live in the far south) and the Maravi. South of the Zambezi, the main group is the Tsonga (about 23%), who have figured prominently as Mozambican mine laborers in South Africa. The Chopi are coastal people of Inhambane Province. The Shona or Karanga (about 9%) dwell in the central region. Also living in Mozambique are EuroAfricans, accounting for about 0.2% of the population; Europeans, make up 0.06%; and Indians, constitute 0.08%.

LANGUAGES

Portuguese remains the official language. It is spoken as a first language by only about 8.8% of the population and as a second language by about 27%. Different African ethnic groups speak their respective languages and dialects. The most prominent of these are Emakhuwa, spoken by about 26.1% of the population; Xichangana, by 11.3% of the population; Elomwe, by 7.6%; Cisena, 6.8%; and Echuwabo, 5.8%.

RELIGIONS

Reports from the National Institute of Statistics state that half of the population does not claim adherence to any religion or creed. However, local scholars claim that most of the population follows traditional indigenous customs and beliefs either exclusively or in conjunction with other religious traditions. Veneration of ancestors plays an important role in traditional customs as do curandeiros, the traditional healers or spiritualists who are consulted for healing, luck, and solutions to problems.

Of the eight million or so who claim religious affiliation, about 24% are Roman Catholic, 22% are Protestant, and 20% are Muslim (though some Muslim leaders claim a much larger percentage of adherents). The strongest Muslim communities are located in the northern provinces and along the coastal strip. Central provinces are predominantly Catholic and the southern regions have the most Protestants. There are also small groups of Jews, Hindus, and Baha'is across the country.

There are over 500 distinct denominations registered with the Department of Religious Affairs of the Ministry of Justice. Registration is required by law and an organization must have at least 500 members in good standing to be registered. However, unregistered groups have been allowed to worship without restrictions. The largest of the African Independent Churches in the country is the Zion Christian Church. Other Christian denominations include Anglican, Greek Orthodox, Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist, Seventh-Day Adventist, Congregational, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Nazarene, Jehovah's Witnesses and other Pentecostal, evangelical, and apostolic organizations. The evangelical Christians are reported as the fastest growing religious groups in the country. Among Muslims, only Sunni and Ismaili communities are registered.

The People's Republic of Mozambique is a secular state. The government guarantees every citizen full freedom of conscience and the right to practice a religion or not. Though church schools and hospitals were nationalized after independence, reports indicate that many of these institutions have been returned to their respective religious organizations. There is a council of bishops, including Catholic and Anglican members, that meets with the president on a fairly regular basis to talk about current issues. The Inter-Religious Forum is an interfaith organization that offers social and disaster relief; members include those from the Christian Council of Mozambique, the Greek Orthodox Church, Muslims, Jews, and Bahai's. No religious holidays are officially observed, though individuals are generally allowed days off for their own religious observances.

TRANSPORTATION

Transport networks are of major importance to the economy. Mozambique's landlocked neighbors—Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Swaziland—along with South Africa are the main users of the Mozambican transport system.

The railways are the best-developed sector, with three good rail links between major Mozambican ports and neighboring countries. By independence in 1975, almost the entire railway system was owned by the state and passed into the hands of the newly independent government. The route system is 3,123 km (1,943 mi) long, all of it narrow gauge, with the single largest user being South Africa. There are six routes that make up the majority of the country's railroads: the Nacala Corridor, connecting Nacala to Malawi (300 km/186 mi); the Sena Corridor, linking Beira, via Dondo, to the coalfields at Moatize (513 km/319 mi) and to Malawi (370 km/230 mi); the Beira Corridor, connecting Beira to Zimbabwe (315 km/196 mi); the Limpopo Corridor, linking Maputo with Zimbabwe (534 km/332 mi); the Resano Garcia line, connecting Maputo to South Africa (88 km/55 mi); and the Goba line, linking Maputo to Swaziland (68 km/42 mi).

The road network in 2002 totals an estimated 30,400 km (18,890 mi), of which 5,685 km (3,533 mi) are paved, but few roads are suitable for trucks and passenger cars. In 2003, there were 58,110 vehicles, including 29,530 passenger cars and 28,580 commercial vehicles.

Maputo, by far the leading port, has an excellent multipurpose harbor, with exceptional loading, unloading, and storage facilities. It is a major outlet for South Africa, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, and the eastern DROC. Other ports include Beira, Nacala, and Inhambane, which was reopened in 1980 after a 20-year closure. The Mozambican merchant fleet consisted of two cargo ships of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 4,125 in 2005. As of 2004, Mozambique had 580 km (360 mi) of navigable waterways consisting of the Zambezi River to Tete and along Cahora Lake.

In 2004, there were an estimated 158 airports, 22 of which had paved runways as of 2005. Mozambique Air Lines (Linhas Aéreas de Moçambique—LAM), the state airline, operates both international and domestic services. In 2003, about 281,000 passengers were carried on domestic and international flights. The National Enterprise of Transport and Aerial Labor (Empresa Nacional de Transporte e Trabalho Aéreo—TTA) also provides domestic service. Maputo and Beira have international airports.

HISTORY

Mozambique's earliest inhabitants were hunter-gatherers, often referred to as Bushmen. The land was occupied by Bantu peoples by about ad 1000. In the following centuries, trade developed with Arabs who came across the Indian Ocean to Sofala. The first Europeans in the area were the Portuguese, who began to settle and trade on the coast early in the 16th century. During the 17th century, the Portuguese competed with Arabs for the trade in slaves, gold, and ivory, and set up agricultural plantations and estates. The owners of these estates, the prazeiros, were Portuguese or of mixed African and Portuguese blood (mestiços); many had their own private armies. Mozambique was ruled as part of Goa until 1752, when it was given its own administration.

Until the late 1800s, Portuguese penetration was restricted to the coast and the Zambezi Valley. The African peoples strongly resisted further expansion, but they were ultimately subdued. By the end of the 19th century, the Portuguese had made boundary agreements with their colonial rivals, the United Kingdom and Germany, and had suppressed much of the African resistance. Authority was given to trading companies such as Mozambique Co., which forced local people to pay taxes and work on the plantations. After the Portuguese revolution of 1926, the government of Portugal took a more direct interest in Mozambique. The trading companies' influence declined, and Mozambique in 1951 became an overseas province of Portugal.

As in other Portuguese territories, African resistance to Portuguese rule grew stronger as the British and French colonies in Africa began to win their independence. Gradually, various liberation movements were formed. On 25 June 1962, these groups united to form the Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO) and elected Eduardo C. Mondlane as its first president. The armed struggle began on 25 September 1964, when FRELIMO guerrillas trained in Algeria went into action for the first time in Cabo Delgado. By 1965, fighting had spread to Niassa, and by 1968, FRELIMO was able to open fronts in the Tete region. By that time, it claimed to control one-fifth of the country. In response, the Portuguese committed more and more troops, military supplies, and military aid funds to the territory. On 3 February 1969, Mondlane was assassinated in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; the acting leader of FRELIMO, Samora Machel, became president of the organization in December 1970.

The turning point in the struggle for independence came with the Portuguese revolution of 25 April 1974. Negotiations between Portuguese and FRELIMO representatives led to the conclusion of an independence agreement in Zambia in September. Mozambique became officially independent at midnight on 24–25 June 1975, and the People's Republic of Mozambique was proclaimed in ceremonies on 25 June. Machel, who had returned to Mozambique on 24 May after 13 years in exile, became the nation's first president. He quickly affirmed Mozambique's support of the liberation movement in Rhodesia, and guerrilla activity along the Rhodesian border increased. On 3 March 1976, Mozambique closed its border with Rhodesia, severed rail and communications links, and nationalized Rhodesian-owned property. Because the transit fees paid by Rhodesia had been a major source of foreign exchange revenue, the action aggravated Mozambique's economic ills. During this period, Rhodesian forces conducted land and air raids into Mozambique to punish black nationalist guerrillas based there. These raids ended, and the border was reopened in 1980, following the agreement that transformed Rhodesia into Zimbabwe. However, South African airmen bombed Maputo in 1981 and 1983 in retaliation for Mozambique's granting refuge to members of the African National Congress (ANC), a South African black nationalist group.

The Mozambique National Resistance (RENAMO), created in 1976, allegedly by Portuguese settler and business interests with white Rhodesian (Central Intelligence Organization) backing, conducted extensive guerrilla operations in Mozambique during the 1980s. With an armed strength estimated as high as 12,000, RENAMO blew up bridges and cut rail and road links and pipelines. After the loss of its Rhodesian support, RENAMO received substantial aid from South Africa and also had bases in Malawi. Voluntary support for RENAMO within Mozambique was difficult to ascertain, but there was known to be considerable disaffection with the government because of food shortages and resistance by peasants to being resettled onto communal farms. In addition to these political problems, Mozambique experienced widespread floods in 1977–78 and recurrent drought periodically from 1979, especially in 1992.

On 16 March 1984, Mozambique and South Africa signed a nonaggression pact at Nkomati whereby Mozambique agreed to keep the ANC from using Mozambican territory for guerrilla attacks on South Africa, while South Africa agreed to stop supporting RENAMO. Nevertheless, South Africa continued to aid RENAMO, and as a result, in 1985 Mozambique pulled out of the commission that monitored the nonaggression pact. On 19 October 1986, President Machel and 33 others were killed when their Soviet-built jetliner crashed inside South Africa while returning to Maputo. Mozambican officials accused South Africa of employing a radio beacon to lure the craft off course to its destruction, but an international commission found that the crash was caused by negligence on the part of the Soviet crew. On 3 November 1986, FRELIMO's Central Committee elected Foreign Minister Joaquim A. Chissano president. In 1987, despite the jetliner crash and despite Mozambican claims that RENAMO and South Africa were responsible for the massacre of 386 people in a village near Inhambane, Mozambique and South Africa revived their nonaggression pact. Fighting intensified and hundreds of thousands of Mozambicans fled to Malawi and Zimbabwe.

In 1990, there was movement toward resolving the civil war. There were serious signs in the late 1980s that FRELIMO was moderating its views. At its 1989 Congress, FRELIMO formally abandoned its commitment to the primacy of Marxism-Leninism. The first peace talks in 13 years were scheduled for Blantyre, Malawi, but they broke down just before they were to open. In August, government and rebel leaders concluded three days of talks in Rome. That same month, Chissano announced that FRELIMO had agreed to allow opposition parties to compete openly and legally. Finally in November, government and RENAMO agreed to appoint the Italian government and the Catholic Church as mediators in peace talks.

It took until 4 October 1992 to sign a peace treaty ending the war, but sporadic fighting and new RENAMO demands slowed down the implementation process. Chissano and Afonso Dhlakama, RENAMO's leader, signed an agreement that called for the withdrawal of Zimbabwean and Malawian troops that had assisted government forces guarding transport routes and the regrouping of both government and RENAMO soldiers at assembly points. It called for the formation of a new national army composed of half government and half RENAMO troops. A joint commission of government and RENAMO, along with a small UN monitoring force, and other joint commissioners, the police, and intelligence services were to oversee the agreement's implementation. In addition, multiparty elections were to be held within a year.

Delays troubled the process practically from the start. RENAMO was slow to appoint its representatives to the joint commissions. The UN operation (UNOMOZ) was formally approved in December 1992, but no troops arrived until March 1993, and it was midyear before 6,000 troops were deployed. RENAMO failed to implement the provision for demobilization and all of the provisions regarding freedom of movement and political organization in areas it controlled. New RENAMO demands were put forward almost monthly, and despite direct meetings between Dhlakama and Chissano and an October 1993 visit by UN Sec. Gen. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, the delays continued.

Political party activity picked up as efforts to resolve the civil war continued. By the end of 1996, 22 parties were active. In March 1993, government presented a draft electoral law to opposition parties, but not until late July was a meeting convened to discuss it. The opposition parties demanded a two-thirds majority on the National Electoral Commission. After Boutros-Ghali's visit, a compromise (10 out of 21 for the opposition parties) was agreed to. Delays also marked the effort to confine armed forces in designated areas.

Elections first scheduled for 1993 were conducted on 27–29 October 1994. On the presidential ballot, Chissano won 53.3% of the vote to Dhlakama's 33.7%. The remainder was split among 10 other contenders. On the legislative ballot, FRELIMO took 44% of the popular vote to RENAMO's 37.7%. FRELIMO had 129 seats and RENAMO, 112. The Democratic Union took nine seats. Dhlakama disputed the fairness of the vote, and the UN observers agreed that it had been less than ideal, but insisted that the announced results were sufficiently accurate. More than 2,000 international observers agreed. Chissano formed the new government on 23 December, with the entire cabinet made up of FRELIMO MPs. Early in 1996, the Chissano government announced that it would postpone municipal elections slated for later that year until 1997. In presidential and parliamentary elections held in December 1999, Chissano defeated Dhlakama by 52.29% to 47.71% while his party took 133 seats against 117 for RENAMO in the parliamentary contest.

The next elections were held on 1 December 2004. In these elections Armando Guebuza, the new FRELIMO candidate, won 63.7% of the votes and the RENAMO candidate, Afonso Dhlakama, got 31.7%. In the parliamentary elections FRELIMO won 62% (1.8 million) of the votes, RENAMO 29.7% (905,000 votes) and 18 minor parties shared the remaining 8%. Under the proportional system, FRELIMO won 160 of the parliamentary seats and RENAMO won 90. The election results were contested by RENAMO and were widely criticized by international observes such as the European Union Election Observation Mission to Mozambique. Nevertheless, although the elections had shortcomings, it was agreed that the shortcomings did not affect the final result in the presidential election which was decisively in favor of FRELIMO. The new FRELIMO president, Armando Guebuza was sworn in as president of the republic on 2 February 2005 without the blessing of Dhlakama and RENAMO. Dhlakama was absent at the inauguration. In spite of the protests over the elections, RENAMO agreed to participate in the parliament and the Council of State. The next presidential and assembly of the republic elections were scheduled for December 2009.

With the return of normalcy to the war-torn country, Mozambique attempted to address the huge problem of the repatriation of the millions of refugees. By 1996, 1.6 million had returned. In 1997, Mozambique had become relatively stable, but remained mired in poverty. International investment, following structural adjustment programs initiated by the World Bank, poured in as the country engaged in a wholesale privatization of formerly state-owned enterprises on a scale unmatched anywhere in the world. In mid-2003, Mozambique was set to benefit from an $11.8 million disbursement from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), following a positive review of its economic performance under the IMF's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). Over 70% of the population reportedly lives in poverty, and an estimated 13% of adults between 15–49 years old are infected with HIV. Food insecurity also remained an issue for some 600,000 people affected by cyclical droughts and flooding.

GOVERNMENT

The constitution of the People's Republic of Mozambique became effective at midnight on 24–25 June 1975. Under the constitution and its revision enacted during 1977–78, Mozambique was a republic in which FRELIMO was the sole legal party. The president was the chief of state; the president of FRELIMO had to be the president of the republic. He acted on the advice of the Council of State Ministers, which he appointed and over which he presided. He also appointed provincial governors. The position of prime minister was created in a 1986 constitutional revision. The National People's Assembly, with 226 members, was the supreme organ of the state. Elections to the Assembly were held in 1977 and 1986, with the candidates chosen from a single FRELIMO slate.

A revised constitution with a multiparty system of government came into force on 30 November 1990. The name of the country was changed from the People's Republic to the Republic of Mozambique. Governmental institutions remain otherwise unchanged. According to the 1990 constitution, the president is to be elected by universal adult suffrage for a five-year term and might be reelected on only two consecutive occasions. The Assembly of the Republic replaced the People's Assembly. Its 250 deputies are to be elected for five-year terms.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The Mozambique Liberation Front (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique—FRELIMO), the sole legal political party until 1991, was founded in 1962 by the merger of three existing nationalist parties. Formation of FRELIMO did not mean complete political unity. Splinter groups or organizations began to appear in Cairo, Nairobi, and elsewhere, but none of these splinter organizations ever received the support of the OAU, which gave offcial recognition only to FRELIMO.

In August 1973, five anti-FRELIMO groups formed the National Coalition Party (Partido de Coligação Nacional—PCN). The PCN program called for a referendum on the country's future and the restoration of peace and multiracialism. The organized opposition from the Portuguese community took the form of the Independent Front for the Continuation of Western Rule (Frente Independente de Continuidade Ocidental—FICO, or "I stay"). FICO called for Portugal to continue the war against FRELIMO. In fact, however, the Portuguese government chose to recognize FRELIMO. After the formation of a provisional FRELIMO government in September 1974, the PCN was dissolved and its leaders detained.

Two years after independence, in 1977, FRELIMO was transformed from a liberation movement into a Marxist-Leninist vanguard party dedicated to the creation of a Socialist state. FRELIMO formally downgraded its ideological commitment at its July 1989 congress. Proposals to broaden party membership and decision making were also adopted. The new constitution in force in November 1990 legalized a multiparty system. Since then, activity has been vigorous. FRELIMO and RENAMO (created in 1976 as a dissident armed force) have been most popular, the latter especially in the central regions. The Mozambican National Union (UNAMO) registered early, and there are several smaller parties, including the Democratic Party of Mozambique (PADEMO) and the Mozambique National Movement (MONAMO). They were gearing up for multiparty presidential and legislative elections in October 1994.

The elections were held on 27 October 1994, and FRELIMO took 129 seats, RENAMO, 112, and the Democratic Union, 9. FRELIMO head Chissano won the presidential election with 53% of the vote to RENAMO's Dhlakama's 33%, with the rest split among 10 candidates.

By 1996, Mozambique had nearly two dozen political parties officially registered with the state. In addition to FRELIMO and RENAMO, the Democratic Union, a coalition of three smaller parties, was founded in 1994. UNAMO, a splinter from RENAMO, ran a strong presidential race, and the Liberal Democrats won almost 2% of the votes in the legislative elections.

In the presidential elections held in December 1999, Dhlakama lost again to Chissano, but gained 14 points over 1994. In the legislative polls RENAMO's 38.81% was only a slight improvement over 37.7% in 1994. This translated to 133 parliamentary seats against 117 for RENAMO in the 250-seat assembly. In September 2000, Renamo-UE member Raul Domingos was expelled from the party, but he continues to hold his parliamentary seat as an independent. In mid-2002 FRELIMO announced that Armando Guebuza would be its candidate in the 2004 elections following Chissano's announcement earlier that he would not stand for a third term.

Chissano and Dhlakama met a number of times over 2001–2002 to discuss RENAMO's claim that the 1999 elections were rigged. RENAMO threatened to form a separate government in its stronghold—the six central and northern provinces. Barring this radical move, RENAMO leaders have demanded that Chissano name the governors of these provinces from among RENAMO's ranks. But Chissano refused to take such action on constitutional grounds. RENAMO's electoral alliance with 10 small parties—the RENAMO-Electoral Union—said that its own parallel count gave Dhlakama 52% in the presidential race and the coalition 50% in the 1999 legislative polls.

Mozambique is dominated by two political parties (FRELIMO and RENAMO) so much so that it is extremely difficult for anybody to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other party. However, there is a plethora of smaller parties. In the elections held in December 2004, 18 smaller parties, along side FRELIMO and RENAMO, contested in the elections. But expectedly FRELIMO and RENAMO shared 92% of the vote while the other 18 parties got only 8% of the vote. In these elections FRELIMO got 160 parliamentary seats while RENAMO received 90 seats. The new presidential candidate for RENAMO, Armando Guebuza, won 63.7% of the votes while RENAMO's candidate, Afonso Dhlakama, received 31.7% of the votes in 2004.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

All of Mozambique outside the capital is organized into 10 provinces, subdivided into 112 districts, 12 municipalities, and 894 localities; the capital city of Maputo is considered an 11th province. Each provincial government is presided over by a governor, who is the representative of the president of the republic and is responsible to FRELIMO and the national government for his activities. Each province also has a provincial assembly, which legislates on matters exclusively bearing on that province. District, municipal, and local assemblies were established in 1977; local elections were held in that year and in 1986. Some 20,230 deputies for 894 local assemblies were elected by adult suffrage at age 18 from candidates chosen by local units of FRELIMO or, in their absence, by other local groups. Deputies of the provincial, district, and municipal assemblies were elected by the local bodies.

Elections were held in 1998 and were scheduled again for October 2003. RENAMO boycotted the first local polling in 1998, accusing the government of fraud. That resulted in a turnout of just 14.4% and a landslide victory for FRELIMO. In the November 2003 local assembly elections turnout was generally low, about 30% of the voters but far better than the turnout in the 1998 elections. The ruling FRELIMO party won in the greater majority of the 33 municipalities. Among the reasons cited for the low turnout in the 2003 local elections and the apathy of voters were an overall lack of trust in political parties, and the perception among voters that their votes would not bring about any changes in the government. Nevertheless, European Union observers declared the local polling free and fair, but warned that a low voter turnout was a matter of concern ahead of the 2004 presidential and assembly vote.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The legal system is based on Portuguese civil law and customary law. The formal justice system is bifurcated into a civil/criminal system under auspices of the Ministry of Justice and a military justice system under joint supervision of the Ministries of Defense and Justice. At the apex is the Supreme Court, which hears appeals from both systems. The provincial and district courts are below the Supreme Court. There are also special courts such as administrative courts, customs courts, fiscal courts, maritime, and labor courts. Local customary courts, part of the civil/criminal system, handle estate, divorce, and other social and family issues.

Since abolition of the Revolutionary Military Tribunal and establishment of the Supreme Court in 1988, those accused of crimes against the state are tried in civilian courts under standard criminal procedural rules.

The 1990 constitution declares the establishment of an independent judiciary, with judges nominated by other jurists instead of designated by administrative appointment. It is the president, however, who continues to appoint the justices of the Supreme Court.

In nonmilitary courts, all criminal defendants enjoy presumptions of innocence, have the right to legal counsel, and the right of appeal; however, the judicial system suffers from lack of qualified judicial personnel and financial resources.

ARMED FORCES

The armed forces in 2005 numbered an estimated 11,200 active personnel. The Army had an estimated 9,000 to 10,000 personnel and was equipped with over 60 main battle tanks, in addition to 166 artillery pieces and other equipment. The Navy had 200 personnel for duty on Lake Malawi. Air Force personnel numbered 1,000; Air Force equipment included a small number of MiG-21 fighters and four attack helicopters. Mozambique had observers in three UN missions in the region. In 2005, the defense budget totaled $116 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Mozambique was admitted to the United Nations (UN) on 16 September 1975 and takes part in ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, ILO, IMF, the World Bank, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, and the WHO. The country also belongs to the WTO, the ACP Group, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the African Development Bank, G-77, and the African Union. Mozambique plays a leading role in the Southern African Development Community (SADC).

Mozambique is a member of the Nonaligned Movement. The country has supported UN operations and missions in East Timor (est. 2002), Burundi (est. 2004), and the DROC (est. 1999). In environmental cooperation, Mozambique is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Mozambique, with its agricultural economy and considerable mineral reserves, is a highly indebted, poverty-stricken country. Civil war, ineffective socialist economic policies, and severe droughts plagued Mozambique's economy throughout the 1980s, leaving it heavily dependent on foreign aid. As of 2003, the government had received $8 billion in foreign aid since 1986, representing 17% of GDP. Lack of security outside of major cities and the inability of relief organizations to find safe corridors for the transport of relief supplies only further depressed economic activity. Recent shifts in economic policy toward a market economy and a resolution of the civil war have laid the foundation for an economic recovery helping the economy to grow on average by 4.7% yearly between 1988 and 1998. In 2001, it stood at 13.0% but declined to 7.7% in 2003 and 7.0% in 2005. Main exports are prawns, cashew nuts, and cotton.

The poorly trained workforce and other factors constrain growth. The use of outdated data collection systems, geared more to a state-managed economy, means that the increasing vitality of the private sector tends to go unmeasured. The return of rain after the worst drought on record in 1992 and continuing peace meant that many Mozambicans were able to farm their lands again, making them less dependent on food aid. The 1992 peace accords, which halted the 16-year civil war, brought much needed relief from military activities.

In 2000, some of the worst flooding in the history of the country had killed and displaced many citizens, deterring economic well-being. Approximately 80% of the population is employed in agriculture, mostly on a small-scale, subsistence level. Longer term prospects for growth are encouraging, but highly dependent on good weather and a stable political situation. The country experienced double-digit GDP growth in the late 1990s. A value added tax was introduced in 1999, improving the government's capacity to collect revenue, the country witnessed inflows of capital in the early 2000s, and the exchange rate was stable. Although inflation was low, interest rates were high in 2002. The financial sector has been liberalized, and trade is following along that path. The government's privatization program has been one of the most successful in Africa. In 2000, Mozambique received debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative run by the World Bank and the IMF.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Mozambique's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $25.6 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $1,300. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 7%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 7.8%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 24.2% of GDP, industry 41.2%, and services 34.6%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $69 million or about $4 per capita and accounted for approximately 1.6% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $1,033 million or about $55 per capita and accounted for approximately 25.1% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Mozambique totaled $3.340 billion or about $178 per capita based on a GDP of $4.3 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 2.6%. It was estimated that in 2001 about 70% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2000 (the latest year for which data was available), Mozambique's workforce was estimated at 9.2 million. As of 1997 (the latest year for which data was available), agriculture accounted for an estimated 81% of the labor force, with industry and commerce accounting for 6%, and services 13%. Unemployment that same year was estimated at 21%.

The law provides for workers to organize and join unions, although less than 1% of the workforce are union members. The vast majority of those unionized are in larger urban areas where industries are located. There is a constitutional right to strike, with the exception of government employees, police, military personnel, and employees of other essential services. There are two labor federations. The law protects the right of workers to engage in collective bargaining, and prohibits antiunion discrimination.

The minimum working age is 15 but many children work on family farms or in the informal urban economy. The minimum wage for industrial employment was set at $30 per month in 2002. The agricultural minimum is $20 per month. Neither of these minimums provide a living wage, and most workers earn more or engage in additional labor or family farming to supplement their earnings. The legal workweek is 44 hours. The government has enacted health and environmental laws to protect workers, but these provisions are ineffectually enforced.

AGRICULTURE

During the 1980s and early 1990s, Mozambique's agricultural sector was barely functional due to a combination of manmade and natural causes. The prolonged drought of 1981 to 1984 was followed by the floods and cyclone of 1984. By 1986, a famine emerged from renewed drought and civil war. Drought continued into 1987, followed by floods and locusts in 1988. Normal rainfall came in 1990, only to be followed by renewed drought in 1991 and 1992. In some regions food production declined by 80%, and in 1992 the food deficit reached a record 1.3 million tons. Normal rains returned in 1993, but the ongoing food relief requirement, exclusive of war refugees, was put at 1 million tons in 1994. Good rains and harvests helped the Mozambican economy grow by 5% in 1995 and 1996. By 1999, agricultural production was 5.5% higher than during 1989–91. By 2002–04, crop production was up 4.6% from 1999–2001.

Only about 5.8% of Mozambique is under cultivation at any one time, and more than two-thirds of the land is not exploited in any way. Nevertheless, agricultural pursuits support over 80% of the population and provided about 26% of the GDP in 2003. Since independence, there has been a serious decline in agricultural production, attributed to the collapse of rural transport and marketing systems when Portuguese farmers and traders left the country. In the 1980s, state farms received the bulk of agricultural investment, but the yields were poor.

Mozambique's major cash crops are cashew nuts, cotton, copra, sugar, tea, and cassava, and its major food crops are corn and sorghum. Crop production in 2004 included cassava, 6,150,000 tons; sugarcane, 400,000 tons; coconuts, 265,000 tons; sorghum, 314,000 tons; peanuts, 127,000 tons; corn, 1,248,000 tons; bananas, 90,000 tons; oranges, 14,000 tons; grapefruits, 13,000 tons; cashew nuts, 58,000 tons; rice, 201,000 tons; cotton fiber, 25,000 tons; sunflowers, 11,000 tons; cottonseed, 24,000 tons; and tobacco, 12,000 tons. Mozambique is a net importer of food; in 2004, the trade deficit in agricultural products was $218.6 million.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Animal husbandry is an underdeveloped sector in the Mozambican economy. A lack of credit, deadly epizootic diseases, and other diseases carried by the tsetse fly make a commercially viable animal husbandry industry almost impracticable for the African traditional farmers, who predominate in this sector. In 2005 there were an estimated 1,320,000 head of cattle, 392,000 goats, 180,000 hogs, and 125,000 sheep. The number of chickens was estimated at 28 million; ducks, 670,000. Beef and veal production was estimated at 38,100 tons; poultry meat, 36,300 tons; cows' milk, 60,400 tons; and hen eggs, 14,000 tons. Mozambique must import substantial quantities of meat and livestock products.

FISHING

In 2003, commercial fishery production was 89,696 tons, of which lobsters and prawns were primarily for export. The potential catch is estimated at 500,000 tons of fish and 14,000 tons of prawns. South African trawlers are allowed to fish in Mozambican waters in return for providing a portion of their catch to Mozambique. In 2003, exports of shrimp and other seafood were valued at $86.9 million. The European Union and Japan have each entered into agreements designed to help develop the fishing industry.

FORESTRY

Wood production is from natural forests and is almost entirely consumed by the local rural populations for fuel and construction. Forests constitute an estimated 30.6 million hectares (75.6 million acres). The timber industry is centered along the Beira Railroad and in Zambézia Province, where sawn and construction timber are produced for the nearby South African market. The timber cut was approximately 18 million cu m (635 million cu ft) of roundwood in 2004, with about 93% burned as fuel. Sawn wood production was 28,000 tons in 2004.

MINING

Mozambique's rich mineral deposits remained largely undeveloped. With the end of the civil war, efforts have been under way to revive the economy, with the minerals sector playing an important role. In 1999, mining accounted for less than 1% of GDP. In 2003, Mozambique produced bauxite, beryl, marine salt, cement, gravel and crushed rock, marble (block and slab) limestone, sands and tantalite. Zambézia, Nampula, and Tete provinces had large deposits of columbite, tantalite, beryl, semiprecious stones, feldspar, kaolin, and coal. Manica Province produced copper and bauxite. Also known to occur were deposits of diatomite, fluorspar, guano, gypsum, iron ore, limestone, manganese, mica, nepheline syenite, perlite, phosphate rock (resources of 274 million tons), rare earths, silica sand, precious and ornamental stones (agate, amethyst, aquamarine, emerald, garnet, jasper, morganite, rose quartz, tigereye, and tourmaline), and titanium. Resources of heavy-mineral sands totaled 14 billion tons containing 300 million tons of ilmenite, as well as zircon and rutile.

Production of bauxite was in 2003 totaled 11,793 metric tons, up from 9,119 metric tons in 2002. Marble, production in 2003 totaled 452 cu m of block, down from 453 cu m in 2002, while slab output in 2003 totaled 10,227 sq m, up from 9,980 sq m in 2002. Gold was also produced in 2003, all by artisanal miners. Official production of gold in 2003 totaled 63 kg, up from 17 kg in 2002. Limestone, gravel and crushed rock, marine salt, sands and granite were also produced in 2003. Mozambique's only graphite mine closed in 1999, because of a tax dispute. Mozambique's gross domestic product (GDP) is estimated to have grown by 7.1% in 2003, according to the International Monetary Fund.

ENERGY AND POWER

Mozambique, as of 1 January 2005, had neither proven reserves of crude oil nor refining capacity, but it did have reserves of natural gas and coal.

As of 1 January 2005, Mozambique had natural gas reserves of 4.5 trillion cu ft. In 2003, natural gas output and consumption each came to 2.12 billion cu ft. Recoverable coal reserves have been placed at 234 million short tons, but additional reserves in the country's Moatize mines in the northwestern part of the country have been estimated at 2.4 billion short tons.

Mozambique is totally reliant upon imports of refined petroleum products. In 2004, imports and demand for refined oil each averaged 11,000 barrels per day.

Mozambique's electric power sector is heavily based upon hydroelectric generation. As of 1 January 2003, installed capacity was put at 2.392 million kW, with hydropower accounting for 91% of capacity, with the remaining capacity based on conventional thermal fuels. Electric power output in 2003 totaled 15.14 billion kWh, with consumption that year at 10.46 billion kWh.

INDUSTRY

Manufacturing is centered mostly in food processing and beverages. Food, beverages, and tobacco processing account for 62% of all manufacturing. Industry is concentrated around the larger cities of Maputo, Matola, Beira, and Nampula. Mozambique's industrial sector is primarily centered on the processing of locally produced raw materials, such as sugar, cashews, tea, and wheat. Brewing and textile production emerged in the 1980s, along with cement, fertilizer, and agricultural implement manufacturing. Other industries make glass, soaps, oils, ceramics, paper, tires, railway equipment, radios, bicycles, and matches. Major investments in aluminum processing, steel production, mineral extraction, fertilizer, and sugar production have been planned.

Economic reforms of the early 1990s promoted private ownership of industry and brought about a significant decline in the number of parastatals; from 1990 to 2000, over 1,200 smaller businesses had been divested, and 37 large enterprises had been privatized. Only 11 large state-owned companies remained, including the national airline, telephone, electricity, insurance, oil and gas exploration, port and rail, airports, water supply, and fuel distribution companies. Government policy now supports the development of private enterprise fully.

The construction sector showed strong growth in the early 2000s, as projects to rebuild roads, bridges, schools, clinics, and other basic infrastructure were underway. There are considerable natural gas reserves, both onshore and offshore, but they have yet to be fully developed. Malawi, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique are planning to establish a 10,000 barrels per day joint fuel refinery in Mozambique, funded by Iran. In addition, the economy is set to benefit from a second-generation of comparatively smaller megaprojects, such as the Moma titanium mine in Nampula province scheduled to start production in late 2006.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Eduardo Mondlane University in Maputo, founded in 1962, has faculties of agricultural sciences, biology, engineering, mathematics, medicine, veterinary science, and sciences. Maputo also has the National Directorate of Geology, the Cotton Research Institute, the National Institute of Health, and the Meteorological Service. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 42% of college and university enrollments. In 2002, Mozambique's high technology exports totaled $2 million, or 3% of its' manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

The cities of Maputo, Beira, and Nampula are the main centers of commercial life, where it is estimated that 50% of all imported products are consumed. Maputo and Beira are trading centers and ports of entry. There is not a well-established distribution system for local or imported goods. Many local manufactures will sell or distribute their products on their own. Larger retailers will import high columns of goods and sell the excess to other smaller retailers. National distribution of regional products has been hindered by a poor transportation system. However, as of 2005, trading and distribution were still the primary business activities. A 17% value-added

tax applies to most goods. Credit cards are not widely accepted.

Business hours are 8:30 am to noon and 2 to 5 pm, Mondays through Fridays, 8 am to 12 noon on Saturdays.

FOREIGN TRADE

There is a considerable amount of unofficial trade along the borders as well as unreported fish exports to Asia. In April 1997, Mozambique began a three-year contract with Crown Agents, a private British company, to take responsibility for the regulation of foreign trade in order to reduce smuggling and corruption.

Traditionally, shrimp accounted for the largest portion of Mozambique's export revenues (26%). Other exports included electric current (23%), fruits and nuts (15%), cotton (7.3%), and sugar (2.1%). However, in 2004 the major exports ranked by importance were aluminum, which earned $915 million, electricity ($102 million), shrimps ($91 million), tobacco ($40.9 million), and sugar ($38.2 million).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Mozambique has traditionally had a balance-of-payments deficit and relies heavily on imported consumer and capital goods. Imports have risen steadily since 1987, substantially increasing the current account deficit. In recent years, the merchandise import-export ratio has been as low as 1:4. Mozambique is taking steps to improve its trade balance, however, by increasing the production of locally manufactured and agricultural goods. By the early 2000s, exports had risen over 40% since 1996. A faster rise in export earnings has been hampered in part by bankruptcies in the cashew processing industry, and poor prices for the sale of electricity generated by the Cahora Bassa hydroelectric dam (resulting from contracts negotiated by the colonial government over 20 years). But as of the early 2000s, prospects for an increase in exports appeared positive.

In 1999, Mozambique qualified for $3.7 billion in debt service relief under the IMF/World Bank Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. (The amount was subsequently augmented to $4.3 billion.) This debt relief improved the country's balance of payments. Prior to the HIPC approval, Mozambique owed $8.3 billion in foreign debt. HIPC reduced the eligible debts held by participating creditors by 90%, or close to $3 billion.

The Economist Intelligence Unit reported that in 2005 the purchasing power parity of Mozambique's exports was $1.782 billion while imports totaled $2.24 billion resulting in a trade deficit of $458 million.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Mozambican branch of the defunct Portuguese National Overseas Bank was nationalized without compensation. By a decree of 23 May 1975, it was reconstituted as the Bank of Mozambique (Banco de Moçambique—BM). Functioning as a central bank, it served as the government's banker and financial adviser, and as controller of monetary and credit policies. It was also an issuing bank, a commercial bank, and the state treasury; the bank managed Mozambique's external assets and acted as an intermediary in all international monetary transactions.

In 1978, the government nationalized four of the five remaining commercial banks (the Banco Standard Totta de Moçambique remained private). In that year, a second state bank, the People's Investment Bank, was created and given responsibility for supervising a building society, the Mozambique Credit Institute (the industrial bank), and the National Development Bank.

After 1992, the government's economic reform program began to tackle the financial sector. Foreign banks were allowed to invest in Mozambican financial institutions, in 1994 interest rates were deregulated, and in 1995 the commercial activities of the central bank were assumed by a newly created institution, the Banco Comercial de Moçambique (BCM). By 1997, the government had privatized the BCM and the BPD (Banco Popular de Desenvolvimento). These banks were joined by Banco Português do Atlántico (BPA), Banco de Fomento e Exterior (BFE), and Banco Internacional de Moçambique (BIM), whose main shareholder is the Banco Comercial Português (BCP).

In 2001, along with the central Bank of Mozambique, there were eight banks operating in Mozambique, including the dominant BCM (owned by Banco Portugues Mello), BIM (owned by Banco Commercial Portugues), BPD (renamed Banco Austral after its sale to Southern Berhad Bank of Malaysia), Banco Standard Totta (55% owned by Banco Totta and Acores of Portugal, and 40% owned by Standard Bank of South Africa), Equator Bank (owned by Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank), Banco de Fomento do Exterior (branch of a Portuguese bank), Uniao Comercial de Bancos (a Mauritian bank), and Nedbank (South African).

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $486.2 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits,

and money market mutual funds—was $1.1 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 33.64%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 9.95%.

INSURANCE

In 1977, all insurance companies were nationalized and Empresa Moçambicana de Seguros was established as the sole state insurance enterprise. This company continued functioning through 1999.

PUBLIC FINANCE

The government's role in the economy has diminished during the past decade as the country has recovered from civil war. Preparations for privatization of many state-run industries and utilities had begun as of 2002, and the tax code has been revised.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that Mozambique's central government took in revenues of approximately $1 billion and had expenditures of $1.9 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$899 million. Total external debt was $966 million.

TAXATION

Under Portuguese rule, taxation and tax collection were full of inequities and corruption at all levels of government. In 1978, after independence, much higher and more progressive taxes were introduced. These included an income tax on wages, salaries, and other benefits. As of 2005, Mozambique had a standard corporate tax rate of 32%. However, income derived from the breeding and agricultural sectors was subject to a 10% rate for the period 2003 through 2010. Capital gains and branch offices are taxed at the corporate rate. Dividends, interest and royalties are subject to a 20% withholding tax. A value-added tax (VAT) with a standard rate of 17% (as of 2005) is charged on most goods and services. Exemptions from VAT include basic foodstuffs, medicines and pharmaceuticals, books and journals, bicycles, agricultural inputs and fishing implements, waste disposal, burial and cremation services.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Both import and export licenses are required for all goods. The average nominal customs tariff rate was reduced from 18% to around 10% in 1996, and remained in effect as of 2005, although duties on imported goods ranged from 0–30%, depending upon whether it is a primary, intermediate, or consumer good. Mozambique does not use import quotas. The country chaired the Southern African Development Community (SADC) from 1990 to 2000, and houses its Communications Commission (SATCC) in Maputo.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

The liberalizing of Mozambique's economy began with the initiation of its economic recovery plan (ERP) in January 1987. Included in the program were measures to stimulate the private sector, an effort reinforced in 1990 by further legislation. In June 1993, the investment code was reformed to put foreign and local investors on an equal footing with respect to fiscal and customs regulations. The parastatal sector has been progressively privatized, with only 11 large state-owned industries left in 1999. As the bulk of state-owned enterprises has already been privatized, there are currently no plans for additional major sales.

Certain tax incentives are available to encourage direct foreign investment, including a 50–80% reduction in taxes. The flow of capital is liberal. Regulations issued in 1999 established an Industrial Free Zone Council, which approved the first free zone enterprise in Maputo, MOZAL, an aluminum smelter. Companies in the free zone must engage in nontraditional industry and export at least 85% of production.

In 1998, foreign direct investment (FDI) inflow to Mozambique totaled about $235 million, up 365% from 1997. FDI inflows peaked at $382 million in 1999 then fell to $139 billion in 2000. In the period 1998 to 2000, Mozambique's share of world FDI inflows was almost twice its share of world GDP, a considerable improvement on its performance 1988 to 1990, when its share of FDI flows was only 30% of its share of world GDP. In 2001, FDI inflow was a near-record $225 million. However, the country's FDI inflows declined from $225 million in 2001 to $155.3 million in 2002.

The leading sectors for foreign investment in Mozambique have been industry, agribusiness and fishing, finance, and tourism. The driving force behind the country's FDI inflows had been the mining and some processing industries. Put together, they had drawn global TNCs giants into the economy. In recent years, these TNCs have not invested in any major projects. Many projects in the pipeline have not been operationalized.

FDI outflows are yet to reach a significant volume. Inward FDI stock had been dramatic in its growth, rising from just $42 million in 1990 to over $1.5 billion in 2002. Outward FDI stock showed a similar pattern, but the volume was less than $1 million at the end of 2002. Portugal, Mauritius and Italy provided about 78% of the total FDI inflows to the country in 1999. Portugal is a key investor in Mozambique, contributing an average of 41% of the inward FDI flows in 1998 and 1999. Other, major foreign investors include South Africa, Great Britain, Hong Kong, and the Netherlands.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The government of Mozambique has abandoned its postindependence preference for a socialist organization of society, which it had tried to effect through the creation of cooperatives, state farms, and industries. In cooperation with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Mozambique was reforming its economy and preparing for a post-civil war period of economic growth. Progress has been slow, however, as parastatals continue to control the telecommunications, electric power, transportation, and fuel sectors of the economy. Growth sectors include agriculture and related processing industries, transportation, and mining.

In 1999, Mozambique's eligible debts were reduced by 90% by the IMF, World Bank, the Paris Club, and other multilateral lending agencies under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. The country also hoped for 100% debt relief from the United States and gained complete debt cancellation from the United Kingdom. Debt stood at $8.3 billion before 1999 and $5.7 billion after reforms. A variety of infrastructure development projects have been carried out, including a road and railway from Maputo to Johannesburg.

The Economist Intelligence Unit forecasts that the economic expansion Mozambique experienced between 2000–2005 will continue for the next few years boosted by overall macroeconomic stability, policy reforms and continuing strong donor support against a background of broad-based expansion across most sectors of the economy, including agriculture, transportation, and tourism sectors. Over 1,200 state-owned enterprises were privatized, most of them small. In 2003, Mozambique was operating under a three-year $76 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) Arrangement with the IMF. Floods in 2000 and food shortages in 2002 curtailed economic development. However, the outlook for the agricultural season in Mozambique for 2005/06 was more positive, with normal to above-normal rains forecast for the country. As a result, the government expects cereal production to grow by 6% in 2005/06, rebounding strongly from a 5% drop in production during the 2004/05 growing season.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Foreign aid is used in assisting Mozambican Labor and Social Welfare Ministries with building infrastructure to benefit the most disadvantaged groups in the country including disabled and abandoned children. The country is upgrading employment and professional training centers.

Despite government rhetoric and constitutional provisions mandating equal rights for both sexes, legal and social discrimination against women is pervasive. Women may not work outside of the home without the husband's permission. Inheritance rights, furthermore, strongly favor men over women. Tradition and custom lead many families to withdraw their daughters from school at an early age. Sexual harassment in the workplace is prevalent. Domestic violence against women, including beating and spousal rape, is widespread. Women believe that their husbands have the right to beat them. Child prostitution persists, and there is continuing abuse and exploitation of street children in urban areas.

Human rights abuses have been in decline, but there is evidence of systemic police brutality. Prison conditions are poor and, in some cases, life threatening.

HEALTH

Almost all health care services are provided by the government's National Health Service. The army maintains its own health posts and two hospitals. Traditional healers continue to play a significant role. All medical products must be registered with the Ministry of Health and, due to currency constraints, Mozambique is entirely dependent on bilateral and multilateral donors for its drug needs. Only 39% of the population had access to health care services. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 3.5% of GDP.

In 2004, there were an estimated 2 physicians, 21 nurses, 1 dentist, and 2 pharmacists per 100,000 people. The shortage of medical supplies and trained personnel has remained severe throughout Mozambique. Immunization rates were as follows: tuberculosis, 84%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 61%; polio, 61%; and measles, 70%. The government pays no vaccination costs.

As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 36.4 and 25.1 per 1,000 people. Only 6% of married women ages 15–49 years used contraception as of 1999. Of all births in 1993–96, 20% were underweight. In 2005 the infant mortality rate was estimated at 130.79 per 1,000, one of the highest in the world. The maternal mortality rate in 1989–95 skyrocketed to 1,500 per 100,000 live births; as of 1998, the rate was 1,100.

Since 1982, South African destabilization of Mozambique has caused children's health to suffer. War has lead to the closure of 48% of the primary care network. The war has displaced over three million people and accounted for an estimated 500,000 childhood deaths between 1981–88. In addition, there were approximately 1.1 million civil war-related deaths between 1981 and 1992. Estimated average life expectancy was only 40.32 years in 2005.

Mozambique has a very serious AIDS problem. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 12.20 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 1,300,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 110,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

In 1997, there were about 3,540,700 housing units nationwide to serve about 3,634,581 households. The average household had 4.3 people. At last estimate, more than 60% of housing units were constructed of woven straw, about 15% of cane and wood sticks, and nearly 10% of bricks and concrete. Approximately 65% of all households used well water, nearly 20% river and spring water, almost 10% piped outdoor water, and less than 5% piped indoor water. Nearly 96% were without electricity, and over half had no toilet facilities.

EDUCATION

The education system in Mozambique has slowly been rebuilt after the civil war, which destroyed at least 50% of primary schools. In 1990, private schooling was reintroduced. Education is compulsory for seven years, but in practice, most students do not study for the full compulsory period. Primary school covers these first seven years. This is followed by five years of general secondary education or five years of technical school. The academic year runs from August to June.

Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 55% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 12% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 52.4% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 67:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 27:1.

Eduardo Mondlane University is established at Maputo. The objective of the government is to promote the spread of education at all levels through democratization guided by the state. In 2003, about 1% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 46.5%, with 62.3% for men and 31.4% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 2.4% of GDP, or 12.3% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The National Library of Mozambique, founded in 1961, contains 110,000 volumes. There is a small public library system. The principal museums in Maputo are the Museum of Natural History, founded in 1911, specializing in natural history and ethnography; the Freire de Andrade Museum (minerals); and the Military History Museum. Beira and Nampula have general museums; Manica has a natural history museum; and Isla da Inhaca, near Maputo, has a museum of marine biology. The National Museum of Ethnology is in Nampula.

MEDIA

Postal and telecommunications services are government-operated. In the larger cities, telephones are automatic. In 2003, there were an estimated five mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 12,700 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 23 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

Radio Moçambique, the official radio service, broadcasts in Portuguese, English, Afrikaans, and local languages. TV Mozambique is the government-owned television service. Several private stations are operational, including about 40 community radio and television stations that are partially subsidized by the government and UNESCO. As of 2001, there were 12 AM and 17 FM radio stations (about 14 were privately owned) and 1 national television station. In 2003, there were an estimated 44 radios and 14 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 4.5 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 3 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There was one secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

In 2002, major daily newspapers included Notícias (circulation 33,000), and Diario do Moçambique (16,000). Both papers are representative of the ruling party, as is the weekly publication Domingo (25,000). There are a number of smaller independent publications.

The constitution, the 1991 Press Law, and the 1992 Rome Peace Accords provide for free expression, including free speech and a free press; however, though some improvements were reported, the government has restricted some press freedoms.

ORGANIZATIONS

The Mozambique Chamber of Commerce, founded in 1980, is located in Maputo. Only a small percentage of the nation's workers belong to unions. There is a national teacher's union.

FRELIMO has emphasized mass organizations, such as the Organization of Mozambican Women and the Organization of Mozambican Youth. Scouting programs and active chapters of the YMCA/YWCA are available for youth. There are also several sports associations promoting competitions for amateur athletes.

There are national chapters of the Red Cross Society, Habitat for Humanity, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, UNICEF, and Caritas.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Prior to independence, tourism, mostly from South Africa and the former Rhodesia, was a very important activity. However, concern for security in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s due to the political situation left the tourist industry at a mere fraction of its previous levels. Civil stability and economic prospects have improved and tourism has been steadily growing in Maputo, although it is still limited in other areas.

The coastal town of Pemba offers the third-largest natural bay in the world with white sand beaches and coral reefs that can be easily reached by most swimmers. Diving and water sports are popular in this town. The northern half of Mozambique Island, which has a number of old churches and mosques, has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

All foreign nationals need visas, which must be obtained prior to traveling. Yellow fever immunizations are required if traveling from an infected country.

Approximately 726,100 tourists visited Mozambique in 2003. Hotel rooms numbered 6,899 with 13,601 beds and an occupancy rate of 14%.Visitors stayed in Mozambique an average of two nights.

In 2004, the US Department of State estimated the cost of staying in Mozambique at $242.

FAMOUS MOZAMBICANS

Eduardo C. Mondlane (1920–69) was the first president of FRELIMO. His successor, and later the first president of independent Mozambique, was Samora Moïsés Machel (1933–86). Joaquim Alberto Chissano (b.1939), foreign minister since independence, succeeded Machel as president in 1986; he served until 2005 and was succeeded by Armando Guebuza (b.1943).

DEPENDENCIES

Mozambique has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Azevedo, Mario. Historical Dictionary of Mozambique. [computer file] Boulder, Colo.: netLibrary, Inc., 2000.

Azevedo, Mario, Emmanuel Nnadozie, and Tome Mbuia Joao. Historical Dictionary of Mozambique. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2003.

Chingono, Mark F. The State, Violence and Development: The Political Economy of War in Mozambique, 1975–1992. Aldershot, England: Avebury, 1996.

Ciment, James. Angola and Mozambique: Postcolonial Wars in Southern Africa. New York: Facts on File, 1997.

Else, David. Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia. Oakland, Calif. Lonely Planet, 1997.

Hall, Margaret. Confronting Leviathan: Mozambique Since Independence. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1997.

Harmon, Daniel E. Southeast Africa: 1880 to the Present: Reclaiming a Region of Natural Wealth. Philadelphia, Penn.: Chelsea House Publishers, 2002.

Landau, Luis. Rebuilding the Mozambique Economy: Assessment of a Development Partnership. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998.

McElrath, Karen (ed.). HIV and AIDS: A Global View. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002.

Newitt, M. D. D. A History of Mozambique. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995.

Rotberg, Robert I. Ending Autocracy, Enabling Democracy: The Tribulations of Southern Africa, 1960–2000. Cambridge, Mass.: World Peace Foundation, 2002.

Waterhouse, Rachel. Mozambique: Rising from the Ashes. Oxford: Oxfam, 1996.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Mozambique

Recipes

1 GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND ENVIRONMENT

Located on the southeastern coast of Africa, Mozambique has an area of 309,496 square miles (801,590 square kilometers), slightly less than twice the size of the state of California. Mozambique is 44% coastal lowlands. The most important rivers are the Zambezi, the Limpopo, the Save (Sabi), and the Lugenda. The most important lake is Lake Malawi (also called Lake Niassa).

Thick forest covers the wet regions, but the drier interior has little vegetation. As with the dense forest elsewhere in the world, Mozambique has lost 70% of its forests. Wild animals, such as elephants, buffalo, wildebeests, zebras, hippopotamuses, lions, crocodiles, and over 300 varieties of birds, roam the country. In some areas there are problems with the purity of the water supply.

2 HISTORY AND FOOD

Some of the earliest inhabitants of present-day Mozambique were small groups of hunter-gatherers, often called Bushmen. These nomadic groups traveled from one place to the next in search of seasonal fruits, vegetables, roots, and seeds. To supplement their primitive diet, the groups would also follow herds of wild animals such as impala (an African antelope) and buck, killing them with poisonous bows and arrows. Permanent settlements were never established because agriculture (cultivating land to produce crops) was not practiced.

Around a.d. 300, Bantu-speaking Africans from the north introduced the practice of agriculture to Mozambique. The Bantu, who were primarily farmers and ironworkers, migrated to present-day Mozambique in search of farmable land. Over the next several hundred years, agricultural systems were established to collectively grow maize (similar to corn) and other grains.

Arab merchants, who arrived in sailing ships called dhows, set up some of the first trading posts in the 700s. They brought with them various items, including sal (salt), essential in preserving foods such as meat. In 1498, a Portuguese explorer named Vasco da Gama landed at Mozambique on his voyage to India, quickly establishing Portuguese ports and introducing foodstuffs and customs to the Mozambican culture.

Ruling for nearly 500 years, the Portuguese greatly impacted the cuisine of Mozambique. Crops such as cassava (a starchy root) and cashew nuts (Mozambique was once the largest producer of these nuts), and pãozinho (pronounced pow-zing-yo; Portuguese-style bread rolls) were brought in by the Portuguese. The use of seasonings such as onions, bay leaves, garlic, fresh coriander, paprika, chili peppers, red sweet peppers, and wine were introduced by the Portuguese, as was sugarcane, maize, millet, rice, sorghum (a type of grass), and potatoes. Prego (steak roll), rissois (battered shrimp), espetada (kebab), pudim (pudding), and the popular inteiro com piripiri (whole chicken in piri-piri sauce) are all Portuguese dishes commonly eaten in present-day Mozambique.

Piri-Piri Sauce

Ingredients

• 2 teaspoons cayenne pepper
• ¼ teaspoon salt
• Juice of 2 lemons
• 2 garlic cloves, crushed
• 6 sprigs parsley, chopped (or 2 Tablespoons dried parsley)
• 1 cup butter or oil

Procedure

1. Combine all the ingredients together in a saucepan and heat on low for 5 minutes before serving.
2. Serve with cooked shrimp. Piri-piri may also accompany chicken, seafood, and most meats.

Pãozinho (Portuguese Rolls)

Ingredients

• 10 cups flour (approximately 5 pounds)
• 2 packages active dry yeast
• ¼ cup margarine
• 1½ teaspoons shortening
• 1 Tablespoon salt
• 1 Tablespoon sugar
• 3½ to 4 cups lukewarm water

Procedure

1. Dissolve the yeast in ½ cup of the water with ½ teaspoon sugar added. Let stand for 5 minutes, or until bubbly.
2. Place in a large bowl and add enough flour to make a batter.
3. Cover the bowl with a cloth and blanket and let stand until it forms bubbles and looks lumpy.
4. Add the remaining ingredients and mix well, kneading well until smooth, about 10 minutes. Add more flour if dough is too soft.
5. Cover again with cloth and blanket and let stand in a warm place until doubled in size.
6. On a floured board, using about ⅓ cup dough for each bread roll, shape into round balls and let rest on a cloth dusted with flour.
7. After all rolls are shaped, beginning with rolls that were shaped first, flatten each with palm of hand, making an indent in the middle with the side of your hand, then fold in half.
8. Lay each roll on the cloth with open side down.
9. Let rolls rest for 5 minutes. While rolls are resting, preheat oven to 500°F.
10. Place rolls on baking sheet with open side up and lightly brush with milk.
11. Bake in oven for 10 to 15 minutes.

Makes about 24 rolls.

3 FOODS OF THE MOZAMBICANS

The cuisine of Mozambique revolves around fresh seafood, stews, corn porridge (maize meal), arroz (rice), millet (a type of grain), and mandioca (cassava). Meats such as bifel (steak) and frango (chicken) are often accompanied by beans, cassava chips, cashew nuts, coconut, batata (potatoes), and a variety of spices, including garlic and peppers (a Portuguese influence). Seasonal fruta (fresh fruit; Mozambique's papaya and pineapples are known as some of the juiciest in the world), puddings made of fruits and rice, and fried balls of flour paste (similar to doughnuts), most often accompanied by Mozambican chá (tea), make a delicious ending to any meal.

In the mornings for pequeno almoço (breakfast), tea and coffee are commonly sold with sandwiches made of ovos (egg) or fresh peixe (fish), or a slightly sweetened bread-cake. The pequeno almoço is usually light, however, as the main meal of the day is normally almoço (lunch) at midday.

Those who work in cities and towns often purchase almoço from food stalls (also called tea stalls), which are located on roadsides, bus stations, and markets around town. Pregos (steak sandwiches), burgers, fried chicken, meat stews, and rice are typical fare available from the stalls. Fresh seafood from off the coast of Mozambique is abundant and is considered some of the most delicious food available. It is sold nearly everywhere from street stalls to city restaurants, though it is more available near the coast. Fresh fish, prawns (similar to shrimp), calamari (squid), crab, lobster, and crayfish are often served with arroz (rice) or batata fritas (fries, known as chips). Matata, a seafood and peanut stew, is a typical local dish. Rice topped with sauce, spicy stew, fresh fruit (such as pineapples sprinkled with sugar and cashew nuts), and posho (maize porridge) are common lunches for children. Toasted cheese sandwiches (sandes de queijo ), commonly sold at stalls, and chips (fries) are other favorites.

Aside from the widely served coffee and tea, adults may enjoy locally brewed beer made from maize, a Mozambican staple food. The thick and sweet drink is often drunk from a common pot and shared by everyone present on special occasions. Madeira, a Portuguese wine that is popular in Mozambique, was extremely popular in America during the colonial era—it was a favorite of George Washington and was used to toast the Declaration of Independence in 1776.

Children often prefer such beverages as carbonated soft drinks and fresh fruit juices, which are sometimes imported from the country of South Africa.

Maize Porridge

Ingredients

• 4 cups water
• 2½ cups white cornmeal

Procedure

1. Bring 3 cups of the water to a boil in a large pot.
2. Combine 1½ cups of the cornmeal with the remaining 1 cup water.
3. Reduce heat to low and add the cornmeal mixture to the boiling water, stirring constantly with a wooden spoon.
4. Cook for about 5 minutes, slowly adding the remaining cup of cornmeal.
5. When the mixture is very thick and starts to pull away from the sides of the pan, transfer to a serving bowl or plate.
6. Use a spoon to shape the mixture into a round ball (you may also use wet hands).
7. This stiff porridge is popular throughout Africa and is typically used to scoop up sauces and food from plates.

Serves 6 to 8.

Sandes de Queijo (Baked Cheese Sandwich)

Ingredients

• 1 Portuguese roll (a soft white dinner roll may be substituted)
• 2 to 3 slices cheddar cheese
• 2 slices ham (optional)

Procedure

1. Preheat oven to 350°F.
2. Slice the roll in half, but do not cut all the way through.
3. Open the roll and place 2 to 3 slices of cheese on top of the bottom half.
4. Add ham slices if desired (ham often accompanies cheese on sandwiches in Mozambique).
5. Close the roll and place on a cookie sheet in the warm oven.
6. Bake until cheese is melted, about 5 minutes.

Serves 1.

Matata (Seafood and Peanut Stew)

Ingredients

• 1 cup onions, finely chopped
• Olive oil (vegetable oil may be substituted)
• 4 cups canned clams, chopped
• 1 cup peanuts, finely chopped
• 2 tomatoes, cut into small pieces
• 1 Tablespoon salt
• ½ teaspoon black pepper
• 1 teaspoon crushed red pepper, or to taste
• 1½ pounds fresh, young spinach leaves, finely chopped
• 2 cups cooked white rice

Procedure

1. Sauté onion pieces in a small amount of olive oil in a saucepan over medium-low heat. Cook until onions are softened, but do not brown them.
2. Add the chopped clams, peanuts, tomatoes, salt, black pepper, and a pinch amount of red pepper (it is spicy).
3. Over low heat, simmer for 30 minutes.
4. Add spinach leaves.
5. Cover tightly; as soon as leaves are withered, matata is ready to be served.
6. Serve over cooked white rice.

Makes 8 servings.

Malasadas (Doughnuts)

Ingredients

• 1 package yeast
• ⅓ cup and 1⅓ cups warm water
• 1 teaspoon and ⅓ cup sugar
• 2 pounds flour
• 1 teaspoon salt
• 1⅓ cup cream
• ⅓ cup butter, melted
• 8 eggs, beaten
• Oil, for frying

Procedure

1. Dissolve the yeast in the ⅓ cup warm water and 1 teaspoon sugar; stir. Let stand until foamy (several minutes).
2. Combine the flour, sugar, and salt in a large bowl. Mix in the cream and water.
3. Beat the 8 eggs in separate bowl.
4. Add the beaten eggs and melted butter in with the rest of the ingredients to the flour mixture.
5. Add the dissolved yeast mixture and stir well to form a soft dough.
6. Cover and put in a warm place. Let stand until double in size, about 1½ hours.
7. Drop by spoonfuls into deep, hot oil and fry until light brown.
8. Remove, using a slotted spoon, and drain on a rack with paper towels.
9. Coat with sugar, if desired.

Makes 5 dozen small doughnuts.

4 FOOD FOR RELIGIOUS AND HOLIDAY CELEBRATIONS

The religions practiced by the people of Mozambique are Islam, Christianity, and African indigenous beliefs. This is a result of the various cultures that have dominated the country throughout its history. Arab traders introduced the religion of Islam, the dominant religion of their Middle Eastern origins. The Portuguese, led by explorer Vasco da Gama, made one of their missions to spread the idea of Christianity on their voyage to India at the end of the 1400s (bringing spices and various riches back to Portugal was the other mission).

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, roughly 60 percent of the population practiced a form of traditional indigenous religion, 30 percent are Christian, and about 10 percent are Muslim. Some Christians and Muslims also choose to practice their traditional indigenous beliefs.

The strong Christian presence throughout the country makes Christmas a very special time. Portuguese songs are rehearsed, costumes are designed for children participating in Mozambican celebratory dances, and decorations are made to hang on Christmas trees. A dove (symbolizing peace) and a cross form Mozambique's logo for the Christian Council and is often found on trees during Christmas time each year. Those who can afford a nice holiday meal will often have an entrée of meat, accompanied by rice, a vegetable, fresh fruit, and fancy pastries or cakes for dessert. Those closer to the coast will usually eat garlic shrimp or other seafood delicacies. The very poor often receive a food donation of rice, oil, and beans from various organizations. Christmas Day is also called Family Day in Mozambique.

Secular (non-religious) holidays are also widely celebrated throughout the country. Often on these days, families and close friends gather together to enjoy a large meal. Some of these days include New Year's Day on January 1, Independence Day on June 25, and Maputo City Day in Maputo on November 10. On such special occasions, bolo polana (a cashew nut and potato cake) is a Mozambican favorite.

A Typical Christmas Meal

Chicken (with piri-piri sauce or marinade)

Chips (French fries)

Cabbage

Rice

Watermelon

Filhos de natal (Christmas fritters)

Filhos de Natal (Christmas Fritters)

Ingredients

• 1 package dry yeast
• 4 cups flour
• 5 eggs, lightly beaten
• ¾ cup honey
• ¼ cup warm milk
• 1 teaspoon salt
• 4 Tablespoons brandy (may substitute 2 teaspoons vanilla)
• ½ cup hot water
• Oil, for frying

Procedure

1. Beat the 5 eggs in a bowl.
2. Warm the milk in a microwave, and dissolve the yeast in the warm milk. Let stand for 5 minutes.
3. In a large bowl, combine the flour and salt.
4. Add the yeast mixture, beaten eggs, and brandy or vanilla to the flour mixture.
5. Knead until the dough is smooth and elastic (about 10 minutes).
6. Place the dough into a greased bowl, cover with a cloth, and let rise in a warm place until doubled in size (about 2 hours).
7. Punch down on the dough and roll out onto a floured board (with a rolling pin) until about ¼-inch thickness.
8. Cut into ½-inch wide and 2-inch long strips.
9. Fry in hot oil for 2 to 3 minutes until crisp and golden brown, then drain on paper towels.
10. Dissolve the honey in hot water and drip the fritters in the mixture until coated.
11. Serve either hot or cold.

Serves 6 to 8.

Bolo Polana (Cashew Nut and Potato Cake)

Ingredients

• 3 medium-sized (1 pound) boiling potatoes, peeled and quartered
• 3 quarter-pound sticks unsalted butter, softened
• 2 Tablespoons flour
• 2 cups sugar
• 2 cups roasted, unsalted cashews, finely chopped in blender or nut grinder
• 2 teaspoons fresh lemon peel, finely grated
• 2 teaspoons fresh orange peel, finely grated
• 9 egg yolks
• 4 egg whites

Procedure

1. Boil the potatoes uncovered until they are soft enough to be easily mashed with a fork (about 15 minutes). Drain and return to the cooking pot.
2. Thoroughly mash the potatoes with a fork or potato masher (or electric mixer). Set aside to cool.
3. Preheat oven to 350°F.
4. Grease well the bottom and sides of a 9-inch springform cake pan. Dust the pan evenly with flour. Turn pan over and tap on surface to remove excess flour.
5. In a large bowl, mix the 3 sticks of softened butter and 2 cups of sugar together using a wooden spoon or electric mixer until light and fluffy.
6. Add the potatoes, cashews, and lemon and orange peels; mix well.
7. Add the egg yolks one at a time and continue to stir until well blended.
8. With a whisk or electric blender in a separate bowl, beat the egg whites until stiff.
9. Slowly and gently mix the egg whites into potato mixture, using a spatula.
10. Pour the batter into the pan, smoothing the top with a spatula.
11. Bake for about 1 hour, or until top is brown. Let cool for 5 minutes, then remove the cake onto a wire rack.
12. Serve cake while it is slightly warm or at room temperature.

Makes one 9-inch round cake.

5 MEALTIME CUSTOMS

The midday meal is typically the main meal of the day for Mozambicans. However, jantar (dinner) may be the main meal for those who can afford to feed guests on special occasions. Traditional African customs often combine with those influenced by the Portuguese, making for a unique dining experience.

The Portuguese influence is felt most often in the dinner's arrangement. Unlike the custom in many African countries, dinner is usually presented on a table with accompanying chairs, rather than having the guests seated on the floor. An embroidered tablecloth and napkins will likely adorn the tabletop, along with individual plates, eating utensils (many African countries prefer eating with the hands), and Portuguese wine.

The most commonly served food largely reflects that of African origins, with Portuguese wine and piri-piri (hot pepper relish) being major exceptions. Soup is a popular appetizer eaten before the main meal, often consisting of a popular vegetable such as corn, squash, or green beans. A ladle is used to transfer the soup into decorative soup bowls. Salads, such as tomato and avocado, are served with the main entrée (usually without bread). Fresh seafood, meat, poultry, or matata (seafood and peanut stew) served with rice is most commonly served as the main dish. Condiments (such as piripiri, cashews, and coconut milk) and other spicy sauces may accompany the dish. Those with less money often stick to more simple staples, such as corn porridge and beans.

Dessert, usually fresh fruit, pudding, or small pastries (such as fried dough) is normally eaten in a more casual, relaxed atmosphere (such as a living room). Tea, coffee, and wine are usually offered to the guests while enjoying conversation and Mozambican music.

Sopa de Feijao Verde (String Bean Soup)

Ingredients

• 1 cup instant mashed potatoes
• 1 Tablespoon onion powder
• 1½ quarts boiling water
• 1 can (6-ounce) tomato sauce
• 1 package frozen green beans, thawed and cut into thin slices

Procedure

1. Combine the instant potatoes, onion powder, water, and tomato sauce in a saucepan over medium heat; stir well and bring to a boil.
2. Add the sliced green beans to the potato mixture in the saucepan.
3. Simmer until the beans are cooked.
4. Serve in bowls or large soup plates.

Makes 8 cups.

Salada Pera de Abacate (Tomato and Avocado Salad)

Ingredients

• 1 head iceberg lettuce, chopped
• 2 tomatoes, sliced
• 2 avocados, pitted and sliced
• 2 Tablespoons lemon and herb dressing (see recipe)

Procedure

1. Distribute and arrange the chopped lettuce, tomato, and avocado slices on 8 salad plates.
2. Top with lemon and herb dressing (other salad dressing may be substituted).

Serves 8.

Lemon and Herb Salad Dressing

Ingredients

• 3 Tablespoons olive oil
• 2 Tablespoons lemon juice
• 2 Tablespoons parsley, chopped
• 1 clove garlic, crushed

Procedure

1. Beat all the ingredients together in a mixing bowl and serve over salada pera de abacate (see recipe).

6 POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND NUTRITION

About two-thirds of the population of Mozambique is classified as undernourished by the World Bank. This means they do not receive adequate nutrition in their diet. Of children under the age of five, about 16 percent are underweight, and over 20 percent are stunted (short for their age).

A campaign to provide Vitamin A supplements to all Mozambican children under the age of five years was launched at the beginning of the twenty-first century. In cooperation with organizations such as the National Agricultural Research Institute and UNICEF, the country's Health Ministry distributed Vitamin A-rich sweet potatoes with orange pulp to local children. Vitamin A will be administered to these children every six months during their normal check ups to prevent blindness. In addition, iodine deficient children under the age of 14, who may experience malfunctioning of the brain and central nervous system, will be provided with iodine capsules.

As the twenty-first century began, an outbreak of Cassava Brown Streak Disease threatened the cassava crop, a Mozambican staple, according to the Famine Early Warning System (FEWS) Network.

7 FURTHER STUDY

Books

Briggs, Phillip. Guide to Mozambique. Old Saybrook, CT: Globe Pequot Press, 1997.

Else, David. Malawi, Mozambique & Zambia. Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd., 1997.

Hultman, Tami. The Africa News Cookbook. New York: Viking Penguin Inc., 1987.

Slater, Mike. Globetrotter Travel Guide—Mozambique. London: New Holland Ltd., 1997.

Southern Africa, 2^nd ed. Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd., 2000.

Web Sites

AllAfrica.com. [Online] Available http://www.allafrica.com (accessed March 30, 2001).

Cooking Around the World—Mozambique. [Online] Available http://members.tripod.com/~WrightPlace/caw-Mozambique4.html (accessed April 10, 2001).

Famine Early Warning System (FEWS) Network. [Online] Available http://www.fews.net/ (accessed April 6, 2001).

Getaway to Africa. [Online] Available http://www.getawaytoday.com/gateway_article.asp?FEATURE_ID=465 (accessed April 5, 2001).

Mozambique: Menus & Recipes from Africa. [Online] Available http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Cookbook/Mozambique.html (accessed April 6, 2001).

RecipeCenter.com. [Online] Available http://www.recipecenter.com (accessed April 9, 2001).

Mozambique Under Portuguese influence since 1508, it was used to supply slaves to Brazilian plantations. In the late nineteenth century, its interior was occupied by the Portuguese, who came to institute one of Africa's harshest and most racist colonial regimes. The country's resources were ruthlessly exploited, while no efforts were undertaken to educate an indigenous elite. Inspired by the process of decolonization that occurred from the late 1950s in the English and French colonies of Africa, a resistance movement, FRELIMO, was formed in 1964. It became increasingly successful in its guerrilla warfare against the government, and by 1974 controlled more than one-fifth of the country.

After the fall of the Portuguese dictatorship in 1974, independence came suddenly, unexpectedly, and with little preparation on 25 June 1975. Under the leadership of Machel, a Communist People's Republic was proclaimed. With little coordination, a programme of nationalization of private companies and of agrarian reforms was introduced, which proved disastrous for an economy already wounded by the complete withdrawal of Portuguese expertise, capital, and machinery. The country's woes were greatly increased through a rising guerrilla campaign by RENAMO, which originated in an attempt by Ian Smith's racist Rhodesian government to destabilize the Communist regime. It was after the fall of Smith's government, when RENAMO switched its allegiance to the South African apartheid regime, that the guerrilla movement became a potent force. While still too weak to replace the government, RENAMO launched an attack of unprecedented destruction of property and human life, on a scale only exceeded in twentieth-century African history by the massacres in Rwanda (1994).

After his death in 1986, Machel was succeeded by the more pragmatic Chissano. He improved relations with the USA, appealed for funds from the IMF, and relaxed some of his predecessor's socialist policies. Most importantly, he tried to reach a compromise with the RENAMO rebels to end the civil war. This was greatly facilitated by the end of the apartheid regime in South Africa, which deprived RENAMO of its vital support and made it eager to reach a compromise. Free elections were held on 27–9 October 1994 amidst fears that RENAMO might not accept a possible defeat. However, RENAMO appeared to accept the result (37.8 per cent of the popular vote against 44.3 per cent for FRELIMO), partly because neither force was able to wage an effective military campaign after the decommissioning of 90 per cent of their respective troops.

New elections in 1999 confirmed Chissano in office. These elections were confirmed as fair by international observers, but were contested by RENAMO. Despite repeated negotiations between Chissano and RENAMO's leader, Afonso Dhlakama, RENAMO continued to refuse participation in the political process. Chissano's political success was acknowledged in 2000, when Mozambique became one of the first countries to qualify for substantial debt relief under the HIPC Initiative. By contrast, a series of devastating floods in 2000 and 2001 caused damages of up to $2bn., and destroyed much of the economic growth achieved in the 1990s. Even more serious was the development of AIDS. Largely as a result, by 2001 average life expectancy had been reduced to below 40 years.

Mozambique (Moçambique) The Republic of Mozambique (Portuguese: República de Moçambique) since 1990. Previously the People's Republic of Mozambique from 1975 when independence was achieved; an Overseas Province of Portugal (1951), and often referred to as Portuguese East Africa, and a colony (1752); the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama (c.1460–1524) made the first landfall on Mozambique Island in 1498 and it was settled nine years later. The island's name, eventually applied to the whole territory for which it became the administrative centre, is said to have come from a ruling Arab Shaikh, Musa al Biq and the town which developed here was known to medieval Arab geographers as Musanbīh and in Swahili as Musambiki. Earlier, the place was known as Bilād al‐Sufāla ‘Low‐lying Land’ from bilād ‘land’ and sufāla ‘low‐land’. It has also been suggested that the present name might come from Musa Malik from the personal name and malik ‘king’. It gives its name to the Mozambique Channel between Mozambique and Madagascar.

Mozambique is a republic in south-east Africa. Colonized by the Portuguese, it gained independence in 1975. A long-running civil war ended in 1992 and in 1995 the country was admitted to the Commonwealth as a special case, because of its very close links with South Africa and Zimbabwe. It had suffered severely in recent years from the flooding of the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers.

J. A. Cannon

Mozambique

The people of Mozambique are called Mozambicans. There are ten major ethnic groups. The largest, residing north of the Zambezi River, is the Makua-Lomwé group, representing about 37 percent of the total population. Others include the Yao (Ajawa), Makonde, Nguni, Maravi, Tsonga, Chopi, and Shona (or Karanga).

Mozambique city: see Moçambique .

Mozambique, see Portuguese Africa.

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