ITALY

Italian Republic

Repubblica Italiana

CAPITAL: Rome (Roma)

FLAG: The national flag is a tricolor of green, white, and red vertical stripes.

ANTHEM: Fratelli d'Italia (Brothers of Italy).

MONETARY UNIT: The euro replaced the lira as the official currency in 2002. The euro is divided into 100 cents. There are coins in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 cents and 1 euro and 2 euros. There are notes of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 euros. €1 = $1.25475 (or $1 = €0.79697) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Epiphany, 6 January; Liberation Day, 25 April; Labor Day, 1 May; Assumption, 15 August; All Saints' Day, 1 November; National Unity Day, 5 November; Immaculate Conception, 8 December; Christmas, 25 December; St. Stephen's Day, 26 December. Easter Monday is a movable holiday. In addition, each town has a holiday on its Saint's Day.

TIME: 1 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated in southern Europe, the Italian Republic, including the major islands of Sicily (Sicilia) and Sardinia (Sardegna), covers a land area of 301,230 sq km (116,306 sq mi). Comparatively, the area occupied by Italy is slightly larger than the state of Arizona. The boot-shaped Italian mainland extends into the Mediterranean Sea with a length of 1,185 km (736 mi) se–nw and a width of 381 km (237 mi) ne–sw. It is bordered on the n by Switzerland and Austria, on the ne by Slovenia, on the e by the Adriatic and Ionian seas, on the w by the Tyrrhenian and Ligurian seas, and on the nw by France, with a total land boundary length of 1,932 km (1,200 mi) and a coastline of 7,600 km (4,712 mi).

Situated off the toe of the Italian boot, Sicily has a surface area of 25,708 sq km (9,926 sq mi). Sardinia, which is about 320 km (200 mi) nw of Sicily, covers an area of some 24,090 sq km (9,300 sq mi). Within the frontiers of Italy are the sovereign Republic of San Marino, with an area of 61.2 sq km (23.6 sq mi), and the sovereign state of Vatican City, which covers 44 hectares (108.7 acres).

The long-disputed problem of Trieste, a 518 sq km (200 sq mi) area situated at the head of the Adriatic Sea, between Italy and Yugoslavia, was resolved in 1954, when Italy assumed the administration of Zone A, the city and harbor of Trieste, and Yugoslavia of Zone B, the rural hinterlands of the Istrian Peninsula. A treaty of October 1975 made the partition permanent.

Italy's capital city, Rome, is located in the west-central part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Except for the fertile Po River Valley in the north and the narrow coastal belts farther south, Italy's mainland is generally mountainous, with considerable seismic activity. During Roman times, the city of Pompeii, near present-day Naples (Napoli), was devastated first by an earthquake in ad 63 and then by the famed eruption of Mt. Vesuvius (1,277 m/4,190 ft) in ad 79. In the last century, a 7.2 magnitude earthquake in the Calabrian-Sicilian region occurred in December 1908 that leveled the cities of Reggio di Calabria and Messina and left about 100,000 dead. A quake in the south on 23 November 1980 (and subsequent aftershocks) claimed at least 4,500 lives.

The Alpine mountain area in the north along the French and Swiss borders includes three famous lakes—Como, Maggiore, and Garda—and gives rise to six small rivers that flow southward into the Po. Italy's highest peaks are found in the northwest in the Savoy Alps, the Pennines, and the Graian chain. They include Mont Blanc (4,807 m/15,771 ft), on the French border; Monte Rosa (Dufourspitze, 4,634 m/15,203 ft) and the Matterhorn (Monte Cervino, 4,478 m/14,692 ft), on the Swiss border; and Gran Paradiso (4,061 m/13,323 ft). Marmolada (3,342 m/10,965 ft), in northeast Italy, is the highest peak in the Dolomites.

At the foot of the Alps, the Po River, the only large river in Italy, flows from west to east, draining plains covering about 17% of Italy's total area and forming the agricultural and industrial heartland. The Apennines, the rugged backbone of peninsular Italy, rise to form the southern border of the Po Plain. Numerous streams and a few small rivers, including the Arno and the Tiber (Tevere), flow from the Apennines to the west coast. The highest peak on the peninsula is Corvo Grande (2,912 m/9,554 ft). Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the European mainland.

While altitudes are lower in southern Italy, the Calabrian coast is still rugged. Among the narrow, fertile coastal plains, the Plain of Foggia in northern Apulia, which starts along the Adriatic, and the more extensive lowland areas near Naples, Rome, and Livorno (Leghorn) are the most important. The mountainous western coastline forms natural harbors at Naples, Livorno, La Spezia, Genoa (Genova), and Savona, and the low Adriatic coast permits natural ports at Venice (Venezia), Bari, Brindisi, and Taranto.

Sicily, separated from the mainland by the narrow Strait of Messina, has the Madonie Mountains, a continuation of the Apennines, and the Plain of Catania, the largest plain on the island. Mount Etna (3,369 m/11,053 ft) is an isolated and active volcano in the northeast.

Sardinia, in the Tyrrhenian Sea, is generally mountainous and culminates in the peak of Gennargentu (1,834 m/6,017 ft). The largest and most fertile plains are the Campidano in the south and the Ozieri in the north. The principal bay is Porto Torres in the Gulf of Asinara.

CLIMATE

Climate varies with elevation and region. Generally, however, Italy is included between the annual isotherms of 11°c and 19°c (52°f and 66°f). The coldest period occurs in December and January, the hottest in July and August. In the Po Plain, the average annual temperature is about 13°c (55°f); in Sicily, about 18°c (64°f); and in the coastal lowlands, about 14°c (57°f). The climate of the Po Valley and the Alps is characterized by cold winters, warm summers, and considerable rain, falling mostly in spring and autumn, with snow accumulating heavily in the mountains. The climate of the peninsula and of the islands is Mediterranean, with cool, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. Mean annual rainfall varies from about 50 cm (20 in) per year, on the southeast coast and in Sicily and Sardinia, to over 200 cm (80 in), in the Alps and on some westerly slopes of the Apennines. Frosts are rare in the sheltered western coastal areas, but severe winters are common in the Apennine and Alpine uplands.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Plants and animals vary with area and altitude. Mountain flora is found above 1,980 m (6,500 ft) in the Alps and above 2,290 m (7,500 ft) in the Apennines. The highest forest belt consists of conifers; beech, oak, and chestnut trees grow on lower mountain slopes. Poplar and willow thrive in the Po Plain. On the peninsula and on the larger islands, Mediterranean vegetation predominates: evergreens, holm oak, cork, juniper, bramble, laurel, myrtle, and dwarf palm.

Although larger mammals are scarce, chamois, ibex, and roe deer are found in the Alps, and bears, chamois, and otters inhabit the Apennines. Ravens and swallows are characteristic birds of Italy. Abundant marine life inhabits the surrounding seas.

As of 2002, there were at least 90 species of mammals, 250 species of birds, and over 5,900 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Italy has been slow to confront its environmental problems. Central government agencies concerned with the environment are the Ministry for Ecology (established in 1983), the Ministry of Culture and Environmental Quality, the National Council for Research, and the Ministry for Coordination of Scientific and Technological Research. Localities also have responsibility for environmental protection, but most of the burden of planning and enforcement falls on regional authorities. The principal antipollution statute is Law No. 319 of 1976 (the Merli Law), which controls the disposal of organic and chemical wastes; enforcement, however, has proved difficult.

Air pollution is a significant problem in Italy. United Nations sources estimate that carbon monoxide emissions increased by 12% in the period between 1985 and 1989. In the 1990s Italy had the world's 10th highest level of industrial carbon dioxide emissions, which totaled 407.7 million metric tons per year, a per capita level of 7.03 metric tons. In 2000, the total of carbon dioxide emissions was at 428.2 million metric tons.

Water pollution is another important environmental issue in Italy. The nation's rivers and coasts have been polluted by industrial and agricultural contaminants and its lakes contaminated by acid rain. In 2001 the nation had 160 cu km of renewable water resources with 53% used in farming activity and 33% used for industrial purposes. Facilities for the treatment and disposal of industrial wastes are inadequate.

In July 1976, the city of Seveso, north of Milan (Milano), gained international attention after an explosion at a small Swiss-owned chemical plant released a cloud of debris contaminated by a toxic by-product, dioxin. More than 1,000 residents were evacuated, and pregnant women were advised to have abortions.

The long-term threat posed by flooding, pollution, erosion, and sinkage to the island city of Venice was highlighted by a disastrous flood in November 1966, which damaged priceless art treasures and manuscripts in Florence (Firenze). The digging of artesian wells in the nearby mainland cities of Mestre and Marghera so lowered the water table that the Venetian islands sank at many times the normal annual rate of 4 mm (0.16 in) a year between 1900 and 1975; with the wells capped as a protective measure, Venice's normal sinkage rate was restored. As of the mid-1980s, however, little effort had been made to control the number and speed of powerboats on the Grand Canal (the churning of whose waters causes buildings to erode), nor had the national government begun to implement a master plan for Venice approved in principle three years earlier. Rome has implemented a project designed, in part, to protect the Roman Forum and other ancient monuments from the vibration and pollution of motor vehicles.

In 2003, only about 7.9% of the total land area was protected. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 12 types of mammals, 15 species of birds, 4 types of reptiles, 5 species of amphibians, 17 species of fish, 16 types of mollusks, 42 species of other invertebrates, and 3 species of plants. Threatened species include the Sicilian fir, the black vulture, the spotted eagle, the wild goat, the great white shark, and the red-breasted goose. The Sardinian pika is extinct.

POPULATION

The population of Italy in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 58,742,000, which placed it at number 23 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 19% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 14% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 94 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be stagnant at 0.0%, a rate the government viewed as too low. The projected population for the year 2025 was 57,630,000. The population density was 195 per sq km (505 per sq mi), with the Po Valley being one of the most densely populated areas of the country.

The UN estimated that 90% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that population in urban areas was declining at an annual rate of -0.04%. The capital city, Rome (Roma), had a population of 2,665,000 in that year. Other major cities and their estimated populations include Milan, 4,007,000; Naples, 2,905,000; Turin (Torino), 1,182,000; Genoa, 803,000; Florence, 778,000; Palermo, 721,164; and Bologna, 369,955.

MIGRATION

Emigration, which traditionally provided relief from overpopulation and unemployment, now represents only a fraction of the millions of Italians who emigrated during the two decades prior to 1914. From 1900 to 1914, 16 of every 1,000 Italians left their homeland each year; by the late 1970s, that proportion had declined to about 1.5 per 1,000. Of the 65,647 Italians who emigrated in 1989, some 26,098 went to Germany; 16,347 to Switzerland; 5,277 to France; 4,076 to the United States; and 23,849 to other countries. Immigration in 1989 totaled approximately 81,201 people, of whom West Germans accounted for 13,198. In 1990, 781,100 immigrants lived in Italy. This figure did not include some 600,000 who were believed to be illegal immigrants.

The overall impetus to emigrate has been greatly reduced by economic expansion within Italy itself and by the shrinking job market in other countries, especially Germany. Nevertheless, Germany had 560,100 Italian residents at the end of 1991, and France had 253,679 in 1990. Particularly significant in the first two decades after World War II was the considerable migration from the rural south to the industrial north, but by the mid-1980s, this flow had become insignificant.

In 1998, Italy received a total of 7,112 asylum applications, an increase of over 380% over the 1,858 applications lodged in 1997. The main countries of origin were Serbia and Montenegro, Iraq, and Turkey. Refugee status was granted in 29.6% of decisions on the applications made in 1998. Italy also hosted 5,816 people who arrived in 1999 from Macedonia under the UNHCR/IOM Humanitarian Evacuation Programme. However, in 2004 there were no asylum seekers in Italy, but 15,604 refugees and 886 stateless persons of concern to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated as 2.07 migrants per 1,000 population.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Italy has been the home of various peoples: Lombards and Goths in the north; Greeks, Saracens, and Spaniards in Sicily and the south; Latins in and around Rome; and Etruscans and others in central Italy. For centuries, however, Italy has enjoyed a high degree of ethnic homogeneity. The chief minority groups are the German-speaking people in the Alto Adige (South Tyrol) region and the Slavs of the Trieste area.

LANGUAGES

Italian, the official language, is spoken by the vast majority of people. While each region has its own dialect, Tuscan, the dialect of Tuscany, is the standard dialect for Italian. French is spoken in parts of Piedmonte and in Valle d'Aosta, where it is the second official language; Slovene is spoken in the Trieste-Gorizia area. German is widely used in Bolzano Province, or South Tyrol (part of the Trentino-Alto Adige region), which was ceded by Austria in 1919; under agreements reached between Italy and Austria in 1946 and 1969, the latter oversees the treatment of these German-speakers, who continue to call for greater linguistic and cultural autonomy.

RELIGIONS

Roman Catholicism, affirmed as the state religion under the Lateran Treaty of 1929, lost that distinction under a concordat with the Vatican ratified in 1985. However, the Catholic Church continues to hold a privileged status with the state. An estimated 87% of native-born Italian citizens claim to be members of the Roman Catholic faith; however, only about 20% are active participants. Jehovah's Witnesses form the second-largest denomination among native-born Italian citizens, with about 400,000 adherents. However, if immigrants are counted, the second-largest religion is Islam, with an estimated one million followers. About 100,000 people are Scientologists, 60,000 are Buddhists, 30,000 are Waldensians (a Calvinist sect), 30,000 are Jewish, and 20,000 are Mormons. The Orthodox and Protestant churches have small communities. Hinduism and Bahaism are also represented. About 14% of the population claim to be atheists or agnostics.

TRANSPORTATION

Italy's highway system, one of the world's best, in 2002 totaled 479,688 km (298,366 mi), all of which were paved, and included 6,620 km (4,117 mi) of expressways. These expressways carry heavy traffic along such routes as Milan-Como-Varese, Venice-Padua, Naples-Salerno, and Milan-Bologna-Florence-Rome-Naples. A major highway runs through the Mont Blanc Tunnel, connecting France and Italy. In 2003, there were an estimated 34,310,446 passenger cars and 4,166,033 commercial vehicles.

In 2004, Italy maintained a total of 19,319 km (12,016 mi) of standard and narrow gauge rail lines. Of that total, standard gauge accounts for 18,001 km (11,196 mi) of which 11,333 km (7,049 mi) are electrified, while 280 km (174 mi) of narrow gauge lines are electrified. The government owns and operates 80% of the rail system, the Italian State Railway (Ferrovie dello Stato-FS), including the principal lines. Connections with French railways are made at Ventimiglia, Tenda, and Mont Cenis; with the Swiss, through the Simplon and St. Gotthard passes; with the Austrian, at the Brenner Pass and Tarvisio; and with the Slovenian, through Gorizia.

The navigable inland waterway system, totaling about 2,400 km (1,490 mi), is mainly in the north and consists of the Po River, the Italian lakes, and the network of Venetian and Po River Valley canals. There is regular train-ferry and automobile-ferry service between Messina and other Sicilian ports. Freight and passengers are carried by ship from Palermo to Naples. Sardinia and the smaller islands are served by regular shipping. Regular passenger service is provided by hydrofoil between Calabria and Sicily, and between Naples, Ischia, and Capri.

As of 2005, Italy had 565 merchant vessels of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 8,970,017 GRT. Genoa and Savona on the northwest coast and Venice on the Adriatic handle the major share of traffic to and from the northern industrial centers. Naples, second only to Genoa, is the principal port for central and southern Italy, while Livorno is the natural outlet for Florence, Bologna, and Perugia. Messina, Palermo, and Catania are the chief Sicilian ports, and Cagliari handles most Sardinian exports.

In 2004 there were an estimated 134 airports. As of 2005, a total of 98 had paved runways, and there were also three heliports. Italy's one national airline, Alitalia, which is almost entirely government-owned, maintains an extensive domestic and international network of air routes. Rome's Fiumicino and Milan's Malpensa and Linate are among the most important airports, being served by nearly every major international air carrier. In 2003, Italian civil aviation performed a total of 1,359 million freight ton-km and carried about 34.953 million passengers on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.

HISTORY

The Italian patrimony, based on Roman antecedents—with a tradition that extends over 2,500 years—is the oldest in Europe, next to Greece's. The Ligurians, Sabines, and Umbrians were among the earliest-known inhabitants of Italy, but in the 9th century bc they were largely displaced in central Italy by the Etruscans, a seafaring people, probably from Asia Minor. Shortly thereafter there followed conquests in Sicily and southern Italy by the Phoenicians and the Greeks. By 650 bc, Italy was divided into ethnic areas: the Umbrians in the north, the Ligurians in the northwest, the Latins and Etruscans in the central regions, and the Greeks and Phoenicians in the south and Sicily. The Etruscan civilization, a great maritime, commercial, and artistic culture, reached its peak about the 7th century, but by 509 bc, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 bc, after a series of wars with both Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy, and by 272 bc, they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula.

This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, beginning with the First Punic War against Carthage (264–241 bc). In the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Finally, in 146 bc, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, Rome became the dominant power in the Mediterranean. From its inception, Rome was a republican city-state, but four famous civil conflicts destroyed the republic: Sulla against Marius and his son (88–82 bc), Julius Caesar against Pompey (49–45 bc), Brutus and Cassius against Mark Antony and Octavian (43 bc), and Mark Antony against Octavian. Octavian, the final victor (31 bc), was accorded the title of Augustus ("exalted") by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. Under imperial rule, Rome undertook a series of conquests that brought Roman law, Roman administration, and Pax Romana ("Roman peace") to an area extending from the Atlantic to the Rhine, to the British Isles, to the Iberian Peninsula and large parts of North Africa, and to the Middle East as far as the Euphrates.

After two centuries of successful rule, in the 3rd century ad, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders, commonly called barbarians (from the Latin word barbari, "foreigners"). Emperor Diocletian's administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief; it became permanent in 395. In 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he also moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople, greatly reducing the importance of the former. From the 4th to the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire disintegrated under the blows of barbarian invasions, finally falling in 476, and the unity of Italy came to an end. For a time, Italy was protected by the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, but a continuing conflict between the bishop of Rome, or pope, and the Byzantine emperor culminated in a schism during the first half of the 8th century.

After the fall of the Roman Empire and the reorganization of the peninsula, from the 6th to the 13th century, Italy suffered a variety of invaders and rulers: the Lombards in the 6th century, the Franks in the 8th century, the Saracens in the 9th, and the Germans in the 10th. The German emperors (of the Holy Roman Empire), the popes, and the rising Italian city-states vied for power from the 10th to the 14th century, and Italy was divided into several, often hostile, territories: in the south, the Kingdom of Naples, under Norman and Angevin rule; in the central area, the Papal States; and in the north, a welter of large and small city-states, such as Venice, Milan, Florence, and Bologna.

By the 13th century, the city-states had emerged as centers of commerce and of the arts and sciences. Venice, in particular, had become a major maritime power, and the city-states as a group acted as a conduit for goods and learning from the Byzantine and Islamic empires. In this capacity, they provided great impetus to the developing Renaissance, which between the 13th and 16th centuries led to an unparalleled flourishing of the arts, literature, music, and science. However, the emergence of Portugal and Spain as great seagoing nations at the end of the 15th century undercut Italian prosperity. After the Italian Wars (1494–1559), in which France tried unsuccessfully to extend its influence in Italy, Spain emerged as the dominant force in the region. Venice, Milan, and other city-states retained at least some of their former greatness during this period, as did Savoy-Piedmont, protected by the Alps and well defended by its vigorous rulers.

Economic hardship, waves of the plague, and religious unrest tormented the region throughout the 17th century and into the 18th. The French Revolution was brought to the Italian peninsula by Napoleon, and the concepts of nationalism and liberalism infiltrated everywhere. Short-lived republics and even a Kingdom of Italy (under Napoleon's stepson Eugene) were formed. But reaction set in with the Congress of Vienna (1815), and many of the old rulers and systems were restored under Austrian domination. The concept of nationalism continued strong, however, and sporadic outbreaks led by such inveterate reformers as Giuseppe Mazzini occurred in several parts of the peninsula down to 1848–49. This Risorgimento ("resurgence") movement was brought to a successful conclusion under the able guidance of Count Camillo Cavour, prime minister of Piedmont. Cavour managed to unite most of Italy under the headship of Victor Emmanuel II of the house of Savoy, and on 17 March 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel II as king. Giuseppe Garibaldi, the popular republican hero of Italy, contributed much to this achievement and to the subsequent incorporation of the Papal States under the Italian monarch. Italian troops occupied Rome in 1870, and in July 1871, it formally became the capital of the kingdom. Pope Pius IX, a longtime rival of Italian kings, considered himself a "prisoner" of the Vatican and refused to cooperate with the royal administration.

The 20th Century

The new monarchy aspired to great-power status but was severely handicapped by domestic social and economic conditions, particularly in the south. Political and social reforms introduced by Premier Giovanni Giolitti in the first decade of the 20th century improved Italy's status among Western powers but failed to overcome such basic problems as poverty and illiteracy. Giolitti resigned in March 1914 and was succeeded by Antonia Salandra. During World War I, Italy, previously an ally of the Central Powers, declared itself neutral in 1914 and a year later, in April 1915, joined the British and French in exchange for advantages offered by the secret Treaty of London. At the Versailles Peace Conference, Italy, which had suffered heavy losses on the Alpine front and felt slighted by its Western allies, failed to obtain all of the territories that it claimed.

This disappointment, coupled with the severe economic depression of the postwar period, created great social unrest and led eventually to the rise of Benito Mussolini, who, after leading his Fascist followers in a mass march on Rome, became premier in 1922. He established a Fascist dictatorship, a corporate state, which scored early successes in social welfare, employment, and transportation; in 1929, he negotiated the Lateran Treaties, under which the Holy See became sovereign within the newly constituted Vatican City State and Roman Catholicism was reaffirmed as Italy's official religion (the latter provision was abolished in 1984). The military conquest of Ethiopia (1935–36) added to Italy's colonial strength and exposed the inability of the League of Nations to punish aggression or keep the peace.

Italy joined Germany in World War II, but defeats in Greece and North Africa and the Allied invasion of Sicily toppled Mussolini's regime on 25 July 1943. Soon Italy was divided into two warring zones, one controlled by the Allies in the south and the other (including Rome) held by the Germans, who had quickly moved in, rescued Mussolini, and established him as head of the puppet "Italian Social Republic." When German power collapsed, Mussolini was captured and executed by Italian partisans.

The conclusion of the war left Italy poverty-stricken and politically disunited. In 1946, Italy became a republic by plebiscite; in the following year, a new constitution was drafted, which went into effect in 1948. Under the peace treaty of 10 February 1947, Italy was required to pay $360 million in reparations to the USSR, Yugoslavia, Greece, Ethiopia, and Albania. By this time, the Italian economy, initially disorganized by Mussolini's dream of national self-sufficiency and later physically devastated by the war, was in a state of near collapse. By the early 1950s, however, with foreign assistance (including $1,516.7 million from the United States under the Marshall Plan), Italy managed to restore its economy to the prewar level. From this point, the Italian economy experienced unprecedented development through the 1960s and 1970s.

Politically, postwar Italy has been marked by a pattern of accelerating instability, with 48 different coalition governments through 15 March 1988. In May 1981, the coalition of Prime Minister Arnaldo Forlani was brought down after it was learned that many government officials, including three cabinet ministers, were members of a secret Masonic lodge, Propaganda Due (P-2), that had reportedly been involved in illegal right-wing activities. Left-wing terrorism, notably by the Red Brigades (Brigate Rosse), also plagued Italy in the 1970s and early 1980s. In January 1983, 23 Red Brigade members were sentenced to life imprisonment in connection with the kidnapping and murder of Prime Minister Aldo Moro in 1978; another 36 members received sentences of varying lengths for other crimes, including 11 murders and 11 attempted murders, committed between 1976 and 1980. By the mid-1980s, the Mafia actively engaged in extortion, government corruption, and violent crime, as well as a central role in global heroin trafficking.

By 1986, however, internal security had improved. A major effort against organized crime was under way in the mid-1980s; over 1,000 suspects were tried and the majority convicted in trials that took place in Naples beginning in February 1985 and in Sicily beginning in February 1986.

Revelations of corruption and scandals involving senior politicians, members of the government administration, and business leaders rocked Italy in the early 1990s. Hundreds of politicians, party leaders, and industrialists were either under arrest or under investigation. The scandals discredited the major parties that had governed Italy since 1948, and the instability gave impetus to new reformist groups.

In August 1993, Italy made significant changes in its electoral system. Three-fourths of the seats in both the Chamber and the Senate would be filled by simple majority voting. The remainder would be allocated by proportional representation to those parties securing at least 4% of the vote. The first elections under the new system in March 1994 resulted in a simplification of electoral alliances and brought a center-right government to power. Silvio Berlusconi, founder of the "Go Italy" (Forza Italia) movement, emerged as prime minister. Berlusconi, a successful Italian businessman, was a newcomer to Italian politics. He was supported by the Alliance for Freedom coalition, which had received over 42% of the vote and 366 seats.

Berlusconi's government, however, became victim to charges of government corruption and on 22 December 1994 he was forced to resign in the face of a revolt by the Northern League, one of the parties in his ruling coalition. Three weeks after Berlusconi's resignation, his treasury minister, Lamberto Dini was named prime minister. He formed a government of technocrats and set about to enact fiscal and electoral reforms. Pragmatism and a lack of viable alternatives kept him in power until supporters of his main political rival, Silvio Berlusconi, presented a motion that he step down. When Dini learned that two splinter groups in his center-left coalition (the Greens and the Communist Refounding party) would not vote in his favor, he resigned on 11 January 1996 rather than face a no-confidence vote.

The elections, held on 21 April 1996, saw a center-left coalition, dominated by the former communists (DS), take control of the country for the first time in 50 years. Romano Prodi, an economics professor with little political experience, was chosen to serve as prime minister on 16 May. His coalition government collapsed after it failed to win a vote of no-confidence over the budget. President Oscar Luigi Scalfaro asked Massimo D'Alema, the leader of the DS and of the largest party in the Olive Tree, to form a new administration. His cabinet retained the same members from the left and center as before. This government also continued to pursue fiscal consolidation to join European economic and monetary union in 1999. Prodi left for Brussels to take up the presidency of the European Commission in May 1999. D'Alema reshuffl ed his cabinet in 1999 but it finally fell in April 2000. The immediate cause was the dismal performance in regional elections. The center-left won 7 out of 15 regions while the right, under the leadership of Silvio Berlusconi, took 8 regions.

The coalition of 12 discordant political blocs backed the Treasury Minister, Giuliano Amato, to become the new prime minister (appointed by President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, in office since May 1999). Prior to the fall of the D'Alema administration, the government had scheduled an important referendum to scrap the last remaining vestiges of direct proportional representation in the electoral system. Only one-third of the electorate bothered to vote on 21 May 2000, not enough to validate the referendum outcome.

Berlusconi's House of Liberties coalition, led by Go Italy, secured 368 seats in the Chamber of Deputies in the May 2001 parliamentary elections, to the Olive Tree coalition's 242 seats. (The House of Liberties coalition also won a majority in the Senate.) After becoming Italy's 59th postwar prime minister, Berlusconi faced long-standing charges of criminal wrongdoing, including bribery; he became the first sitting Italian prime minister to appear at his own trial. It was not until December 2004 that Berlusconi was cleared of all charges.

Italy offered the use of its airspace and military bases to the US-led coalition in its war with Iraq, which began on 19 March 2003, although Italy did not send troops to the region and did not allow coalition forces to launch a direct attack on Iraq from Italy. Some 75% of Italians opposed the use of military force against the Saddam Hussein regime, but Berlusconi adopted a position of solidarity with the US-led coalition.

GOVERNMENT

In a plebiscite on 2 June 1946, the Italian people voted (12,700,000 to 10,700,000) to end the constitutional monarchy, which had existed since 1861, and establish a republic. At the same time, a constituent assembly was elected, which proceeded to draft and approve a new constitution; it came into force on 2 January 1948. Under this constitution, as amended, the head of the Italian Republic is the president, who is elected for a seven-year term by an electoral college consisting of both houses of parliament and 58 regional representatives. Elections for a new president must be held 30 days before the end of the presidential term. Presidential powers and duties include nomination of the prime minister (referred to as president of the Council of Ministers) who, in turn, chooses a Council of Ministers (cabinet) with the approval of the president; the power to dissolve parliament, except during the last six months of the presidential term of office; representation of the state on important occasions; ratification of treaties after parliamentary authorization; and the power to grant pardons and commute penalties. Although the constitution limits presidential powers, a strong president can play an important political as well as ceremonial role.

Legislative power is vested in the bicameral parliament, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Members of the 630-seat lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, must be at least 25 years old and are elected for five-year terms. The 315 elective members of the Senate must be at least 40 years old and are elected for five-year terms. Former presidents of the republic are automatically life senators, and the president may also appoint as life senators persons who have performed meritorious service. Citizens must be at least 25 years of age to vote for senators; otherwise, those over the age of 18 may vote in all other elections.

In August 1993, Italy made significant changes in its electoral system. Three-fourths of the seats in both the Chamber and the Senate would be filled by simple majority voting. The remainder would be allocated by proportional representation to those parties securing at least 4% of the vote. The first elections under the new system in March 1994 resulted in a simplification of electoral alliances and brought a center-right government to power. Silvio Berlusconi, founder of the "Go Italy" (Forza Italia) movement, emerged as prime minister.

The constitution gives the people the right to hold referenda to abrogate laws passed by the parliament; a referendum requires at least 500,000 signatures. Four referenda had been held by 1987 (against the legalization of divorce in 1974, against increased police powers and state financing of the political parties in 1978, and against government cuts in wage indexation in 1985), and in all of them, the voters approved the parliamentary decisions.

In May 1999, Carlo Azeglio Ciampi was elected by the parliament as president of the Republic of Italy.

On 21 May 2000, Italian voters were asked to decide on electoral reform by increasing the number of lower house seats filled on the basis of a nonproportional system to 100%, effectively scrapping the last remaining element of pure proportional representation. The referendum needed to secure a quorum of 50% of the electorate to gain validity. The final turnout of 32% was much lower than expected and was an alarming sign of voter fatigue and popular disaffection.

On 13 May 2001, Silvio Berlusconi was again elected as head of state, this time as the leader of the five-party "Freedom House" political coalition of Forza Italia, the National Alliance, the Northern League, the Christian Democratic Center, and the United Christian Democrats. Although this coalition government was the longest running in Italy's postwar history, after a low showing in regional elections, Berlusconi was forced to resign and form a new government in April 2005. Italy's 60th government since liberation was formed on 23 April 2005.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Italy has a complex system of political alignments in which the parties, their congresses, and their leaders often appear to wield more power than parliament or the other constitutional branches of government.

Basic party policy is decided at the party congresses—generally held every second year—which are attended by locally elected party leaders. At the same time, the national party leadership is selected.

The most important political party traditionally had been the Christian Democratic Party (Partito Democrazia Cristiana—DC), which stood about midway in the political spectrum. In the 1983 national elections, the DC commanded 32.9% of the vote and won 225 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, down from 38.3% and 262 seats in 1979; in 1987, however, its electoral strength increased again, to 34.3% and 234 seats. From 1948 until 1981, the prime minister of Italy was consistently drawn from the ranks of the DC, whose religious and anti-class base constitutes both its strength and its weakness. Its relationship with the Church gave it added strength but also opened it to criticism, as did its popular association with the Mafia. In 1992, massive investigations uncovered widespread corruption, leading to many arrests and resignations of senior government officials. As a result of these scandals and corruption charges, the DC disbanded in 1994.

To the right and the left of the DC stood a wide range of parties, the most prominent of which was the Italian Communist Party (Partito Comunista Italiano—PCI), the largest Communist party in Western Europe at the time. The PCI had been second in power and influence only to the DC, but in the 1980s, its electoral base declined, despite the fact that it effectively severed its ties with both the former USSR and Marxism-Leninism.

Of all the parties of the mid to late 20th century, the most powerful were, in addition to the DC and PCI, were Italian Socialist Party (Partito Socialista Italiano—PSI), the Italian Socialist Democratic Party (Partito Socialista Democratico Italiano—PSDI), the Italiant Republican Party (Partito Repubblicano Italiano—PRI), the Italian Liberal Party (Partito Liberale Italiano—PLI), the Radical Party (Partito Radicale), the Italian Social Movement, (Movimento Sociale Italiano—MSI), the Proletarian Democracy (Democrazia Proletaria—DP), and the enviornmentalist Greens party. However, the 1990s saw the demise, creation, and restructuring of many Italian political parties. As of 2005, only the PRI and the Greens parties exist. Partly due to the end of the Cold War, in part due to the Mafia crackdown in the 1990s, and primarily due to the related corruption scandals that involved most of the major parties, the overhaul of the political party system was so significant that, although there has been little actual constitutional change, the post-1992 period is often referred to as the "Second Republic."

With the rise in political parties, government functioning was dominated by coalition party formations. The April 1996 election saw a resurgence of the left as the Olive Tree coalition, anchored by former communists calling themselves the Party of the Democratic Left (PDS), gained 284 seats in the 630-seat Chamber of Deputies and 157 seats in the 315-seat Senate. The Refounded Communists won 35 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, the separatist Northern League 59, the center-right Freedom Alliance 246, and others 6. The elections of April 1992 failed to resolve Italy's political and economic problems. The election of March 1994 under new voting rules resulted in the following distribution of seats in the Chamber (lower house): Alliance for Freedom, 42.9% (Forza Italia, Northern League, National Alliance—366 seats); Progressive Alliance, 32.2% (Democratic Party of the Left, Communist Refounding, Democratic Alliance, Greens, Reformers—213 seats); and Pact for Italy, 15.7% (Popular Party, others—46 seats).

The domination of the center-left came to an end in the May 2001 election when Berlusconi's right-leaning coalition, Freedom House (formerly the House of Liberties), was comprised of his Forza Italia (Go Italy) party; the National Alliance, Northern League, Christian-Democratic Center Party; United Christian Democrats; and the New Italian Socialist Party. This coalition won 368 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and 177 in the Senate. The Olive Tree coalition—composed of the Democrats of the Left, the Daisy Alliance (including the Italian Popular Party, Italian Renewal, Union of Democrats for Europe, and the Democrats), the Sunflower Alliance (including the Greens and the Italian Democratic Socialists), and the Italian Communist Party—came in second with 242 seats in the lower house (128 in the Senate). The Communist Refounding took 11 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and the Olive-Southern Tyrols People's Party of German speakers secured 5 seats in the lower house.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Under the terms of the 1948 constitution, Italy is divided into 20 regions. Five of these regions (Sicily, Sardinia, Trentino–Alto Adige, Friuli–Venezia Giulia, and the Valle d'Aosta) have been granted semiautonomous status, although the powers of self-government delegated from Rome have not been sufficient to satisfy the militant separatists, especially in Alto Adige. Legislation passed in 1968 granted the remaining 15 regions an even more limited degree of autonomy. All the regions elect a regional council. The councils and president are elected by universal franchise under a proportional system analogous to that of the parliament at Rome.

The regions are subdivided into a total of 94 provinces, which elect their own council and president, and each region is in turn subdivided into communes—townships, cities, and towns—that constitute the basic units of local administration. Communes are governed by councils elected by universal suffrage for a four-year term. The council elects a mayor and a board of aldermen to administer the commune. A commissioner in each region represents the federal government.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

Minor legal matters may be brought before conciliators, while civil cases and lesser criminal cases are tried before judges called pretori. There are 159 tribunals, each with jurisdiction over its own district; 90 assize courts, where cases are heard by juries; and 26 assize courts of appeal. The Court of Cassation in Rome acts as the last instance of appeal in all cases except those involving constitutional matters, which are brought before the special Constitutional Court (consisting of 15 judges). For many years, the number of civil and criminal cases has been increasing more rapidly than the judicial resources to deal with them.

The Italian legal system is based on Roman law, although much is also derived from the French Napoleonic model. The law assuring criminal defendants a fair and public trial is largely observed in practice. The 1989 amendments to the criminal procedure law both streamlined the process and provide for a more adversarial (as opposed to inquisitorial) system along the American model.

By law the judiciary is autonomous and independent of the executive branch. In practice, there has been a perception that magistrates were subject to political pressures and that political bias of individual magistrates could affect outcomes. Since the start of "clean hands" investigations of the government, including the judiciary, in 1992 for kickbacks and corruption, magistrates have taken steps to distance themselves from political parties and other pressure groups.

ARMED FORCES

Since 1949 Italy, as a member of NATO, has maintained large and balanced modern forces. The total strength in 2005 was 191,875 active personnel, with reserves numbering 56,500. Army personnel numbered 112,000, and whose equipment included 320 main battle tanks, 300 reconnaissance vehicles, 122 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 2,036 armored personnel carriers, 14 amphibious assault vehicles, and 1,562 artillery pieces. Navy personnel in 2005 totaled 33,100, including 2,000 Marines. Major Italian naval vessels included 1 aircraft carrier, 2 destroyers, 12 frigates, 8 corvettes, 14 patrol/coastal vessels, 13 mine warfare ships, 3 amphibious ships, and 94 logistics/support vessels. The navy also operated six tactical submarines. The air force had a total strength of 44,743 personnel with 199 combat capable aircraft, in addition to various electronic warfare, antiair defense, transport and training aircraft. In 2005, Italy also had a paramilitary force of 254,300 active personnel, of which 111,367 were Carabinieri. Italian armed forces were deployed among 19 countries or regions in various peacekeeping, training or active military missions. Italy's military budget for 2005 was $17.2 billion.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Italy has been a member of the United Nations since 14 December 1955 and participates in the ECE and several UN nonregional specialized agencies, such as FAO, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNHCR, IFC, WHO, and the World Bank. It is a member of the Council of Europe, the European Union, NATO, and the OECD. Italy held the EU presidency from July to December 2003. Italy also participates in the Asian, African, Caribbean, European, and the Inter-American development banks, and is a part of G-7, G-8, and G-10. The country holds observer status in the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Zone, the OAS, and the Latin American Integration Association (LAIA).

Italy is a guest in the Nonaligned Movement. The country has supplied troops for UN operations and missions in Kosovo (est. 1999), Lebanon (est. 1978), India and Pakistan (est. 1949), and Ethiopia and Eritrea (est. 2000), among others. Italy belongs to the Australia Group, the Zangger Committee, the Nuclear Suppliers Group (London Group), the Nuclear Energy Agency, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, and the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).

In environmental cooperation, Italy is part of the Antarctic Treaty; the Basel Convention; Conventions on Biological Diversity, Whaling, and Air Pollution; Ramsar; CITES; the London Convention; International Tropical Timber Agreements; the Kyoto Protocol; the Montréal Protocol; MARPOL; the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty; and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change and Desertification.

ECONOMY

As the Italian economy, the world's sixth-largest, has expanded since the 1950s, its structure has changed markedly. Agriculture, which in 1953 contributed 25% of the GNP and employed 35% of the labor force, contributed in 1968 only 11% of the GNP and employed only 22% of the active labor force—despite continued increases in the value of agricultural production. Agriculture's contribution to the GDP further declined to 8.4% in 1974, 5% in 2001, and 2.3% in 2004. Conversely, the importance of industry has increased dramatically. Industrial output almost tripled between 1953 and 1968 and generally showed steady growth during the 1970s; in 2004, industry (including fuel, power, and construction) contributed 28.8% to the GDP. Precision machinery and motor vehicles have led the growth in manufacturing, and Italy has generally been a leader in European industrial design and fashion. Services in 2004 accounted for 68.9% of the economy. However, apart from tourism and design, Italy is not internationally competitive in most service sectors.

Despite this economic achievement, a number of basic problems remain. Natural resources are limited, landholdings often are poor and invariably too small, industrial enterprises are of minimal size and productivity, and industrial growth has not been translated into general prosperity. The rise in petroleum prices during the mid-1970s found Italy especially vulnerable, since the country is almost totally dependent on energy imports. In addition, because economic activity is centered predominately in the north, Italians living in the northern part of the country enjoy a substantially higher standard of living than those living in the south.

Partly because of increased energy costs, inflation increased from an annual rate of about 5% in the early 1970s to an annual average of 16.6% during 1975–81, well above the OECD average. Inflation was brought down to 14.6% in 1983 and to between 4 and 6% during most of the 1990s. In 1997 it was reduced to under 2%, its lowest level in 30 years. The inflation rate was estimated at 2.3% in 2004.

From 1981 through 1983, Italy endured a period of recession, with rising budget deficits, interest rates above 20%, virtually no real GDP growth, and an unemployment rate approaching 10%. Unemployment hovered around the 10 to 12% range for most of the 1990s and at 9% into the 2000s. Between 1985 and 1995, GDP growth averaged 1.9% a year. It was quite low in 2003, at 0.7%. The GDP growth rate stood at an estimated 1.3% in 2004, and was flat in 2005. Economic growth was expected to pick up to a still disappointing 1–1.2% in 2006–07.

Italy's large public debt, public sector deficit, low productivity growth, and burdensome and complex tax system, are generally blamed for the poor state of the economy. A rigid labor market and generous pension system are also seen as responsible for a sluggish economy. The Silvio Berlusconi administration by 2002 had abolished an inheritance tax, a move which was popular among affluent Italians. The 2005 budget included substantial tax cuts and a reduction in the number of tax rates from five to four. The corporate tax rate was reduced from 36% to 33% in 2004. Berlusconi also attempted to loosen labor laws to increase temporary work contracts and to ease hiring and firing practices. The government in the early 2000s was geared toward implementing spending cuts to spur consumer spending and corporate research and development. Pension reform, called a "financial time bomb" by economists, was proposed by the government and resulted in strikes in parts of Italy in mid-2003. Italy spends a massive 14% of GDP on pensions. In 2004, Italy raised the minimum age for state pensions from 57 to 60, but only beginning in 2008.

One of Italy's strengths is the thriving state of its small firms, which are often family owned. In 2003, the average number of workers per enterprise was just over four, the second-lowest figure in the EU. These small businesses are able to succeed in niche markets. However, the high proportion of small businesses has meant that Italy spends less on research and development than other European countries: in 2003, Italian spending on R&D as a share of GDP was barely half of the EU average. This causes Italy to experience a loss of competitiveness, and sluggish growth. In 2004, the economy grew by less than the euro-area average for the eighth time in nine years. Many Italian firms are still in traditional manufacturing areas that should have been abandoned when competition from Southeast Asia and China grew in the 1990s.

Italians spend more than other Europeans on clothes and shoes, and are second only to Spaniards in spending in bars, restaurants, and hotels. Because many Italians rent their living spaces, expenditure on housing is low.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Italy's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $1.6 trillion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $28,300. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 0%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 1.9%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 2.1% of GDP, industry 28.8%, and services 69.1%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $2.137 billion or about $37 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.1% of GDP.

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Italy totaled $887.34 billion or about $15,405 per capita based on a GDP of $1.5 trillion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 1.6%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 23% of household consumption was spent on food, 12% on fuel, 3% on health care, and 17% on education.

LABOR

Italy's labor force in 2005 was estimated at 24.49 million. In 2003 the occupational breakdown had 4.9% in agriculture, 32.2% in industry, 62.8% in the services sector, and 0.1% in undefined occupations. The estimated unemployment rate in 2005 was 7.9%.

The law provides the right to form and join unions, and many workers exercise this right. According to union claims, between 35% and 40% of the nation's workforce was unionized as of 2005. About 35% of the labor force was covered by collective bargaining agreements, which also included nonunion employees. The right to strike is constitutionally protected, and workers engage in collective bargaining. Employers may not discriminate against those engaged in union activity.

As of 2005, the legal workweek was set at 40 hours, with overtime not to exceed two hours per day or an average of 12 hours per week. However, in the industrial sector, maximum overtime was set at no more than 80 hours per quarter and 250 hours annually, unless limited by a collective bargaining agreement. Minimum wages in Italy are not set by law, but through collective labor contracts, which establish wages and salaries in every major field. In most industries these minimum rates offered a worker and family a decent standard of living. Labor contracts may also call for additional compulsory bonuses, and basic wages and salaries are adjusted quarterly to compensate for increases in the cost of living. With some limited exceptions, children under age 15 are prohibited by law from employment.

AGRICULTURE

Of Italy's total land area of 29.4 million hectares (72.6 million acres), 10.7 million hectares (26.4 million acres), or 36.4% of the land, were under annual or permanent crops in 2003. Small, individually owned farms predominate, with the majority three hectares (7.4 acres) or less. In 2001, about 5% (1.4 million persons) of the economically active population was in the agricultural sector.

Despite government efforts, the agricultural sector has shown little growth in recent decades. The imports of agricultural products increased from $19.6 billion in 1987 to $31.6 billion in 2004. Italy has to import about half of its meat. The land is well suited for raising fruits and vegetables, both early and late crops, and these are the principal agricultural exports. Although yields per hectare in sugar beets, tomatoes, and other vegetable crops have increased significantly, both plantings and production of wheat declined between 1974 and 1981. Thus, although Italy remains a major cereal-producing country, wheat must be imported. The government controls the supply of domestic wheat and the import of foreign wheat.

Production of major agricultural products in 2004 (in thousands of tons) included sugar beets, 10,100; wheat, 8,628; corn, 10,983; tomatoes, 7,497; oranges, 2,064; potatoes, 1,809; apples, 2,069; barley, 1,167; and rice, 1,496. In 2004, Italy produced 8,692,000 tons of grapes, and 4,531,000 tons of olives, and 879,000 tons of olive oil. In 2003, Italy had 1,680,000 tractors (third in the world) and 37,500 harvester-threshers.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Some 4,377,000 hectares (10,816,000 acres) are meadows and pastures. Both a growing need for fodder and insufficient domestic production compel Italy to import large amounts of corn. In 2005, the country had 6,314,000 head of cattle, 9,272,000 hogs, 8,020,000 sheep, 1,985,000 goats, 300,000 horses, and an estimated 100 million chickens. That year, total meat production from hogs, cattle, sheep, and goats was 4,099,000 tons. Of the meat produced, 38% was pork, 29% was beef, 24% was poultry, 2% was mutton, and 7% was from other sources. Meat production falls short of domestic requirements, and about half of all meat consumed must be imported. Although Italy produced 10.5 million tons of cow milk in 2005, dairy farming remains comparatively undeveloped. Both dairy and beef cattle are raised mainly in the north. The value of animal output in 2003 exceeded €14.3 billion, third highest in the EU after France and Germany.

FISHING

Italy's geography provides abundant access to marine fishing. Peninsular Italy and the islands of Sicily and Sardinia together have over 8,000 km (4,900 mi) of coastline and over 800 landing ports equipped for fishing boats. There are also 1,500 sq km (580 sq mi) of lagoons and 1,700 sq km (650 sq mi) of marine ponds. Although coastal and deep-sea fishing in the Mediterranean engage over 50,000 fishermen, the fishing industry is unable to meet domestic needs. As of 2003 there were 15,915 Italian fishing vessels with a fishing capacity (gross tonnage) of 178,334 tons. Since the extension of the 200-mile limit zones and the consequent drop in the total catch, Italy's fishing industry has declined because their deep-sea vessels were not suited to Mediterranean fishing. Also, about 1,700 vessels (10% of the fleet) went out of service during 2000–02 as a result of EU-funded policies for the reduction of fishing in the Mediterranean. The total catch in 2003 was 314,807 tons, 98% from marine fishing, with a value of about €1.4 billion. Anchovies, sardines, hake, mullets, and swordfish together accounted for 44% of the volume in 2003. In 2003, Italy produced 89,000 tons of canned tuna and 20,000 tons of canned anchovies. The majority of the Italian fish harvest (up to 50%) is not officially recorded but sold directly to restaurants, wholesalers, and fish-mongers. Anchovy, rainbow trout, sardine, and European hake are the main finfish species caught. Sponges and coral are also commercially important. The main commercial fishing ports are Mazara del Vallo, Palermo, San Benedetto del Tronto, Chioggia-Venezia, and Genoa.

There are over a thousand intensive production fish farms that belong to the Italian Fish Farming Association, with 60% located in northern Italy. Total Italian aquaculture production in 2003 was 244,000 tons, valued at €250 million.

FORESTRY

The major portion of the 10 million hectares (24.7 million acres) of forest is in the Alpine areas of northern Italy; few extensive forests grow in central or southern Italy or on the islands. Italy has more softwood than hardwood growth and extensive coppice (thicket and small shrub) stands. The overall forest structure consists of 42% coppice stands, 26% softwoods, and 25% hardwood high stands. The only species that are commercially important are chestnut, beech, oak, and poplar. Chestnut and beech stands account for 31% of the hardwood forest and for over 40% of Italian wood production; oak comprises 8% of wood production. Poplar is the only species grown using managed forestry practices. Poplar plantations account for only 1% of the total forest area but for 50% of domestic wood output. Forest resources are stable and meet about 19% of annual demand. Italian wood output in 2003 consisted of 9 million cu m (318 million cu ft). Approximately 90% of Italian forest product exports consist of wooden furniture, semifinished wood products, and other finished wood products. The Italian furniture industry accounted for 37,987 firms with 229,054 employees in 2002, with an industry turnover of almost €22.8 billion. The diversity in species composition, ownership patterns, topographic constraints, and conflicting resource management strategies have all contributed to limiting the productivity of Italian forest resources. Italy is a major importer of hardwood and softwood lumber, since its rugged terrain and disjointed forestland restrict domestic production. In 2002, the Italian wood and wood product sectors employed 412,815 workers in 87,906 companies with a total turnover of about $36 billion. Some 80% of the raw materials used for manufacturing furnished wooden products are imported. Imports of forest products in 2004 were valued at $9.5 billion, while exports totaled $4.3 billion.

MINING

Although Italy was relatively poor in mineral resources, it was, nevertheless, a major producer of feldspar, pumice and related materials, as well as of crude steel, cement (second-largest in the EU), and a leading producer of dimension stone and marble. The country also continued to supply a significant portion of its own need for some minerals. Industrial mineral production in 2003, including construction materials, was the most important sector of the economy. Italy has been a significant processor of imported raw materials, and a significant consumer and exporter of mineral and metal semi-manufactured and finished products.

Production totals for the leading minerals in 2003 were: feldspar, estimated at 2,500 metric tons; barite, estimated at 30,000 metric tons, unchanged from 1999; fluorspar (acid-grade and metallurgical-grade), estimated at 45,000 tons; hydraulic cement, estimated at 40 million tons; pumice and pumiceous lapilli, estimated at 600,000 tons (from Lipari Island, off the northern coast of Sicily); and pozzolan, estimated at 4 million tons (from Lipari). Alumina production (calcined basis) in 2003 was estimated at 925,000 metric tons. In addition, Italy produced antimony oxides, gold (from Sardinia), mine lead, mine manganese, bromine, crude clays (including bentonite, refractory, fuller's earth, kaolin, and kaolinitic earth), diatomite, gypsum, lime, nitrogen, perlite, mineral pigments, salt (marine, rock, and brine), sand and gravel (including volcanic and silica sands), soda ash, sodium sulfate, stone (alabaster, dolomite, granite, limestone, marble, marl, quartz, quartzite, sandstone, serpentine, and slate), sulfur, and talc and related materials.

Marble and travertine quarrying from the famous mines in the Massa and Carrara areas was still significant. Marble was quarried at hundreds of locations from the Alps to Sicily. The most important white-marble-producing area was in the Apuan Alps, near Carrara, and accounted for one-third of the country's 100,000 tons of white marble. Important colored-marble-producing areas included the Lazio region, Lombardy, the Po Valley, Puglia, Sicily, Venice, and Verona-Vincenza. Reserves of several types were considered to be unlimited; half of the country's output was in block form and half was exported.

ENERGY AND POWER

Italy's proven oil and natural gas reserves are each the fourth-largest in the European Union (EU). The country has completely stopped the production of coal. Still, Italy must rely heavily on foreign sources to meet its energy needs.

According to the Oil and Gas Journal, Italy has proven oil reserves estimated at 622 million barrels, as of 1 January 2005. Estimated production in 2004 averaged 147,000 barrels daily, of which crude oil accounted for 104,000 barrels per day, of which about 89% was accounted for by the National Hydrocarbon Agency (Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi), or ENI, Italy's largest oil and natural gas company of which the Italian government holds a controlling 35% stake. However, domestic demand far outstrips production, with consumption in 2004 estimated at 1.90 million barrels per day. Net imports for that year are estimated at 1.75 million barrels per day. In 2004, the former Soviet Union was Italy's largest supplier at 28%, followed by Libya (24%), Saudi Arabia (13%), and Iran (10%).

More than 70% of ENI's production comes from the Val d'Agri project in the south of Italy, the Villafortuna project in the north, and from the Aquila project off the Adriatic coast in the southeast. Development of the Tempa Rossa field, with an estimated 200 million barrels of oil, is being led by France's Total, and is expected to enter production by 2007 with a peak output of 50,000 barrels per day.

Oil has been partly replaced by natural gas, whose consumption is expected to continue rising in the future, driven largely by the construction of combined-cycle, gas-fired turbines. Italy has proven natural gas reserves of 8.0 trillion cu ft, as of 1 January 2005, according to the Oil and Gas Journal. Natural gas production in 2004, according to Eurostat totaled 440 billion cu ft. Combined with declining field output, Italy's reliance on natural gas imports has increased. In 2004, imported natural gas accounted 84% of the country's demand vs. 59% in 1985, according to Eurostat. Algeria (38%), Russia (32%), and the Netherlands (14%) were Italy's largest natural gas suppliers in 2004.

In 2001, Italy completely closed down its domestic coal production industry, when it shuttered its last production facility. In 2002, coal met only 6.8% of Italy's energy needs. In that year, demand for coal amounted to 21.8 million short tons, of which most was used to provide electricity. In the first half of 2004, South Africa supplied 26% of the coal consumed by Italy, followed by Colombia (12%) and the United States (11%).

Italy's total electric generating capacity was estimated at 69.1 GW in 2002, with thermal accounting for 78% of capacity, hydropower at 19% and other renewable sources at 3%. In 2002, it was estimated that output totaled 262 billion kWh, with consumption totaling an estimated 294 billion kWh, and net imports totaling an estimated 32 billion kWh.

INDUSTRY

Characterized both by a few large industrial concerns controlling the greater part of industrial output and by thousands of small shops engaged in artisan-type production, Italian industry expanded rapidly in the postwar period. Industrial production almost tripled between 1955 and 1968 and has generally showed continued growth, although the global recession that began in 2001 slowed industrial production and the economy as a whole. The lack of domestic raw materials and fuels represents a serious drag on industrial expansion. Industry accounted for 28.8% of GDP in 2004, and employed 32% of the labor force. Manufacturing accounts for approximately 90% of total merchandise exports.

Three state-holding companies have played a large role in industry: ENI (National Hydrocarbon Agency), IRI (Industrial Reconstruction Institute), and EFIM (Agency for Participation and Financing of Manufacturing Industry). IRI was the 16th-largest industrial company in the world in 1993, with sales of $50.5 billion; it had shareholdings in over 100 companies (including banks, electronics, engineering, and shipbuilding) and 333,600 employees in 1992. EFIM controlled armaments and metallurgy industries. Debt-ridden EFIM was liquidated, IRI became dismantled through sell-offs, and as of 2005, the state had reduced its stake in ENI and Enel (Ente Nazionale per l'Energia Elettrica), the national electricity company. Major private companies are the Fiat automobile company; the Olivetti company (office computers and telecommunications); the Montedison chemical firm; and the Pirelli rubber company. The bulk of heavy industry is concentrated in the northwest, in the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle. The government has made concerted efforts to attract industry to the underdeveloped southeast.

With the drive toward greater European integration in full gear, Italy, along with its fellow EU member-states, is liberalizing its economic and commercial legislation. These promise a marked change in the Italian business scene as mergers and foreign investment increase. In early 1999, Olivetti mounted a successful hostile takeover for Telecom Italia.

Italy has become known for niche products, including fashion eye-wear, specialized machine tools, packaging, stylish furniture, kitchen equipment, and other products featuring high design. The "made in Italy" stamp is associated with quality and style. Traditional industries are iron and steel, machinery, chemicals, food processing (including olive oil, wine, and cheese), textiles, clothing, footwear, motor vehicles, and ceramics. The construction industry stands to gain in importance in the early 2000s, as Italy's less-developed regions are slated for infrastructure development.

Foreign competition has cut into the Italian textile industry. Following the expiration of the World Trade Organization's longstanding system of textile quotas at the beginning of 2005, the EU signed an agreement with China in June 2005, imposing new quotas on 10 categories of textile goods, limiting growth in those categories to between 8% and 12.5% a year. The agreement runs until 2007, and was designed to give European textile manufacturers time to adjust to a world of unfettered competition. Nevertheless, barely a month after the EU-China agreement was signed, China reached its quotas for sweaters, followed soon after by blouses, bras, T-shirts, and flax yarn. Tens of millions of garments piled up in warehouses and customs checkpoints, which affected both retailers and consumers.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The still-standing aqueducts, bathhouses, and other public works of both ancient republic and empire testify to the engineering and architectural skills of the Romans. The rebirth of science during the Renaissance brought the daring speculations of Leonardo da Vinci (including discoveries in anatomy, meteorology, geology, and hydrology, as well as a series of fascinating though ultimately impractical designs for a "flying machine"), advances in physics and astronomy by Galileo Galilei, and the development of the barometer by Evangelista Torricelli. To later Italian scientists and inventors the world owes the electric battery (1800), the electroplating process (1805), and the radiotelegraph (1895).

In 2001, Italy had 1,156 scientists and engineers per million people engaged in research and development (R&D). In that same year, expenditures on R&D totaled $16.7 trillion or 1.11% of GDP. High technology exports in 2002 totaled $19.730 billion, or 9% of the country's manufactured exports.

The National Research Council (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche—CNR), founded in 1923, is the country's principal research organization. CNR institutes and associated private and university research centers conduct scientific work in mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, technology, engineering, medicine, biology, and agriculture. Especially noteworthy are the National Institute of Nuclear Physics, in Rome, and the Enrico Fermi Center for Nuclear Studies, in Milan.

Italy has 47 universities offering courses in basic and applied sciences. The Instituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza di Firenzo, founded in 1930, is located in Florence. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 30% of university enrollment. In 2002, of all bachelor's degrees awarded, 25.8% were in the sciences (natural, mathematics and computers, and engineering)

DOMESTIC TRADE

Milan is the principal commercial center, followed by Turin, Genoa, Naples, and Rome. Genoa, the chief port of entry for Milan and Turin, handles about one-third of Italy's trade; Naples is the principal entrepôt for central and southern Italy. Adriatic as well as Middle Eastern trade is carried through Ancona, Bari, and Brindisi. Although small retail units predominate, department stores and supermarkets are playing an increasingly important role. In 2000, Italy ranked second in Europe in franchise business operations with about 562 companies and over 31,400 franchises.

Advertising in all forms is well developed, and the usual mass media (billboards, neon signs, newspapers and magazines, radio, cinema, and television) are used extensively. Market research is handled by over 100 firms.

Usual business hours in northern Italy are from 8:30 am until 12:30 pm and from 3:30 to 6:30 pm. In central and southern Italy, customary hours are 8:30 am to 12:45 pm and 4:30 or 5 to 7:30 or 8 pm. Most firms are closed in August. In general, banking hours are 8:30 am to 1:30 pm and 3 pm to 4 pm, Monday through Friday. Retail establishments are generally closed on Sundays.

FOREIGN TRADE

Industrial products, textiles and apparel, shoes, and foodstuffs are Italy's most important exports. However, the textile industry has been hit hard by foreign competition in recent years, especially from China. Fuels, meat, grain products, and various raw materials are among the major imports. Trade deficits were substantial between the end of World War II and 1955, but between 1956 and 1968 the deficit gradually declined, and Italy's trade balance continued in relative equilibrium through 1972. Then, as prices of crude oil and other raw-material imports rose, Italy again began registering growing trade deficits. In 1993, however, a large surplus was recorded because of an export boom that followed the devaluation of the lira in September 1992, and Italy has had a trade surplus ever since. In 2004, the value of exports of goods was $352.2 billion, and imports were $341.3 billion, resulting in a trade surplus of $10.9 billion.

The bulk of manufactured imports come from EU countries and the United States, which are also the leading customers for Italian exports. The big commodity exports from Italy in 2004 included industrial and automobile machinery and parts (40.3%), textiles, clothing, and leather (13.5%), chemicals (9.6%), and metal products (9.5%). The major imports included machinery and transportation equipment (34.5%), chemicals (13.4%), energy minerals (10.3%), and metals and metal products (10.3%). Italy's leading markets in 2004 were Germany (14.1% of all exports), France (12.5%), the United States (8.3%), and the United Kingdom (7.1%). Italy's leading suppliers in 2004 were Germany (18.1% of all imports), France (11.4%), the Netherlands (5.8%), and the United Kingdom (4.8%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Italy did not have serious balance of payments problems after the mid-1970s. Exports soared after 1992, turning Italy's balance of payments positive. The growth in exports was extremely strong in the northeast, where small and medium-sized companies produce high-quality and low-cost products—ranging from industrial machinery to ski boots—for French, German, Japanese, and Indian customers.

Italy had current account surpluses from 1993 to 1999, but in 2000 the country registered a $5.6 billion deficit, after an $8.2 billion surplus in 1999. Italy experienced weak economic growth in the period 2001–05. In 2004, the current account balance showed a deficit estimated at $15.1 billion (0.9% of GDP).

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Banca d'Italia, the central bank, was the sole bank of issue and exercised credit control functions until Italy's accession to the European Central Bank, which now controls monetary policy and the euro, the EU's common currency (excepting the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Sweden). La Banca d'Italia is still responsible for controlling domestic inflation and balance of payments pressures.

In March 1979, Italy became a founder member of the European Monetary System (EMS) and its Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). During the first 10 years of its membership, the lira was allowed to diverge by up to 6% against other member currencies before action had to be taken, compared with 2.25% for other ERM currencies. Uncertainty about Italy's ability to meet the convergence targets of the 1992 Treaty for European Union (Merastricht) for inflation, interest rates, and participation to stabilize the rate, the lira was withdrawn from the ERM in September 1992, after which the lira declined to just under DM1:L1,000. At the beginning of 1996 it began to appreciate again, and immediately after the April election it rose to L1,021:DM1. The introduction of the euro in 2002, however, made all that irrelevant.

In 2002, five banks are of nationwide standing: Intesa-Bci, San Paolo-IMI, the Banca di Roma, Unicredito Italiano, and the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro. There are many major international banks with branches in Italy. Among the more important are Chase, Citibank, Bank of America, HSBC, and others. The Istituto Mobiliare Italiano is the leading industrial credit institution; it also administers important government industrial investments. In 1987, the government privatized Mediobanca, another major industrial credit institution.

Two major banks, formally part of the Instituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (IRI) group, were privatized in 1993–94: Unicredito Italiano (CREDIT) and Banca Commerciale Italiana (COMIT). The privatization of another IRI bank specializing in medium- and long-term lending, the Instituto Mobiliare Italiano (IMI), was completed in 1996.

A new banking law was passed in 1993, to bring Italy into conformity with the EU's Second Banking directive, and to introduce two major innovations which aim to move Italy toward a model of universal banking. It allows banks to hold shares in industrial concerns; and it eliminates the distinction between banks (aziende di credito) and special credit institutions (aziende di credito speciale), thus allowing all banks to perform operations previously limited to specific types of intermediary.

On 30 January 1997, the government drafted legislation to promote restructuring and consolidation in Italy's largely inefficient and highly fragmented banking sector. The bill is the latest in a series of attempts since 1990 to rationalize the sector. However, it comes just as Italy's two biggest banks, CARIPLO and what is now San Paolo-IMI, announced plans to begin privatization by the end of 1997, and other banks in the private sector begin to negotiate strategic alliances, notably between: the private sector bank Ambroveneto and CARIPLO; Cassa di Resparmia di Torino and the Cassa di Risparmio di Verona. Mergers are also changing the face of the Italian banking industry. In early 1999, four of the five largest Italian banks were involved in such deals. Unicredito Italiano and Banca Commerciale Italiana merged to form Eurobanca, while San Paolo-IMI and Banca di Roma also planned to combine their operations. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $458.4 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $628.9 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 4.26%.

There are 10 stock exchanges in operation. The most important is that in Milan (established in 1808). The others, in order of importance, are Rome (1812), Turin (1850), Genoa (1855), Bologna (1861), Florence (1859), Naples (1813), Venice (1600), Trieste (1755), and Palermo (1876). Since 1974, the markets have been regulated by the National Commission for Companies and the Stock Exchange.

Radical reforms have been introduced in recent years in order to vitalize the stock market, which is greatly undercapitalized considering the size of the Italian economy. At the end of 1995, the capitalization of the Milan bourse was the equivalent of just 18% of GDP, compared with 32% in France and 122% in the United Kingdom. However, by 2002 market capitalization had increased to 41% of GDP.

In September 1991, stock market intermediation companies (SIM), a new form of stock broking and fund management firm, were introduced to accompany the shift from the open-outcry call auction system to a screen-based continuous auction market, which was completed in July 1994. In order to stimulate the demand for shares, in 1994 shareholders were given the option of paying a 12.5% flat tax rate instead of declaring dividends as part of taxable income. At the beginning of 1996, proposed Services Directive included the privatization of the stock market and the administrative bodies that run it as one of its main objectives.

Despite a certain amount of volatility, the Milan stock exchange index (MIB) has risen by 10.6% on 26 March 1997 since the end of 1996 and daily volume of transactions were up substantially. In early-mid-2000, the MIB index hovered between 31,700–31,800. However, since the onset of the global recession, the index has dropped significantly. From January 2002 to January 2003, the MIB dropped 4.4%, down to 16,208, slightly more than half of its peak value. In 2004, the MIB-30 Index rose 16.9% from the previous year to 31,220. On the Borsa Italiana, a total of 269 companies were listed as of 2004, which had a market capitalization of $789.563 billion.

INSURANCE

The insurance industry is government-supervised, and insurers must be authorized to do business. Automobile insurance was made compulsory in 1971, and coverage is also required for aircraft, powerboats, hunters, auditors, yachts, nuclear facilities, and insurance brokers. Among the most important nonlife insurance companies in Italy as of 2003 were Ras, Generali, Sai, and Assitalia. Leading life insurance companies as of 2003 included Alleanza, Creitras, Generali, and Sanpaolo. In 2003, the value of direct premiums written totaled $111.761 billion, with life premiums accounting for $71.694 billion. Italy's top nonlife insurer in 2003 was Fondiaria-SAI, with total written nonlife premiums (including personal accident and healthcare) of $4,272.6 million. In that same year, the country's leading life insurer was Creditras, with gross written life premiums of $5,977.6 million.

The insurance regulatory body is the Instituto per Viglanza sulle Assicurazioni Private di Interesse Collettivo (ISVAP-the Institute for Control of Private Insurance Companies). European Union reporting and other insurance directives are being implemented. A unique and helpful feature of Italian insurance company reports is the inclusion of financial statements of major subsidiary or affiliated companies.

The Italian insurance market was traditionally characterized by a relatively large number of insurers with no one organization dominating the industry, although there were some very large, old insurance organizations which date back to the early 19th century. There are a number of foreign insurance companies operating through subsidiaries in Italy: these are primarily French and German companies. Italy's market indicates moderately low penetration when compared to North America and Northern Europe, especially for life products. In recent years, the volume of life products has increased quite rapidly as the consumer has become aware that the Italian Social Security System benefits will have to be supplemented by individual savings and as insurance awareness has increased through advertising campaigns and the distribution of insurance products through the extensive branch banking system of the country. Foreign influence and industry consolidation in the Italian insurance industry is expected to rise due to the adoption of the euro and the emerging willingness of Italian companies to mount hostile takeover bids. Much of the new merger-mania expected to sweep Italian insurance is projected to come from the banking sector as banks continue to expand their interests in insurance sales.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Reflecting both increasing economic activity and the pressures of inflation, the Italian budget has expanded continually since 1950. The Italian economy has traditionally run a high government

debt, but in recent years it has been quelled somewhat, despite lackluster growth. In 1995, the debt stood at 124% of GDP, but declined to 110.6% in 2000 and 109.4% in 2001. At that point the Italian government still had a long way to go to get down to the EU-imposed debt-to-GDP ration of 60%. Since 1996, Italy has maintained a primary budget surplus, net of interest payments, and has reduced its deficit in public administration from 1.7% of GDP in 2000 to 1.4% in 2001. However, given the high national debt, the EU remains concerned about Italy's budgetary policies.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Italy's central government took in revenues of approximately $785.7 billion and had expenditures of $861.5 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$75.8 billion. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 107.3% of GDP. Total external debt was $1.682 trillion.

TAXATION

The Italian tax system is considered among the most complicated in the world. Since the late 1990s, the government has been using tax cuts to stimulate economic growth. On 1 January 1998 the government introduced the Dual Income Tax (DIT) system designed to encourage investment by taxing income deemed to be derived from the increase in equity capital in a company at a lower rate than the standard corporate income tax rate. In 2003, the corporate income tax rate (IRPEG), at 36% in 2002, was reduced to 34%. As of 2005, the standard corporate rate was 33%, excluding a 4.25% regional tax (IRAP) on productive activities. Capital gains realized by companies are taxable as business income under the IRPEG and IRAP, and capital losses are deductible. Dividends are taxed at 27% with complete withholding ("payment at the source" or PAYE). This rate may be reduced to 12.5% if residents can show that they had a "nonsubstantial participation" in the firm. A 0% rate applies to dividends paid to resident companies. The PAYE rate for dividends paid to branches of companies from other EU countries is 12.5%

The schedule of personal income tax rates was reformed in 2003 to reduce tax rates and to increase the amount covered by the lowest income band. As of 2005, the individual tax rate progressively increases to a top rate of 39%. However, a solidarity contribution of 4% pushes the top rate to 43%. On 25 October 2001 Italy's gift and inheritance taxes were abolished by the Parliament.

Italy's main indirect tax is its value-added tax (VAT) introduced on 1 January 1973 with a standard rate of 12%, replacing a turnover tax on goods and services. Since 10 January 1997 the standard rate has been at 20% and is applicable to most goods and services. A reduced rate of 10% is applied to some foodstuffs, certain fuel supplies, some transport and some housing, consumers, catering services and live animals. A 4% rate is applied to some foodstuffs, books, newspapers and periodicals, agricultural inputs, and medical equipment. Basic medical and dental services, as well as financial and insurance services are exempt from VAT. A 0% rate is applied to supplies of unwrought gold and ferrous and nonferrous metal scrap, and land not suitable for buildings. Other taxes on transactions include stamp taxes, and contract registration tax.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Italy's membership in the European Union has greatly influenced its tariff structure. Duties on imports from then-European Community members and their dependencies were gradually reduced following the Rome Pact in 1957 and disappeared by 1969, more than a year ahead of schedule. Duties on goods from Greece, which entered the European Community in 1981, were reduced gradually and eliminated by 1986. Italy's adjustment of its tariff structure to that of the now-European Union also has resulted in a substantial reduction of duties on products imported from areas other than the European Union, including the United States.

Import duties on manufactured goods from non-EU countries range from 5–8%, while raw materials enter mostly duty-free. Other import taxes include a value-added tax (VAT) that ranges from 0–20% depending on the product and excise taxes on alcoholic beverages, tobacco, sugar and petroleum products.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Because of a lack of domestic venture capital, the government encourages foreign industrial investment through tax concessions on a case-by-case basis. Foreign ownership, however, is limited by law and includes the following regulations: foreign investment can be limited for "reasons essential to the national economy." As a consequence, foreign investment in banks is limited to less than 5% of an institution's capital without government consent. Although privatization is encouraging foreign investment, defense industries remain off limits to non-Italians. However, the extent of the state's direct involvement in the economy has been greatly reduced by the privatization program carried out by successive governments since 1993, encouraged by EU restrictions on state aid to industry and the need to reduce public-sector debt. In an effort to increase confidence of foreign investors in Italy's economic development, the government has enacted legislation providing special incentives, particularly for investments in the south—Sicily, Sardinia, and the peninsula south of Rome. In recent years, and in accordance with EU liberalization, foreign restrictions on foreign investment in Italy have eased. The corporate tax rate was cut from 36% to 33% in 2004.

Annual foreign direct investment (FDI) into Italy was $2.6 billion in 1998, down from $3.7 billion in 1997. Total FDI stock in Italy in 1998 was about $103 billion. Annual FDI inflow jumped to almost $7 billion in 1999 and continued to increase for the next three years: to $13.4 billion in 2000, $14.9 billion in 2001, and $15.2 billion in 2002, an average of $13.7 billion a year. Total FDI stock in Italy reached about $140 billion by 2002. Italy has remained an underachiever, however, in the attraction of FDI. For the period 1988 to 1990, Italy's share of world FDI inflows was 60% of its share of world GDP. For the period 1998 to 2000, Italy's share of world inward FDI had dropped to only 20% of its share of world GDP. About 63% of inward stock in the 1990s had come from EU countries, up from 55% in the 1980s.

In the 1980s, outward FDI had about equaled inward FDI in Italy, but in the 1990s Italy became a net outward investor. From 1999 to 2002, average annual outward FDI from Italy was $18.4 billion. As of 2001, FDI stock held by Italians in foreign countries totaled about $236 billion. Roughly 60% of Italian holdings of outward stock in the 1990s were in EU countries, the same as in the 1980s.

From 2000–04, FDI inflows averaged 1.2% of GDP. In 2004, Italy jumped from 12th to 9th most attractive FDI destination in the world, driven primarily by increased confidence among US and Asian investors, according to the FDI Confidence Index. In 2004, intra-EU-25 FDI inflows to Italy amounted to €10.2 billion; extra-EU-25 inflows amounted to €1.9 billion. That year, outward Italian FDI flows to the EU-25 amounted to €14.2 billion; outward FDI flows from Italy to non-EU-25 countries amounted to €0.5 billion. In all, inward FDI in 2004 totaled $16.8 billion; outward FDI totaled $19.3 billion.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Under Mussolini, business and labor were grouped into corporations that, in theory at least, jointly determined economic policy. Also, under the Fascist regime, direct government control over the economy was increased through the creation of powerful economic bodies, such as the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction. Although the corporative system disappeared after the fall of Mussolini, the concept of economic planning remained firmly implanted among the large Marxist parties, as well as among Christian Democratic leaders, who—by different means and for different reasons—sought to create a society free from the class warfare associated with a strictly liberal economic system.

Principal government objectives following World War II were reconstruction of the economy; stabilization of the currency; and long-term, large-scale investment aimed at correcting the imbalance of the Italian economy and, in particular, the imbalance between northern and southern Italy. The first and second phases of this policy were accomplished by 1949. Then the government, supported by domestic financial and industrial groups and by foreign aid, principally from the United States, embarked on the third and most important phase, best known as the Vanoni Plan (after former finance minister Ezio Vanoni). Notable in this development effort was the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, a government agency set up to develop southern Italy and attract private investment to the region. Between 1951 and 1978, government spending on infrastructure in the south was $11.5 billion; additional low-cost loans totaled $13 billion, and outright grants amounted to $3.2 billion.

Simultaneously, direct government control of the economy increased through such government agencies as ENI (National Hydrocarbon Agency), whose activities expanded rapidly in the postwar era. The nationalization of the electric industry, in order to lay the industrial base for a more highly planned economy, and the creation of the National Economic Planning Board composed of leaders from government, industry, and labor were further indications of the importance attached to the concept of a planned Italian economy.

The combined effects of inflation, increased energy prices, and political instability posed serious economic problems during the 1970s. With Italy mired in recession in the early 1980s, economic policy was directed at reducing the public sector deficit, tightening controls on credit, and maintaining a stable exchange rate, chiefly through a variety of short-term constraints. A period of recovery began in 1983, leading to expanded output and lower inflation but also to expanded unemployment. The economic policy aims in 1987 included the reduction of the public-sector deficit and unemployment. Furthermore, improvement in the external sector (due mainly to the fall of oil prices and depreciation of the dollar) led to liberalization of the foreign exchange market in 1987.

Priorities of the early 1990s were cutting government spending, fighting tax evasion to reduce public debt, and selling off state-owned enterprises. At the end of the decade the results of these policies were mixed. Liberalization provided the impetus for greater foreign investment, while the funds generated from privatization eased the public debt. Italy qualified for the first round of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) and entered the euro zone in 1999. Tax evasion remains a problem; the underground economy is still estimated at nearly 25% of official GDP. Moreover, the economic disparities between the prosperous north and the impoverished south remain.

The strength of the economy rests on the back of small- and medium-sized family-owned companies, mostly in the north and center of the country. In 2005, the average Italian company employed 4 people, and industrial companies had an average of around 9 employees, compared with an average 15 employees in the EU. In mid-2000, Italy's largest state holding company, Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (IRI), was liquidated.

Italy's public debt in 2004 was estimated at 105.6% of GDP. The EU's mandated debt to GDP ratio is 60%. The budget deficit was forecast to rise from about 3% of GDP in 2004 to 4–4.5% in 2005–06, before falling to just under 4% in 2007. GDP growth remained flat in 2005, but was expected to pick up to a still disappointing 1–1.2% in 2006–07. Reform of the pension system continues to be a controversial policy issue. The focus of economic policy has been on cutting taxes, fighting unemployment, enhancing competitiveness, and reducing both the budget deficit and debt. However, the only areas in which the government had made limited progress by 2005 were in the labor market and the pension system. Balancing fiscal austerity and policies to promote growth pose a major economic policy challenge.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Social welfare legislation in Italy, begun in 1898, was redesigned by law in 1952 and has subsequently been expanded. All workers and their families are covered and receive old-age, disability, and survivor pensions, unemployment and injury benefits, health and maternity coverage. The system is primarily funded by employer contributions, along with employee payments and some government subsidies. Family allowances are paid for primarily by employer contributions, and are determined by the size and income of the family. Conditions for old age pensions have varying conditions. The first maternity coverage was initiated in 1912, and was most recently updated in 2001.

Despite full legal rights under law, women face some social discrimination in Italy. On average, women earn less than men and are underrepresented in management, the professions, and other areas. Sexual abuse and violence remain a problem, although when reported, the authorities prosecute perpetrators and assist victims. Increased public awareness of sexual harassment and violence increased the number of reported abuses in 2004. The government is committed to protecting and promoting children's rights.

Human rights are generally respected in Italy. Lengthy pretrial detentions still occur due to the slow pace of the judicial system, and occasional cases of the mistreatment of prisoners were reported. Discrimination based on race, sex, religion, ethnicity, disability, and language is prohibited by law.

HEALTH

A national health plan, begun in 1980, seeks to provide free health care for all citizens, but certain minimum charges remain. It is financed by contributions from salaries, by employers, and by the central government. Patients are still able to choose their own health care providers. Reform implementation in the 1980s and 1990s has been difficult. In 1994, the government announced plans to dismantle public universal insurance. Reforms in 1999 sought to integrate primary care with other health care programs, including home care, social services, and health education. Consistent health reforms are hampered by frequent political changes in administration. Most private hospitals have contracts with the national plan, but health care services are more highly concentrated in the northern regions of Italy. The shortage of medical personnel and hospital facilities in Italy's rural areas remains serious. Closure of a number of underutilized hospitals was planned and the government has been making efforts to curb the state deficit in health expenditures; budgets and estimates are repeatedly more than demand. Health care expenditures were 8.2% of GDP.

As of 2004, Italy had the highest number of physicians per capita at an estimated 606 per 100,000 people. In addition, there were approximately 446 nurses, 59 dentists and 110 pharmacists per 100,000 population. In the same year, Italy had 842 public hospitals and 539 private ones, for a total of approximately 276,000 beds.

The infant mortality rate, 72.1 per 1,000 live births in 1948, decreased to 5.94 per 1,000 by 2005, when average life expectancy was estimated to be 79.68 years. As of 2002, birth and death rates were estimated respectively at 8.9 and 10.1 per 1,000 people. Approximately 78% of married women (ages 15 to 49) were using contraception.

In 1999, immunization rates for children up to one year of age were: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 95%, and measles, 70%. The major causes of death were circulatory system diseases, cancers, respiratory diseases, and accidents and violence. As of 2004, there were approximately 140,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.50 per 100 adults in 2003. There were an estimated 1,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

Italy's housing and public building program was a major item in the general program of postwar reconstruction. Between 1940 and 1945, almost 20% of the habitable rooms in the country were destroyed. From June 1945 to June 1953, however, of the 6,407,000 rooms destroyed or severely damaged, 354,100 were rebuilt and 4,441,000 were repaired. Under a special housing program, originally instituted with funds from UNRRA and subsequently financed by employer and employee contributions, a total of 15 million rooms were constructed between 1953 and 1961, alleviating the nation's immediate housing problems.

In the 1980s 59% of all dwellings were owner occupied and 36% were rented. Almost 88% had indoor flush toilets, 99.5% had electricity, 59% had central heating, and 34% were heated by a stove or similar source. In 1999, 156,000 new dwellings were completed.

EDUCATION

Education is free and compulsory for eight years (for students age 6 through 15), this includes five years of elementary school and three years of lower secondary school. Next, students may choose to attend a technical school, a vocational school, or one of several academic secondary schools, which offer a choice of specialized programs in classical, scientific, linguistic, and artistic studies. All secondary programs generally cover a five-year course of study.

In 2001, about 98% of children between the ages of three and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 99% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 91% of age-eligible students. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 11:1 in 2003.

There are 55 state universities and 23 other universities, colleges, and higher learning institutes, including the University of Bologna (founded in the 11th century), the oldest in Italy, and the University of Rome, which is the country's largest. In 2003, about 57% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program; with 49% for men and 65% for women. The adult literacy rate for 2003 was estimated at about 98.6%.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.7% of GDP, or 10.3% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

Italy, with its rich cultural heritage, is one of the world's great storehouses of books and art. Among its many of libraries, the most important are in the national library system, which contains two central libraries, in Florence (5.3 million volumes) and Rome (5 million), and four regional libraries, in Naples (1.8 million volumes), Milan (1 million), Turin (973,000) and Venice (917,000). The existence of two national central libraries, while most nations have one, came about through the history of the country, as Rome was once part of the Papal States and Florence was the first capital of the unified Kingdom of Italy. While both libraries are designated as copyright libraries, Florence now serves as the site designated for conservation and cataloging of Italian publications and the site in Rome catalogs foreign publications acquired by the state libraries. All of the national libraries are public. The Estense Library in Modena holds 425,600 volumes, including illuminated manuscripts from the 14th to 18th centuries. The university libraries in Bologna (1.1 million volumes) and Naples (750,000 volumes) each hold important collections. The Medici-Laurentian and Marucelliana (544,000) libraries in Florence and the Ambrosiana Library in Milan are also important research centers. Italy's public library system has about 84 branches and holds a total of 41 million volumes.

Italy, a world center of culture, history and art, has more than 3,000 museums. Among the more important are the Villa Giulia Museum and the National Gallery in Rome; the National Archeological Museum and the National Museum of San Martino in Naples; the National Museum in Palermo; the Galleria dell'Academia, and Uffizi, Medici, Pitti, Bargello, and St. Mark's Museums in Florence; the National Museum in Cagliari, Sardinia; the Brera Museum in Milan; the Museum of Siena; the Archaeological Museum of Syracuse (Siracusa); the National Museum of Urbino; and the Guggenheim Museum and the Academy and Libreria Sansoviniana in Venice. Venice also has the Jewish Museum, the Diocesan Museum of Sacred Art, a Natural History Museum, an Archeological Museum, and the Museum of Byzantine Icons. The Campidoglio Museum, the Museum of Villa Borghese, and the Palazzo Barberini Museum, all in Rome, each contain important works of art by Italian masters. Naples hosts the Museum of Ethnoprehistory of Castel Dell'ovo and museums of paleontology, mineralogy, anthropology, and astronomy. The National Museum of Science and technology in Milan has an extensive exhibit on Leonardo da Vinci, including models of some of the machines designed by the Renaissance man. A Goethe museum, with manuscripts and illustrations describing Goethe's travels in Italy, opened in 1997 in Rome. Villa Torlonia, Mussolini's home, was renovated in 2001 and opened as a museum.

MEDIA

Communication systems in Italy, including telephone, telex, and data services, are generally considered to be modern, well developed, and fully automated. In 2003, there were an estimated 484 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately 1,018 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

Radiotelevisione Italiana (RAI), a government corporation, broadcasts on three channels. In 2004, there were an additional four national broadcast channels, three of which were operated by Mediaset, a company owned by Prime Minister Berlusconi. A 2004 media law initiated an intent to partially privatize RAI. Advertising appears on RAI television, two of the three RAI radio networks, and on many private stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 878 radios for every 1,000 people. The number of television sets was unavailable in the same survey. Also in 2003, there were 230.7 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 337 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were 1,994 secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

As of 2002, there were about 90 daily newspapers in the country, but not all of them had national circulation. The major daily newspapers (with their political orientations and estimated circulations) are: La Repubblica (Rome), left-wing, 754,300 in 2004; Corriere della Sera (Milan), independent, 582,500 in 2002; La Stampa (Turin), liberal, 536,233 in 2004; Il Sole-24 Ore (a financial news paper from Milan), 397,000 in 2002; Il Messaggero (Rome), left of center, 337,157 in 2004; Il Resto del Carlino (Bologna), 251,173 in 2004; Il Giornale (Milan), independent, 215,000 in 2002; and L'Unità (Rome-Milan), Communist, 200,760 in 2002. Panorama is the most popular news weekly with a circulation of 545,500 in 2002. The periodical press is becoming increasingly important. Among the most important periodicals are the pictorial weeklies—Oggi, L'Europeo, Epoca, L'Espresso, and Gente. Famiglia Cristiana is a Catholic weekly periodical with a wide readership.

Italy enjoys a free press, with vigorous expression of all shades of opinion. The majority of papers are published in northern and central Italy, and circulation is highest in these areas. Rome and Milan are the most important publication centers. A considerable number of dailies are owned by the political parties, the Roman Catholic Church, and various economic groups. In general, the journalistic level of the Italian papers is high, and two dailies, Milan's Corriere della Sera and Turin's La Stampa, enjoy international respect.

The law provides for freedom of speech and the press, and the government is said to respect these rights in practice.

ORGANIZATIONS

Italian society abounds with organizations of every description. Many of these are associated with or controlled by political parties, which have their ideological counterparts in labor organizations, agricultural associations, cultural groups, sports clubs, and cooperatives. Among the most important organizations are the National Confederation of Smallholders and the General Confederation of Italian Industry, which strongly influences economic policy. The General Confederation of Agriculture, the General Confederation of Trade, and the General Confederation of Master Craftsmen also are influential. There are chambers of commerce in most major cities. There are labor and trade unions and professional associations representing a wide variety of occupations. A large number of professional organizations are dedicated to research and education in specialized fields of medicine or for particular diseases and conditions.

Catholic Action and the Catholic Association of Italian Workers are the most prominent of the religious organizations. The international religious Order of St. Augustine and the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) are based in Rome.

A number of political and religious organizations sponsor youth chapters. Scouting programs and chapters of the YMCA/YWCA are also active for youth. Sports associations are plentiful and include such a variety of pastimes as tennis, badminton, tae kwon do, cricket, and football (soccer). National women's organizations include the National Italian Women's Council, the Italian Association for Women in Development, and the Italian Women's Center, based in Rome.

International organizations within the country include Amnesty International, Caritas, and the Red Cross.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Among Italy's tourist attractions are the artistic and architectural treasures of Rome and Florence; the thousands of historic churches and galleries in smaller cities; the canals and palaces of Venice; the ruins of ancient Pompeii; the Shroud of Turin, reputed to be the burial cloth of Jesus; and the delicacies of northern Italian cooking, as well as the heartier fare of the south. Tourists are also lured by Italy's many beaches and by excellent Alpine skiing. Italians enjoy a wide variety of sports, including football (soccer), bowling, tennis, track and field, and swimming. Italy won the World Cup in soccer three times, in 1934 (as host), 1938, and 1982. Cortina d'Ampezzo, in the Dolomites, was the site of the 1956 Winter Olympics. Rome hosted the Summer Olympics in 1960. Turin was the host the 2006 Winter Olympics.

A valid passport is necessary to travel to Italy. For stays of up to 90 days a visa is not required. Within eight days all travelers must register with local police and obtain a visitor's permit. Proof of sufficient funds for the visit may also be required.

Tourism, a major industry in Italy, brought in 39,604,118 visitors in 2003. There were 999,722 hotel rooms with 1,969,495 beds and an occupancy rate of 39%. Tourism expenditure receipts totaled $32.5 billion.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the daily expenses for staying in Rome at $490; in Florence, $437; in Milan, $442; and in Venice, $341.

FAMOUS ITALIANS

The Italian peninsula has been at the heart of Western cultural development at least since Roman times. Important poets of the Roman republic and empire were Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus, 96?–55 bc), Gaius Valerius Catullus (84?–54 bc), Vergil (Publius Vergilius Maro, 70–19 bc), Horace (Quintius Horatius Flaccus, 65–8 bc), and Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso, 43 bc–ad 18). Also prominent in Latin literature were the orator-rhetorician Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 bc); the satirists Gaius Petronius Arbiter (d.ad 66) and Juvenal (Decimus Junius Juvenalis, ad 60?–140?); the prose writers Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus, ad 23–79), his nephew Pliny the Younger (Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, ad 61?–113?), and Lucius Apuleius (ad 124?–170?); and the historians Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus, 86–34 bc), Livy (Titus Livius, 59 bc–ad 17), Cornelius Tacitus (ad 55?–117), and Suetonius (Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, ad 69?–140). Gaius Julius Caesar (100?–44 bc), renowned as a historian and prose stylist, is even more famous as a military and political leader. The first of the Roman emperors was Octavian (Gaius Octavianus, 63 bc–ad 14), better known by the honorific Augustus. Noteworthy among later emperors are the tyrants Caligula (Gaius Caesar Germanicus, ad 12–41) and Nero (Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, ad 37–68), the philosopher-statesman Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Annius Verius, ad 121–180), and Constantine I (the Great; Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus, b. Moesia, 280?–337), who was the first to accept Christianity. No history of the Christian Church during the medieval period would be complete without mention of such men of Italian birth as St. Benedict of Nursia (480?–543?), Pope Gregory I (St. Gregory the Great, 540?–604), St. Francis of Assisi (1182?–1226), and the philosopher-theologians St. Anselm (1033?–1109) and St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–74).

No land has made a greater contribution to the visual arts. In the 13th and 14th centuries there were the sculptors Niccolò Pisano (1220–84) and his son Giovanni (1245–1314); the painters Cimabue (Cenni di Pepo, 1240–1302?), Duccio di Buoninsegna (1255?–1319), and Giotto di Bondone (1276?–1337); and, later in the period, the sculptor Andrea Pisano (1270?–1348). Among the many great artists of the 15th century—the golden age of Florence and Venice—were the architects Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446), Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378–1455), and Leone Battista Alberti (1404–72); the sculptors Donatello (Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi, 1386?–1466), Luca della Robbia (1400–1482), Desiderio da Settignano (1428–64), and Andrea del Verrocchio (1435–88); and the painters Fra Angelico (Giovanni de Fiesole, 1387–1455), Sassetta (Stefano di Giovanni, 1392–1450?), Uccello (Paolo di Dono, 1397–1475), Masaccio (Tomasso di Giovanni di Simone Guidi, 1401–28?), Fra Filippo Lippi (1406?–69), Piero della Francesca (Pietro de' Franceschi, 1416?–92), Giovanni Bellini (1430?–1516), Andrea Mantegna (1431–1506), Antonio dei Pollaiuolo (1433–98), Luca Signorelli (1441?–1523), Perugino (Pietro Vannucci, 1446–1524), Sandro Botticelli (Alessandro Filipepi, 1447?–1510), Ghirlandaio (Domenico Currado Bigordi, 1449–94), and Vittore Carpaccio (1450–1522).

During the 16th century, the High Renaissance, Rome shared with Florence the leading position in the world of the arts. Major masters included the architects Bramante (Donato d'Agnolo, 1444?–1514) and Andrea Palladio (1508–80); the sculptor Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571); the painter-designer-inventor Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519); the painter-sculptor-architect-poet Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564); and the painters Titian (Tiziano Vecelli, 1477–1576), Giorgione da Castelfranco (Giorgio Barbarelli, 1478?–1510), Raphael (Raffaelo Sanzio, 1483–1520), Andrea del Sarto (1486–1531), and Correggio (Antonio Allegri, 1494–1534). Among the great painters of the late Renaissance were Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti, 1518–94) and Veronese (Paolo Cagliari, 1528–88). Giorgio Vasari (1511–74) was a painter, architect, art historian, and critic.

Among the leading artists of the Baroque period were the sculptor and architect Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598–1680) and the painters Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1560?–1609), Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1690–1770), Canaletto (Antonio Canal, 1697–1768), Pietro Longhi (1702–85), and Francesco Guardi (1712–93). Leading figures in modern painting were Umberto Boccioni (1882–1916), Amedeo Modigliani (1884–1920), Giorgio di Chirico (b.Greece, 1888–1978), and Giorgio Morandi (1890–1964). A noted contemporary architect was Pier Luigi Nervi (1891–1979).

Music, an integral part of Italian life, owes many of its forms as well as its language to Italy. The musical staff was either invented or established by Guido d'Arezzo (995?–1050). A leading 14th-century composer was the blind Florentine organist Francesco Landini (1325–97). Leading composers of the High Renaissance and early Baroque periods were Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525–94); the madrigalists Luca Marenzio (1533–99) and Carlo Gesualdo, prince of Venosa (1560?–1613); the Venetian organists Andrea Gabrieli (1510?–86) and Giovanni Gabrieli (1557–1612); Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643), the founder of modern opera; organist-composer Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583–1643); and Giacomo Carissimi (1605–74). Important figures of the later Baroque era were Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713), Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1743), Alessandro Scarlatti (1660–1725), and his son Domenico Scarlatti (1683–1757). Italian-born Luigi Cherubini (1760–1842) was the central figure of French music in the Napoleonic era, while Antonio Salieri (1750–1825) and Gasparo Spontini (1774–1851) played important roles in the musical life of Vienna and Berlin, respectively. Composers of the 19th century who made their period the great age of Italian opera were Gioacchino Antonio Rossini (1792–1868), Gaetano Donizetti (1797–1848), Vincenzo Bellini (1801–35), and, above all, Giuseppe Verdi (1831–1901). Niccolò Paganini (1782–1840) was the greatest violinist of his time. More recent operatic composers include Ruggiero Leoncavallo (1853–1919), Giacomo Puccini (1858–1924), and Pietro Mascagni (1863–1945). Renowned operatic singers include Enrico Caruso (1873–1921), Luisa Tetrazzini (1874–1940), Titta Ruffo (1878–1953), Amelita Galli-Curci (1882–1963), Beniamino Gigli (1890–1957), Ezio Pinza (1892–1957), and Luciano Pavarotti (b.1935). Ferruccio Busoni (1866–1924), Ottorino Respighi (1879–1936), Luigi Dallapiccola (1904–75), Luigi Nono (1924-1990), and Luciano Berio (1925–2003) are major 20th-century composers. Arturo Toscanini (1867–1957) is generally regarded as one of the greatest operatic and orchestral conductors of his time; two noted contemporary conductors are Claudio Abbado (b.1933) and Riccardo Muti (b.1941). The foremost makers of stringed instruments were Gasparo da Salò (Bertolotti, 1540–1609) of Brescia, Niccolò Amati (1596–1684), Antonius Stradivarius (Antonio Stradivari, 1644–1737), and Giuseppe Bartolommeo Guarneri (del Gesù, 1687?–1745) of Cremona. Bartolommeo Cristofori (1655–1731) invented the pianoforte.

Italian literature and literary language began with Dante Alighieri (1265–1321), author of The Divine Comedy, and subsequently included Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca, 1304–74), Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–75), Lodovico Ariosto (1474–1533), Pietro Aretino (1492–1556), and Torquato Tasso (1544–95). An outstanding writer of the Baroque period was Metastasio (Pietro Trapassi, 1698–1782), and Carlo Goldoni (1707–93) was the most prominent playwright of the 18th century. The time of Italy's rebirth was heralded by the poets Vittorio Alfieri (1749–1803), Ugo Foscolo (1778–1827), and Giacomo Leopardi (1798–1837). Alessandro Manzoni (1785–1873) was the principal Italian novelist of the 19th century, and Francesco de Sanctis (1817–83) the greatest literary critic. Among the Italian literary figures of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Giosuè Carducci (1835–1907; Nobel Prize winner, 1906), Giovanni Verga (1840–1922), Gabriele d'Annunzio (1863–1938), Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936; Nobel Prize winner, 1934), and Grazia Deledda (1875–1936; Nobel Prize winner, 1926) achieved international renown. Leading writers of the postwar era are Ignazio Silone (Secondo Tranquilli, 1900–78), Alberto Moravia (Pincherle, 1907–1990), Italo Calvino (1923–87), Umberto Eco (b.1932), and the poets Salvatore Quasimodo (1908–68; Nobel Prize winner, 1959) and Eugenio Montale (1896–1981; Nobel Prize winner, 1975). Outstanding film directors are Italian-born Frank Capra (1897–1991), Vittorio de Sica (1902–74), Luchino Visconti (1906–76), Roberto Rossellini (1906–77), Michelangelo Antonioni (b.1912), Federico Fellini (1920–93), Sergio Leone (1929–1989), Pier Paolo Pasolini (1922–75), Franco Zeffirelli (b.1923), Lina Wertmüller (Arcangela Felice Assunta Wertmüller von Elgg, b.1928), and Bernardo Bertolucci (b.1940). Famous film stars include Italian-born Rudolph Valentino (Rodolfo Alfonso Raffaele Pierre Philibert Guglielmi, 1895–1926), Marcello Mastroianni (1924–1996), and Sophia Loren (Scicoloni, b.1934).

In philosophy, exploration, and statesmanship, Italy has produced many world-renowned figures: the traveler Marco Polo (1254?–1324); the statesman and patron of the arts Cosimo de' Medici (1389–1464); the statesman, clergyman, and artistic patron Roderigo Borgia (Lanzol y Borja, b. Spain, 1431?–1503), who became Pope Alexander VI (r.1492–1503); the soldier, statesman, and artistic patron Lorenzo de' Medici, the son of Cosimo (1449–92); the explorer John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto, 1450?–98?); the explorer Christopher Columbus (Cristoforo Colombo or Cristóbal Colón, 1451–1506); the explorer Amerigo Vespucci (1454–1512), after whom the Americas are named; the admiral and statesman Andrea Doria (1468?–1540); Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527), author of The Prince and the outstanding political theorist of the Renaissance; the statesman and clergyman Cesare Borgia (1475?–1507), the son of Rodrigo; the explorer Sebastian Cabot (1476?–1557), the son of John; Baldassare Castiglione (1478–1529), author of The Courtier; the historian Francesco Guicciardini (1483–1540); the explorer Giovanni da Verrazano (1485?–1528?); the philosopher Giordano Bruno (1548?–1600); the political philosopher Giovanni Battista Vico (1668–1744); the noted jurist Cesare Bonesana Beccaria (1735–94); Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–72), the leading spirit of the Risorgimento; Camillo Benso di Cavour (1810–61), its prime statesman; and Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–82), its foremost soldier and man of action. Notable intellectual and political leaders of more recent times include the Nobel Peace Prize winner in 1907, Ernesto Teodoro Moneta (1833–1918); the sociologist and economist Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923); the political theorist Gaetano Mosca (1858–1941); the philosopher, critic, and historian Benedetto Croce (1866–1952); the educator Maria Montessori (1870–1952); Benito Mussolini (1883–1945), the founder of Fascism and dictator of Italy from 1922 to 1943; Carlo Sforza (1873–1952) and Alcide De Gasperi (1881–1954), famous latter-day statesmen; and the Communist leaders Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937), Palmiro Togliatti (1893–1964), and Enrico Berlinguer (1922–84).

Italian scientists and mathematicians of note include Leonardo Fibonacci (1180?–1250?), Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), Evangelista Torricelli (1608–47), Francesco Redi (1626?–97), Marcello Malpighi (1628–94), Luigi Galvani (1737–98), Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–99), Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826–1910), Camillo Golgi (1843–1926; Nobel Prize winner, 1906), Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937; Nobel Prize winner, 1909), Enrico Fermi (1901–54; Nobel Prize winner, 1938), Giulio Natta (1903–79; Nobel Prize winner, 1963), Italian-American Emilio Gino Segrè (1905–1989; Nobel Prize winner, 1959), Daniel Bovet (1907–1992; Nobel Prize winner, 1957), Renato Dulbecco (b.1914; Nobel Prize winner, 1975), Carlo Rubbia (b.1934; Nobel Prize winner, 1984), and Rita Levi-Montalcini (1909-1989; Nobel Prize winner, 1986), and Italian-American Riccardo Giacconi (b.1931; Nobel Prize winner, 2002).

DEPENDENCIES

Italy has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Andrews, Geoff. Not a Normal Country: Italy after Berlusconi. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Pluto Press, 2005.

Baranski, Zygmunt G. and Rebecca J. West (eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Italian Culture. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Ben-Ghiat, Ruth. Fascist Modernities: Italy, 1922–1945. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.

Duggan, Christopher. A Concise History of Italy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Findlen, Paula (ed.). The Italian Renaissance: The Essential Readings. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2002.

Gardner, Richard N. Mission Italy: On the Front Lines of the Cold War. Lanham, Md.: Rowan and Littlefield, 2005.

Ginsborg, Paul. A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics, 1943–1988. London: Penguin, 1990.

Hearder, Harry. Italy: A Short History. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

International Smoking Statistics: A Collection of Historical Data from 30 Economically Developed Countries. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Moliterno, Gino (ed.). Encyclopedia of Contemporary Italian Culture. New York: Routledge, 2000.

Torriglia, Anna Maria. Broken Time, Fragmented Space: A Cultural Map for Postwar Italy. Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 2002.

Wessels, Wolfgang, Andreas Maurer, and Jürgan Mittag (eds.). Fifteen into One?: the European Union and Its Member States. New York: Palgrave, 2003.

Italy For the fighting in Italy, see Italian campaign and Sicilian campaign.

1. Introduction

A united kingdom under the constitutional monarchy of the House of Savoy, Italy had a population of 42 million in 1936. From 1861 until the advent in 1922 of the fascist regime and Mussolini's dictatorship, it was a parliamentary democracy with universal male suffrage since 1913. To its colonies (Libya, Eritrea, Italian Somaliland, the Dodecanese Islands) the fascist regime added Abyssinia in 1936 and Albania in 1939, so that Victor Emmanuel III, the sovereign since 1900, was also emperor of Abyssinia and king of Albania.

Mussolini moved into the Nazi orbit, first by means of a friendship between accomplices in 1936, then with the Pact of Steel in 1939, and finally by intervening in the war against the UK and France on 10 June 1940 (see also Axis strategy and co-operation). The central problem of the dictatorship lay in the relationship between the popular masses upon whom fascism had been inflicted and those sections of the bourgeoisie which had actively favoured it. The recipe—which was subsequently imitated beyond the Alps—involved the anaesthetizing of social conflict by means of a permanent mobilization of the masses in a fever of grandeur aimed at imperial expansion. Once this had taken place social problems would be resolved by means which were for the moment still invisible in the glowing light of the future.

The accent therefore had to fall on external action by the state, but of itself this did not require immediate and exact foreign policy choices. In part fascism built its strength on memories of slights to Italian national pride, still smarting from the humiliation meted out by Abyssinian forces at Aduwa in 1896, more recently from their defeat by an Austro-German army at Caporetto in 1917—not to mention the slender rewards of victory in 1918. However, international opportunities were blocked by Anglo-French dominance of the League of Nations which guaranteed the peace treaties of 1919 (see Versailles settlement); Italian imperialism more or less lapsed up to 1933, apart from some verbal tempestuousness on Mussolini's part and an attempt at violent action against Corfu in 1923 which was quickly abandoned.

The pragmatic and juridical construction of the fascist state (see government, below) was opposed courageously but to little effect by the clandestine remnants of the old political opposition (liberals, Catholics, and communists) and by new groups such as the liberal-democratic Giustizia e Libertà (Justice and Liberty). These domestic opponents were marginalized by a variety of means which included prohibition, intimidation, violence by the police and fascist squads, and finally imprisonment. Meanwhile the colonial territories inherited from pre-fascist Italy—Eritrea, Somalia, and Libya—were ‘pacified’ with the usual ferocity of colonial powers. In lieu of foreign policy successes, which were for the moment unattainable, government propaganda trumpeted the successes of the everyday administration and public works such as the reclamation of the Pontine marshes near Rome. Neither the recalcitrant masses of workers and peasants nor the bulk of the middle classes were much enamoured of the regime, although the bourgeoisie appreciated its maintenance of public order, the outlawing of strikes, and the keeping down of workers' wages.

The chance to pursue an active foreign policy came with German rearmament. The military conquest of Abyssinia in 1935–6 was the regime's greatest visible success. That the victory had been won despite the opposition of the 52 states in the League of Nations, led by the UK, was a cause of some pride. Opposition to the move, bland in substance but dramatic in form, in the shape of the arrival of the British Home Fleet in the Mediterranean, was astutely blown up for domestic purposes. On the evening of 9 May 1936 Mussolini appeared on the floodlit balcony of the Palazzo Venezia and proclaimed to a vast crowd the ‘reappearance’ of the old Roman Empire. This theatrical gesture seemed finally to reconcile to fascism some of those forces which, in pre-war liberal Italy, had at times pursued similar goals, albeit with greater prudence and less of an uproar. Moreover, just as the colonial policy of the years 1886–96 had kindled hopes in the starving masses of the south, so once again the myth of empire had its brief moment of popularity among the poor peasants of that region. But reality shattered these dreams quickly and even more bitterly than had been the case 40 years earlier: then it had been possible to emigrate, albeit at the cost of some hardship and risk, but now even that possibility was closed. The poorest Italians had no other means to earn a few lire than to enlist as ‘volunteers’ in the forces Mussolini was now sending to Spain to fight others as poor as themselves.

Historians differ in their interpretations of Mussolini's policy thereafter: his abandonment of the defence of the European status quo (Locarno 1925, the Four-Power Pact 1933, the reaction to the assassination of Dolfuss 1934, the Stresa Front 1935); his ever closer links with Germany, not only in the Spanish Civil War but also in abandoning the defence of Austrian independence in 1938; his open hostility to France and the UK, save for momentary alignments with the ‘appeasers’ ( January 1937, November 1938, the Munich agreement, the visit of Chamberlain and Halifax to Rome in January 1939); the occupation of Albania, the Pact of Steel with Germany ( April– May 1939) and the failure to intervene in the war alongside his ally in September 1939. In fact Mussolini's words and deeds were so contradictory as to justify many interpretations. This is not surprising when we consider the character and intellectual baggage of the man, soaked in Nietzschean and Sorelian sediments. His urge to dominate was manifest both in his socialist anti-war stance and his anti-German interventionism in 1914, and in his later promotion of war as an end in itself and noisy proclamation of a battery of different objectives.

It is probably not particularly important to establish whether Mussolini's true intention was to pursue a ‘pendulum’ policy, oscillating between Nazi Germany and the western democracies and selling himself to the highest bidder, or whether his choice of Hitler remained fixed, although subject to moments of doubt and worry. What is certain is that the convergence of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany was not unnatural. Fascism and National Socialism shared much common ground: nihilistic violence, humiliation of their adversaries, imperialism, biological planning (the campaign for births) and finally racism. Fascism was not intrinsically anti-Semitic but from the outset it practised racism and colonial extermination; therefore no special exertions were necessary when, in 1938, Mussolini decided to persecute the Jews in tune with the German alliance.

The German victories in the spring of 1940 triggered a decision by Mussolini in which the wish to profit from Nazi power was mingled with the illusion of competing with it. Had Mussolini aligned himself with the democracies at any moment they would have accepted him and perhaps compensated him well, though not to the same extent as the power of Germany would allow; moreover, an alliance with the democracies would not have accorded him the super-hero status created by the German–Italian propaganda chorus—a newspaper could at any time have criticized him or ridiculed him in a caricature. As for internal consensus, although it did not diminish it became of greater concern to the regime from 1938 onwards. Intervention in Spain lasted too long; Germany gave cause for anxiety; the anti-Jewish measures were unpopular in one of the few European countries which lacked any tradition of anti-Semitism; and a policy of anti-bourgeois repression angered the educated classes without gaining fascism any sympathy from the proletaraiat.

In 1938–9 anxiety about the future touched the crown, the upper bureaucracy, and the class which controlled the economy. They might have tried to change things had not Hitler, by showing himself able to crush as prestigious a power as France in only a few weeks in 1940, appealed to their sense of ‘realism’—a feeling which had little to do with morality or with a well-balanced cultural life. Behind the ‘realists’ and a handful of fanatics stood the masses, muddled by propaganda and ready to acclaim successes, but preoccupied by the dangers and sacrifices which fell chiefly on them, just as they had during the First World War.

In June 1940 the small minority of Italians who were radically opposed to war were in exile abroad, in prison, banished to offshore islands, or reduced to silence and, if young, obliged to fight. Many feared for the future of those same western democracies (France and the UK) which, until directly threatened, had been so ready to praise Mussolini. But the sufferings of war and the humiliations of defeat rebounded on all Italians whatever their private thoughts.

2. Domestic life, economy, and war effort

The war cut deeply into domestic life in Italy. Apart from the foolish prohibition of dancing, both in public and in private, which was imposed at the outset, Mussolini sought to maintain the appearance of normality. As a result restrictions, when they belatedly came, were too harsh. In the autumn of 1941 tram services shut down at 10 p.m. and theatres closed early; however, blackout was not adapted until the summer of 1943 and then at varying times. In Rome, on moonlit nights even the miserable blue-coloured public lighting was switched off. At the end of 1941 petrol-driven motor cars were forbidden, but some public and private transport continued to run throughout the war, fuelled by methane from the Po valley.

From 1939 sugar and soap were rationed, and coffee was unobtainable. Fats were not rationed until the autumn of 1940, and other foodstuffs the following autumn though that did not mean that they were easy to find in the interim. Newspapers were limited to four pages, later reduced to two. One pair of shoes or a few articles of clothing could be purchased each year, but not both. Food intake was reduced to below 1,000 calories a day: 200 grams (7 oz.) of bread a day (later reduced to 150), and 400 grams of meat, 500 grams of sugar, and 100 grams of olive oil a month. Only those engaged in heavy physical labour were allowed more. Such a drastic diet, together with an absence of controls, the impossibility of pooling grain, and the fact that most urbanized Italians had lived in cities for only a few generations and maintained close connections with the countryside, meant that a well-organized black market flourished. Only those people with money could take advantage of it, though sometimes—even in illegal trading—there was a social equalizing and poorer quality food was sold at lower prices. Up to September 1943 the official price level never rose above 273 ( 1938 = 100); but on the black market bread reached 797, butter 1,054, and olive oil 1,387. Repeated increases in salaries and wages were absorbed by inflation; but even in the north, which was separated from the south after the autumn of 1943, inflation stayed at reasonable levels until May 1945.

As far as paying for the war was concerned, fiscal impositions contributed little except for tax on the exchange of goods and consumption, a policy which affected everyone but especially the working classes and minor employees. Otherwise fiscal pressures and new taxation (such as property taxes) failed because of the difficulties of assessment and also because, once introduced, they opened the doors to avoidance and evasion. A decisive contribution was made by the war loans to which the banks (which were owned by the state) had to subscribe and which also attracted private savers until 1942.

The state budget displayed fearsome deficits: from 29.4 billion lire in 1939–40, the deficit increased to 64.5 billion in 1940–1, 84.8 billion in 1941–2 and 109.8 billion in 1942–3. Circulation of paper money quadrupled between 1940 and 1943, while in Germany it doubled and in the UK it was less than double.

In order to assess Italy's military strength and its influence on the conduct of the war it is necessary to look back to the pre-war era. Notwithstanding fascist propaganda and a shrill foreign policy, the Italian economy and civil life remained semi-developed until the outbreak of war. Twenty years of fascism saw the average per capita earnings of 42,000,000 Italians increase very little, so that they only equalled those of the UK and the USA at the start of the 19th century and of France about 1850. Moreover, there were great inequalities in per capita income between north and south. Public works (land reclamation, roads, and railways), state aid to heavy industry (e.g. assistance to shipyards provided by modest naval rearmament in the 1920s), and the natural development of some sectors such as electricity and synthetic fabrics were not enough to compensate for the drying-up of emigration, now down from 600,000 a year to 60–70,000, which had made possible the development Italy had enjoyed before the First World War.

The entire fascist period was characterized by low incomes and unemployment, which was severe after the crisis of 1929 but less grave after partial rearmament began in 1935. The official figures for 1934 showed 961,000 unemployed (of whom 750,000 were in industry and commerce), approximately 10.7% of the male work force. From 1935–6 salary increases were largely absorbed by increased prices, while industrial profits grew: net interest relative to capital invested rose from 1.38% in 1932 to 5.74% in 1935 and 7.28% in 1936. Unemployment among the educated remained high. In 1919–20 of 53,670 university students only 33% were studying engineering, science, and mathematics; this percentage collapsed in 1939–40 to 13.6% of a university population of 85,535. Even in 1935, more than 50% of engineering graduates were unemployed. National illiteracy levels in 1931 amounted to 17%. The development of some areas of northern Italy was not typical of the whole: half the active population were engaged in small-scale agriculture and even in 1938 more than half of average family expenditure went on food. The regime preached the virtues of ruralism and sustained the uneconomical ‘battle for grain’ which sought to achieve self-sufficency by the inefficient transformation of pasturage into grain-producing areas with high duties and premiums.

The great crash of 1929 led to protectionism through the increase of customs barriers and an internal monopoly policy in which the domestic market was divided according to fixed quotas. Legal cartels—which existed alongside illegal or semi-legal ones—set prices according to the costs of marginal producers, assuring the others of excess profits. Laws passed in 1933 and 1937 required official authorization before new industrial plant could be created or existing plant expanded. Many manufacturers who at first opposed these measures soon perceived their advantages. To halt competition they put in many requests for new plant, the mere existence of which allowed official bodies (within which the big industrial trusts had their own men) to reject genuine applications as unnecessary duplication. The system could also be distorted in other ways: once a producer had gained a place in the consortium which controlled his area of production he enjoyed guaranteed advantages which were independent of the costs or quality of his product. Naturally, the consolidation of monopoly positions—which were at their greatest in military manufacturing—did not encourage the inventiveness, speed, and research indispensable for true economic progress. Instead it led to backwardness and provincialism.

Italy was poorly off for raw materials. In 1938 it produced one million tons of hard coal (and had to import another 12,000,000 tons each year) compared with 47,000,000 tons produced by France, 186,000,000 tons by Germany, and 230,000,000 tons by the UK. It produced 2,300,000 tons of steel in comparison with more than 6,000,000 in France, more than 10,000,000 in the UK, and 23,000,000 tons in Germany. A total lack of petroleum stimulated the development of the electricity industry: in 1939 Italy produced more than 15,000,000 kWh, compared with more than 22,000,000 kWh in France, almost 36,000,000 kWh in the UK, and 61,380,000 kWh in Germany. Shipbuilding enjoyed some expansion, but production in 1939 amounted to only 135,000 tons against a productive capacity of 300,000.

The automobile industry was good but small; in 1939 it produced 71,000 vehicles (of which only 12,000 were commercial), against 227,000 in France (45,000 commercial), 445,000 in the UK (104,000 commercial), and 338,000 in Germany (63,000 commercial). In that year there were 372,000 vehicles on Italian roads, compared with 2,269,000 in France 2,527,000 in the UK, and 1,656,000 in Germany. The modest scale of the automobile industry affected the armed forces by limiting the numbers of drivers and mechanics available.

The aircraft industry enjoyed a wholly unjustified reputation founded largely on international record-breaking, which did not entail comparisons of series-manufacturing capacity or of originality of design. Italian aero engines, in particular, were poor copies of foreign models.

Military expenditure, which had been effectively held in check between 1922 and 1926, began to increase and in 1935–9 it reached a level equivalent to 89.5% of that of the UK and 22.8% more than that of France. This figure is particularly striking when it is related to an Italian national income which was less than half that of France and less than a quarter that of the UK. The enormous costs of conquering and ‘pacifying’ Abyssinia, of intervention in Spain, and of the occupation of Albania absorbed 77 billion lire out of a total of 116 billion allocated to the armed forces and the colonies between 1935 and 1940.

Costs were inflated by the need to import primary materials and to use high-cost national industries which, after Mussolini proclaimed economic autarky in 1936, charged very high domestic prices for their products. Synthetic petrol cost four times as much as imported petrol; and the costs of Italian steel and coal were respectively double and triple those in the UK, while metallurgical products were between 50 and 100% dearer. It has been calculated that if the battleship Littorio (built between 1934 and 1940) had been constructed in France it would have cost only half as much. In 1935–6 automobiles cost 18–20 lire/kilogram to manufacture, as compared to 17 lire/kg. in Germany, 11–12 lire/kg. in the UK, and 6–8 lire/kg. in the USA. However, salaries were on average 56% of those paid in Germany and 27% of those paid in the USA.

In order to assess the state and character of Italian military strength in the Second World War, it is necessary to examine the evolution of relations between state and industry, as well as within industry itself, during the fascist period and in comparison with the First World War. Between 1915 and 1918 the growth of Italian industry and the results on the battlefield (e.g. 12,000 guns, 79,000,000 shells, 12,000 aeroplanes, 37,000 machine guns) was a consequence not only of assistance from the Entente in the shape of raw materials and loans but also of the efficiency of the office of under-secretary for armaments and munitions (which subsequently became a ministry) under General Alfredo Dallolio (1853–1952), who shared out orders and raw materials for the army and the navy between some 1,500 factories and 600,000 workers under a disciplined system of industrial mobilization. However, although appreciating such measures as the forbidding of strikes, industry accepted Dallolio's strict controls only under sufferance and in 1918 subjected him to a trial from which he emerged victorious but embittered. Big business would have preferred to deal individually with each of the armed services; and they, divided as they were by rivalries and intolerance, had no desire to combine in their dealings with industry.

Thus when fascism came to legislate on these matters after 1923–5, a tacit understanding grew up between industry and the three armed forces (the air force had become an independent arm in 1923). A system of ‘civil mobilization’ involving six ministries in addition to the armed ' the militia, and the Fascist Party, was overseen by the old Supreme Commission for Defence, a Committee for Civil Mobilization (CMC), a permanent secretary, and in time some 20 other offices with thousands of functionaries. Their different spheres of authority were so varied, so minute, and so extensive that it is simpler to note not what they had but what they lacked, which was fundamental power over the orders given to industry; here each of the three armed forces acted independently.

Since everything had officially to be controlled by the state, a National Council for Research (CNR) was set up in 1923, under the chairmanship in its early days of Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937). Although on paper the CNR possessed very extensive powers, it does not seem to have interested itself very much in the preliminary results of experiments in nuclear fission, carried out by Enrico Fermi in 1934, or later in radar or jet engines. Dallolio chaired the CMC, aware of the inadequacy of his powers but probably hoping that at a suitable moment Mussolini would reinforce them. This occurred in small part when in 1935, as a consequence of the Abyssinian crisis, the General Commissariat for War Production (COGEFAG) was set up and given to Dallolio under the ‘direct and exclusive’ authority of the Duce. However, all purchasing orders remained within the sphere of authority of the armed forces. Even the limited powers of COGEFAG, which related chiefly to the distribution of raw materoused protests from the navy, an example of the strength of sectional interests in fascist Italy.

Dallolio's thoughts on the problem of artillery equipment were disregarded. He had hoped to stimulate high-quality output by building a pilot plant at Terni the workforce of which would in due course become instructors for others. However, in 1929 the army preferred to pursue the ideal of a gigantic programme of complete re-equipment, amounting to 15,000 guns and 58,000,000 rounds of ammunition, which was approved in principle but remained a paper scheme owing to lack of money. When, in 1938, alarmed by the possible consequences of his foreign policy, Mussolini wanted to undertake a serious rearmament programme he had to meet the wishes of industry and above all of the two leading manufacturers, Ansaldo and Terni (which had in the meantime been taken over by the state), who obtained an advance against losses of 15% of the 0alue of future orders for plant renewal. The way was opened to what could have been the achievement of a major programme of artillery rearmament by 1943–5.

Dallolio retired in August 1939, aged 87, and was replaced by General Carlo Favagrossa who, with the same powers but less prestige, was unable to impose his personality on the industrialists. They had begun to replace old plant, but the military preferred to use raw materials for armoured vehicles rather than artillery (save only for the 90 mm./3.5 in. anti-aircraft gun and the 47 mm./1.8 in. anti-tank gun, which was inferior to the British two-pounder). As a result large factories such as OTO, equipped to manufacture artillery but not tanks, remained almost unoccupied whilst Ansaldo, which made both, had too much work. More far-sighted programmes which aimed only at what was strictly necessary, like updating the gun-carriages of the huge stock of First World War artillery (much of which was good Skoda-built stock), would have produced better results in terms of both economy and efficiency. As for rearmament of the infantry, which had begun in the early 1930s, its outcome was by no means perfect but no worse than that of other countries; here the greatest problem was the lack of training, notwithstanding the succession of wars and expeditions in which the country had been engaged since 1935.

Until 1923 there were few changes in the nature of industrial capital; thereafter while some munitions manufacturers were taken over by the state (such as the Cogne steel works in 1923), many large firms fell into the hands of the banks which had financed them. However, from 1929 onwards the banks failed to match the time limits on ordinary credits with the needs of industrial credit and, faced with the prospect of major collapses, radical public intervention became necessary. Between 1933 and 1937 the state debarred the banks from owning industrial property, reformed them, and restricted them to ordinary credit operations while itself taking over a majority shareholding in industry and starting to finance and administer it through the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI). This body controlled most of the arms-producing metallurgical, armaments, and shipbuilding firms and, when other sections of industry are taken into account, represented the most extensive experiment in state control outside the USSR.

However, appearances of unity were deceptive: in reality each IRI enterprise developed its own policy like a private company while at the same time enjoying the benefits of public ownership (the impossibility of bankruptcy, guaranteed work, and so on). The IRI industries should, at least in theory, have respected not only state laws but also the rules of the market-place. They did not. Even in the 1920s the main manufacturers of artillery (Ansaldo, Terni, and others, all still at that stage private companies) operated cartels to keep prices high. Similar practices, which touched the limits of legality and damaged the military administration, continued after the advent of IRI. Corruption was widespread and included state enterprises: in 1933–4 Ansaldo (a member of IRI) and Fiat (privately owned) reached an agreement to exclude other companies from the construction of tanks.

It was this oligopoly, al"-th the political weakness of the army, which produced the situation whereby up to 1939 Italy had built only the small CV3 tanks of three tons, without radio communications, with poor visibility, and carrying only two machine-guns. The disastrous inefficiency of these machines, which were derived from the British Carden Lloyd tank of 1928, was demonstrated in Abyssinia and Spain; even so, up to September 1943 Fiat and Ansaldo only manufactured medium tanks of 11, 13, 14, and 15 tons (some in a self-propelled gun version). The M11 has been called the worst tank of its day and the various versions of the M series were all inferior to British Cruiser tanks in armament, weight of armour, and especially in speed.

After the early disasters of the Western Desert campaigns, culminating in Beda Fomm ( February 1941), Italian tank troops of the Ariete Division learned to use the mediocre M13s more effectively and combine them with artillery, producing some successes during the battles of the British CRUSADER offensive in late 1941. The tanks themselves received some savage criticism: Rommel said they would ‘make one's hair curl’. As a minimum improvement, engines were requested that matched those of the British Cruisers whose speed allowed them to withdraw whenever necessary. The war ministry tried to interest other companies in manufacturing tanks, hoping to improve their quality. The army proposed adopting a Czech tank which Skoda were ready to make, and licences were obtained to build Panzer III and IV models; but all these attempts failed, and after tortuous manoeuvrings the army had to accept Fiat–Ansaldo products. The company even refused requests to adapt their tanks by using Fiat aero engines. In fact there were engines in store, or mounted on aeroplanes such as the Fiat CR42 biplane and Fiat G50 which were by now useless in combat, derived from the Liberty, Continental W670, and Wright Continental R975 engines which the British and Americans adapted for use on their Cruisers, Grants, and Shermans. But rather than use others' products, Fiat preferred to improve its own versions.

Competition was by no means the whole story. Italian aviation adopted different aeroplanes according to the outcome of public competitions; but the best aeroplane did not always win, a phenomenon not unknown outside Italy. The custom developed of asking small companies to produce perhaps 40 or 50 examples of a model so that all the manufacturers were able to survive. This system, which had some logic in peacetime, was continued during war. The smallest companies were sometimes requested to manufacture aeroplanes which were not of their own design but were thought useful. However it was not possible to compel Fiat to build Macchi 202 or 205 fighters; the company promised its own G55 which was not ready until the eve of the armistice in September 1943, to the benefit not of Italy but of Germany, and meanwhile continued to produce its outdated CR42s and G50s.

Among the many reasons for the inferiority of Italian warplanes was the fact that in 1927 a law supported by Italo Balbo (1896–1940), Mussolini's minister of aviation from 1929 to 1933, had deprived the technical branch of the air force of the authority to choose prototypes and had passed that power to an office (the Direzione Generale) from which technical experts were excluded in favour of ministerial cronies. The air engineering branch continued to voice its opinions on the quality and defects of prototypes, as in the competition in 1939 in which it recommended the Re2000 fighter. But the Direzione Generale made the choices, and in 1939 it preferred the inferior Fiat CR42 and G50.

The quality of naval armaments was influenced not only by very high costs but by scientific backwardness in respect of radar and radio communications in general and by the excessive ‘tolerance’ allowed in shells, which had disastrous effects on naval gunfire. However, many deficiencies derived from defective strategic concepts (up to 1935 and in part afterwards the standard of comparison for the Italians was the French Navy) and from a tendency to fake the results of trials, according to which the navy claimed to be able to reach speeds much higher than were really possible. In addition, rivalry with the air force hindered the development of aircraft carriers. Finally there was much hidden mismanagement. For example, a large fleet of outdated submarines was built (113 by 1939) while between 1935 and 1938 midget submarines, which became the most effective arm of the Italian Navy, were neglected (see Tenth Light Flotilla).

The widespread assumption that Italy's shortage of raw materials was the primary cause of its defeat is therefore incorrect. Certainly Italy had no Ruhr or Caucasus and just as this prevented it from becoming a Great Power ab origine so it would also have made its effects felt had Italy's war continued much beyond September 1943. Metallurgical output was modest; but in September 1943 the Germans sei three times as much steel as was available in 1940. It would not have been possible between June 1940 and August 1943 to armour more than approximately 3,054 tanks of all types, which was the maximum number that the small monopoly plants could have built. If more tanks had been provided than was actually the case, but only in variants of the M series, the problem of poor quality which was not tackled until 1942 would not have been ameliorated. The need, until then, was not for more tanks but for better ones.

Much the same is true of the artillery: some 7,000 guns were provided for the army between June 1940 and June 1943, and they would have had a much greater effect had not 51% been the 47 mm. model which was inferior to every British anti-tank gun. The 60–65,000 motor vehicles supplied to the army between spring 1940 and spring 1943 would have been far from insignificant if they had been concentrated in North Africa instead of being scattered between the Eastern Front, the Balkans, and France. The modest increase in warships between 1940 and 1943 (a battleship, 3 light cruisers, 5 destroyers, 16 torpedo boats, and 39 submarines) represented an increment to a not inconsiderable force but one which was hamstrung by technical and scientific inferiority, a lack of aircraft carriers, and by the adoption of economic rather than military criteria.

Between January 1940 and April 1943 the aeronautics industry manufactured 10,545 aircraft (4,510 fighters, 2,063 bombers, 1,080 reconnaissance planes, 468 transports, 1,769 trainers, and 655 of various minor types); monthly production amounted to 271 machines in 1940, 292 in 1941, 235 in 1942, and 241 in 1943. The 8,000 aircraft sent to the Mediterranean up to mid-1942 would have represented a serious problem for the Allies had they included more modern bombers than the S79 and Fiat BR20 and rather more than the 250 to 300 Macchi 202 and Re2001 fighters which were the only ones able to compete with the Curtiss P40 and the Hurricane.

Had more petroleum been available, Italian tank forces might have had a more timely and less disastrous training than that which they received on the field of battle. However, it would have been difficult before the war to convince the High Command of the pressing need for training, a need which (as the Balkan campaign showed) was felt even by the infantry, who had received many of the 16,800 mortars and 125,000 machine guns produced between 1939 and 1943. It is possible to imagine that with more coal and rubber supplies the temporary closures of factories in wartime would not have been necessary. But such impediments did not have dramatic effects on the quantity of vital arms produced until at least mid-1942. After that time, Anglo-American and Soviet production would have crushed Italy as it subsequently crushed Germany.

However it is difficult to imagine a rational and calculated use of raw materials, whether abundant or not, when the state lacked the power to impose the necessary changes in production upon industry. The defeat of Italy occurred before the point was reached at which her lack of raw materials became the determining factor.

The material costs of the war were considerable: on average, 8% of industrial plant was destroyed (25% in the engineering sector and 16% in textiles); 2,000,000 rooms were destroyed out of a total of 36,000,000 (the worst damage being suffered in the cities); and the railways were especially badly hit (60% of railway engines and 50% of goods wagons destroyed), along with automobiles (90% of lorries, 30% of buses, and 50% of motor cars) and ports and merchant shipping (which were reduced by some 90%). Shipbuilding and metallurgical manufacturing capacity was reduced by half; 5,000 bridges were destroyed; and heavy losses were suffered in the agricultural sector, productivity falling by 60% with serious damage to 770,000 hectares of cultivated land and 67,000 hectares of woodland and the destruction of 135,000,000 vines and fruit trees.

3. Government and legal system

(a) Up to 25 July 1943

The triumph of the fascist movement in 1922 was the product of three years of political instability which was caused by the end of liberal hegemony, signalled in the 1919 elections, and by the absence of any accord between the two major parties, the socialists (from whom the communists seceded in 1921) and the Catholics. The ‘red’ agitation, which culminated in the occupation of the factories in September 1920, was overcome by violence by the squads of the Fasci di combattimento founded by Mussolini in 1919. These fascist squads, or squadristi, were aided by elements of the armed forces and by some sections of liberal society, who nursed the illusion of being able to use them as an instrument to combat the ‘red’ threat. After a lengthy period of ungovernability the armed fascist movement occupied the key points of the state without any real resistance, and this provoked the king in October 1922 to invite Mussolini to form a cabinet. The fascist government had the support of parliament and, as visible proof of its alliance with crown and armed forces, it had as ministers for the army and navy the victors of the First World War, General Armando Diaz and Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel. The transformation from democracy to fascist regime took place between 1925 and 1926 after the political crisis of 1924, during which crown and army supported Mussolini when he might have been unseated by the wave of anger following the assassination of the Socialist leader, Giacomo Matteotti, by fascists.

By the eve of the Second World war, the transformation was long established. Mussolini, as well as being Duce of fascism, was head of government and responsible onlythe king. Ministers were responsible to him and not to parliament, which lacked power and was nominated by fascist organizations with the approval of rigged plebiscites which were themselves abolished after 1934. Mussolini nominated the members of the Fascist Grand Council, which he alone could call together in secret session to debate specific issues or so that he could learn their opinions on the most important topics of the moment. Among these, according to a law of 1928, were the powers of the crown and the succession to the throne—a warning of some significance to the ruling house of Savoy. However Mussolini declared war on the UK, France, the USSR, and the USA without ever consulting his Grand Council.

Local administration was nominated and directed from above. There were no other parties apart from the fascists and there was no freedom of speech. The press, and subsequently the cinema and the radio, were controlled by an under-secretary of state's office (which became a ministry in 1935). The secret police (OVRA) operated without restrictions, using informers, wire-tapping, and intercepting mail. Opponents of the regime were tried by a special tribunal formed from officials of the fascist militia. Working through provincial commissions, the government could put anyone into political confinement, which meant exiling them to the most isolated localities on the mainland or to one of the small islands in the south. There were no trials and sentences were decided and prolonged arbitrarily. The death penalty was reintroduced for both civil and political crimes. Workers' and owners' organizations were ‘fascistized’ and conflicts of authority resolved through the so-called ‘corporations’. Schools, universities, and leisure organizations were also ‘fascistized’. The youth movement Gioventú Italiana del Littorio (GIL), later imitated in Germany by the Nazis, controlled young males between the ages of 6 and 21, using uniforms, rifles, and the trappings of the military to inculcate ideas of discipline. GIL was divided into the Figli della Lupa, for those from 6 to 9, Balilla from 10 to 13, Avanguardisti from 14 to 17, and Giovani Fascisti from 18 to 21. There were also two female sections, the Piccole Italiane (9–14) and the Giovane Fasciste (15–17). The appearance of consensus was organized through mass rallies, sports, gymnastics, hikes, and camps and orchestrated according to a liturgy derived in part from Bolshevik models and in part from the inventions of the celebrated soldier-poet Gabriele D'Annunzio (1863–1938).

Despite all this control absolute totalitarianism, in the sense of absorbing within the state every morsel of national life, was never attained. Many institutions which predated fascism were not replaced by party structures, not only because Mussolini had perforce to rely on elements such as the Catholic Church, the crown, the upper bourgeoisie, and the higher levels of the state bureaucracy which were difficult to bring within the ambit of party hegemony, but also because of calculations which were, at least in the short term, quite astute. Mussolini imposed his personal dominance on a balance between the old and the new without allowing the forces on either side to claim him. In general he preferred to entrust himself to the old state structure and to traditional economic forces and gain their trust, allowing them a good deal of autonomy in exchange for noisy servility. Dictatorship often meant high-level mediation, and was least controlled in the field of foreign policy where even before fascism the economic establishment had intervened only rarely and then never directly.

The many fascist organizations, which were always multiplying and expanding, served two main purposes. Above all they were a potential threat, a social wild card which only the Duce could tame or unleash. Then, and increasingly as time went on, they acted as a form of social outlet—a means of employment and profit for the great and the humble. The characteristics of fascist dictatorship, which was both cunning and compromising, were evident too in its military organization, perfect for the exercise of power but ruinous in terms of combat effectiveness.

The fascist militia or ‘Blackshirts’, established in 1923 to absorb the squadristi, was a typical compromise. Astutely, Mussolini made the militia into a bogey for his opponents but also an opportunity for many ex-officers who had been unemployed since 1918. After 1924, during the early years of the fascist regime, the militia owed its loyalty not merely to Mussolini but also to the king. On paper is was the ‘armed guard of the revolution’; in practice it was the worst face of the armed forces. Its members, old soldiers who had already seen service, were disliked by the army because they were paid slightly more. Between 1940 and 1943 a proportion of conscripts were directed into the militia, which thereby lost its volunteer character (see 5(c) below). Militia officers were usually of the lowest quality and when, during the Abyssinian war, militia divisions were created they were given regular army commanders, as well as regular artillery. During the Spanish Civil War, and notwithstanding its political character, the role of the militia was subordinated to that of the army, especially after the defeat at Guadalajara in 1937. The militia had no influence on the younger officers coming into the army and it produced no new military concepts. No real parallels can be drawn between the fascist militia and Hitler'sWaffen-SS, just as there were only superficial points of resemblance between the fascist squads and the Freikorps in the years immediately after the First World War.

In 1940–1, despite military defeats and M collapse of fascist prestige, there still prevailed among the Italian population a feeling of apathy and a sense of inevitable German supremacy. The somewhat artificial Balkan ‘conquests’ seemed to prefigure the future status of Italy as a satellite of the Third Reich. But by the spring of 1942, despite the successes of the Axis and the Japanese, the mood had changed. The German defeat before Moscow in December 1941, US intervention in the war, and the increasing shortages of food combined to create a feeling that in the long run Germany must lose. Among the economic élite the fear spread that the USSR would interpose between the defeat of Germany and the Anglo-Saxon victory with consequences which would be felt both inside and outside Italy. Lower down the social scale, a revival of sympathy for communism was accompanied by an awareness of the power of the USA, something which decades of emigration had fixed firmly in the popular consciousness.

Scheming between Marshal Badoglio and Princess Maria José of Savoy, the daughter-in-law of King Victor Emmanuel, to make contact with the British and Americans began in August 1942; by that time the most cunning leading fascists such as Grandi and Giuseppe Bottai were also trying to get into the crown's good books. Old, and new, parties began to be active underground. In the summer of 1941 the Communist Party rebuilt its rank and file and the clandestine edition of its newspaper L'Unità appeared the following year. In July 1942 the Party of Action was formed as heir to the democratic ‘Justice and Liberty’ group whose leader, Carlo Rosselli, had been assassinated in France in 1937 on Mussolini's orders. Catholics, too, reorganized in what would become the Christian Democrat party, and exiles were active abroad: in Toulouse secret accords between the socialists and ‘Justice and Liberty’ were reached in 1941 and a liberal and republican congress took place in Montevideo on 27 August 1942.

The turning-point came in 1942–3 with Stalingrad, the bloody defeat of the Italian Army on the Eastern Front, and the American landings in North A The RAF DD thern Italian cities led to a flight from the towns into the countryside which gave rise, on trainsn factories, to a freedom of discussion not seen or dared for years. All strata of society were affected by these changes. Some soldiers and politicians, anticipating the wishes of the crown, sought contact with the Allies, but were obstructed by what seemed to Italians to be an ambiguous posture. Churchill never departed from his theme that ‘one man alone, Mussolini’ was responsible for Italian disasters, but in January 1943 the British foreign secretary, Anthony Eden, rejected feelers put out via Switzerland for unseating the Duce.

At first industrialists were interested in the ferment among the fascist leaders, not only because of the opportunities it offered for personal survival but also because of the possibility of political reincarnation. In November– December 1942 Alberto Pirelli, the rubber magnate, recorded in his dary the mixture of euphoria and animus being shown by Bottai, Dino Grandi, Galeazzo Ciano, and Luigi Federzoni, and by Giuseppe Volpi ‘who has hopes of succeeding Mussolini’. Very shortly afterwards Pirelli saw the possibility of a different outcome when, on 26 March 1943, he talked with Cardinal Luigi Maglione, a close collaborator of Pope Pius XII, who spoke of the communist threat and of resolving the situation not by means of discredited fascist relics but through ‘the monarchy, the crown, the church, the army and the leaders of the economy’.

Mussolini appeared indecisive and impotent. He urged Hitler to make a separate peace with the USSR in December 1942 and April 1943, and tried to distract public opinion by changing his entourage: the head of the Comando Supremo was replaced on 31 January 1943, and Ciano, the foreign minister, and other members of the government were sacked on 5 February. In fact, the Duce was living from day to day and had completely lost his willpower. He failed to grasp the significance of the major strikes which took place in Milan and Turin in February 1943 (after Amsterdam, the first in Hitler's Europe); and after the Allied landings in Sicily he agreed to the calling of the Fascist Grand Council which had not met since 1939) on 24 July, even though he knew it was likely to be hostile. The meeting was requested by Grandi, Bottai, Ciano, and others who hoped that the king would get rid of Mussolini and put them in power, possibly under a military presidency.

The meeting lasted well into the night and witnessed a noisy quarrel which left Mussolini isolated. In fact the king, after long hesitation, had just accepted a military plan masterminded by Vittorio Ambrosio, the new head of the Comando Supremo, to arrest Mussolini as he left a royal audience, after which he could be replaced with Marshal Badoglio. The vote of the Grand Council offered the king the cover of constitutional legitimacy for this move: Mussolini was arrested on 25 July and secretly transported to a series of hideaways at Ponza, La Maddalena, and then in the mountains of Gran Sasso. (See Map 55.)

(b) From 25 July 1943

Badoglio immediately formed a government of soldiers and technocrats which excluded any of the conspirators on the grand council. Popular demonstrations in support of the change were tolerated for a few days and then viciously repressed when they crossed the boundary of political demonstration and began to demand social reforms and immediate peace, which made them immediately suspect in German eyes (100 were killed, 536 wounded, and thousands arrested, chiefly in Turin, Milan, Reggio Emilia, and Bari). Badoglio was backed by the army, the church, and the leading economic elements. Many fascist leaders hid, fled to Germany, or took refuge in neutral countries; but Enzio Galbiati, head of the fascist militia, and Carlo Scorza, secretary of the party, quickly adapted to the new conditions. After the initial period of repression anti-fascists cautiously re-grouped and gradually succeeded in freeing some political detainees, including communists: more than 3,000 were freed and most became the core of the resistance (see below).

Badoglio wanted to negotiate secretly with the Allies while holding the Germans at arm's length and hoped to make an armistice coincide with a major Anglo-American landing backed by Italian troops. Apparently the Germans played along in order to win time to reinforce their forces in Italy, which were increased from six divisions in July to eighteen in September with four more on their way. At meetings in Bologna and Treviso, Ambrosio and Raffaele Guariglia (at that time foreign minister) tried vainly to resist these reinforcements which were officially described as being for the common defence. Also the dealings with the Allies were compromised as a result of mistakes and improvisations by the Italians who hoped for an Allied landing of fifteen divisions—more troops than the British and Americans had in the whole of the Mediterranean and more than they were able to land in Normandy the following year (see OVERLORD).

On 3 September the ‘short’ armistice terms were signed at Cassibile. General Eisenhower, the Allied supreme commander, agreed to send an airborne division to aid in the defence of Rome but the Italian general staff said they were unable to take the measures necessary to secure a landing for it. The clandestine negotiators, who reached Rome at considerable risk on 7 September, had therefore to return with the message that help could not be accepted. The armistice was announced on 8 September. While the Allies landed at Salerno, against fierce German resistance, Badoglio and the general staff fled south, abandoning millions of soldiers without any orders. There were a number of heroic episodes. On Cephalonia the Acqui Division held out against the Germans from 15 to 22 September; 1,250 Italian troops died in the battle and a further 4,750 were subsequently shot. On Leros, aided by the British, the Italians held out until November 1943. In Rome the High Command used only a few of the available troops, but the Granatieri (grenadier) Division, with the armoured cars of the Montebello Regiment (of the Ariete Division) and aided by armed civilians, put up a stiff defence of Porta San Paolo. Nevertheless within only 24 hours the Italian Army disintegrated. Some 650,000 soldiers were deported to Germany. The fleet reached Malta, en route losing the modern battleship Roma to German guided weapons. The air force saved perhaps 400 planes and the army 16 divisions (7 of them coastal divisions) which were located in the far south and Sardinia.

After September 1943 Italy became a country fought over by foreign powers. National political organizations were shaped by military events: in the south, the Badoglio formula under close Anglo-American supervision and in the north the creation of the Italian Social Republic (RSI), or Saló Republic, under German domination and led by Mussolini, who had been freed by Skorzeny. This return to the past, which used Gargnano on Lake Garda as its headquarters, was immediately challenged by a popular armed revolt co-ordinated by the clandestine Committees for National Liberation (see resistance, below). The resistance movement opposed not only the Germans and the fascists but also—with the exception of a few moderate groups—the monarchical regime which seemed to be prevailing in the south.

The RSI made much of the supposedly republican and socialist origins of fascism, reviving the name of Mazzini and accusing the monarchy, the generals, and the industrialists of betrayal, the latter after having enjoyed 20 years of preferential treatment. Mussolini's speeches on German radio on 18 September, and at the congress which met at Verona in November 1943, were revolutionary tirades on the decadence of the monarchy, the enforced nationalization of industry, and the need to fight alongside the German ally. Mussolini thought to demonstrate his ‘Roman’ character by having Ciano and th(c)e ‘traitors’ of the Grand Council on whom he could lay hands shot on 11 January 1944 (see Verona trials).

At first support for the RSI and enlistment into the military forces headed by Marshal Graziani (which included much of the Tenth Light flotilla commanded by Prince Borghese) was quite considerable, due to a combination of fear, disorientation, the desperation of old fascists who had been compromised, and a certain determination on the part of the young not to abandon at a time of misfortune a system which they had applauded while it was successful. However it rapidly became apparent that the Germans saw the RSI as no more than a tool of occupation. The provinces of Trento, Bolzano, Belluno, Gorizia, Trieste, and Pola passed under direct German administration (see 1Map 56). The country was systematically plundered, beginning with the gold in the Bank of Italy (see also loot). More than 100,000 workers were deported to Germany, while a special German office took over control of Italian industry solely for the benefit of the German war, completely disregarding Mussolini's ‘socialization’. The workers showed their lack of enthusiasm for Mussolini's belated socialism and for measures nominally taken on their behalf by going on strike: more than 500,000 downed tools in Turin and Milan in November 1943 and March 1944, Conscription, attempted by the RSI, raised a few units, including four divisions which were trained in Germany, but pushed tens of thousands of young men into the burgeoning ranks of the partisans.

Important though the partisan war was, it is important not to overlook the non-fascist political developments both in the north and in the south, which were of great significance for Italy's post-war development. In the south the king and Badoglio, supported by the Allies and especially by the British, moved against the anti-fascist parties who opposed them (for the most part republicans) and who, like Count Sforza, were generally disinclined to reach a compromise with the old ruling classes. This split risked compromising the small share in military operations which the Allies were prepared to allow the Italian forces in the south.

The situation persisted until April 1944 when, after the USSR had recognized Badoglio on 14 March, and Palmiro Togliatti had arrived back in Italy from the USSR as Stalin's agent, the communists decided to collaborate with the king. Their sole condition was that Victor Emmanuel would step down once Rome was taken, naming his son Umberto as his ‘lieutenant’, and that the future of the monarchy would be decided once the war was over. The arguments over this move (known as the ‘Salerno turn-around’) still persist today. Togliatti undoubtedly obeyed Moscow's orders, following a united front policy and breaking up the cohesion of the anti-monarchist bloc, as well as angering intransigent elements in his own party. On the other hand, the ‘turn’ was a realistic move. From the communists' point of view, dreams of revolution did not mesh with Anglo-American predominance and it was more important to integrate the party into post-war politics. From the national point of view, this ended the immediate struggle and created a common body of anti-fascist feeling which lasted into the Cold War and beyond.

The formation of a government which included the main parties of the Committees for National Liberation, under the leadership first of Badoglio and then, from June 1944, of Ivanoe Bonomi, won support from the Allies and the Soviets, thereby allowing the artful Badoglio the opportunity sometimes to play one side off against the other.

4. Defence forces and civil defence

Until the end of the 19th century, the Italian alpine and maritime frontiers were defended by a combination of permanent fortifications and fixed artillery. After the First World War, new corps and new specialist bodies were formed to fulfil these tasks (and the new duty of anti-aircraft defence): these included the Frontier Guard (Guardia alla Frontiera, or GAF), made up of nine regiments of artillery and one of infantry as well as a number of smaller detachments, which was divided among eleven army corps districts as well as being assigned to special defensive zones. In addition there were specialist militia units which included MILMART (Milizia Marittima Artiglieria), or coastal artillery and DICAT (Difesa Contraerea Territoriale), the country's anti-aircraft command which had many machine-guns and, by 1940, consisted of some 200 batteries armed at times with good guns but lacking fire directors. In 1940–3 these units, along with some 400 battalions of territorial and coastal troops, were divided among the fifteen regional army corps commands. The whole was commanded by a chief of staff for territorial defence, responsible sometimes to the war minister and sometimes to the army chief of general staff. In addition to these forces, all military units which were permanently or temporarily stationed in command districts were available for territorial defence duties. Fortified naval bases and selected tracts of coastline had special defences.

This organization was extended and strengthened during the war, partly by adding to fixed units and partly by stationing mobile units in such a way as to secure the defence of the most threatened zones, commencing in 1940–1 with the major islands. Gradually the islands and the peninsula itself were divided into military districts allocated to the various armies (Sixth Army in Sicily, Seventh Army in the far south, Fifth Army for a large part of the Tyrrhenian coast and Sardinia). The exact number of troops involved is impossible to determine but by the summer of 1941 it exceeded half a million. This figure increased to approximately 1,500,000 men when the 25 to 30 mobile divisions stationed in Italy were also taken into account; these included units assigned to armies in the course of formation, those preparing to go to the Eastern and African fronts and those earmarked for special duties such as the planned landings on Corsica and Malta, as well as the Fourth Army which was stationed on the French frontier. In the summer of 1941, 350 anti-parachutist groups (Nuclei anti Paracadutisti, or NAP) were also created and spread throughout the country. Formed from army units, and sometimes from the fascist militia, they numbered 20–35 men each and were equipped with a lorry and sometimes with bicycles and motor cycles. These units seem to have done good service; and their creation avoided the need to have recourse to the carabinieri (see 5(c) below) and security guards as had happened when a group of British parachutists had successfully been hunted down and eliminated in the Calabrian region (see Tragino).

The most important innovation, however, was the publication of regulations for the defence of the maritime frontier in the autumn of 1941, following which 20 divisions and ten coastal brigades were created in the succeeding 12 to 16 months. A protective cordon of units comprising infantry, machine-gun detachments, old artillery, and extremely primitive communications was set up, starting with the most exposed zones (Sicily and Sardinia). These divisions and brigades, which eventually amounted to more than 600,000 men after absorbing pre-existing units with similar functions, were assigned to the various armies garrisoning the peninsula. Their task was to delay any attempted enemy landing for long enough to allow the mobile units stationed in the interior to intervene. The structure, sensible enough in itself, would have functioned well had the armament and communications of the coastal units been better and had the interior forces consisted of strong armoured and motorized forces; however, most were infantry divisions, moderately well equipped but at best only transportable by motor vehicles in relays. Their artillery was mostly of pre-First World War vintage; and their transport, a motley collection of mules, horses, bicycles, motor cycles, and a few lorries, belonged in a museum. Given this state of affairs, it is remarkable that some of the coastal units in Sicily (for example, the 202nd Division) gave the Anglo-American forces such a good run for their money at the start of the Sicilian campaign, albeit briefly.

Anti-aircraft defences were allocated to different localities according to available resources. Many of these locales were simply ‘spotting zones’, with personnel equipped only with a pair of binoculars and a telephone. More effective were the improvised arrangements made at the time when the RAF launched its major raids on the northern cities from autumn 1942 to summer 1943 (see strategic air offensives, 2). Since the British bomber formations almost always flew over Switzerland, Italian diplomats and consuls there were able to telephone warnings to military commanders who then had sirens sounded. The air force took no part in anti-aircraft defence: it exercised autonomous control over fighter interceptions, which were almost always launched on the return routes.

The fact that, from 1941 to 1943, there were never less than a million and a half men stationed in Italy, a figure which eventually rose to over two million, raises a number of important issues. For one thing, Italy never had any equivalent to the British Home Guard. The only comparable body of which any traces remain is the National Union for Anti-Aircraft Protection (Union Nazional Protezione Antiacrea, or UNPA), whose activities involved fining those who broke the blackout regulations and collaborating with the fire brigade in putting out incendiaries and helping the population during and after bombing attacks. Finally it is worth noting that in order to maintain the appearance of normality, Mussolini authorized large public works programmes as late as 1942. None was ever completed, but some were begun using valuable concrete which the military had requested for coastal fortifications.

5. Armed forces and special forces

(a) High Command

From 1925 Mussolini was minister for all armed forces, save for a brief interlude between 1929 and 1933. He acted through three under-secretaries who were almost always also chiefs of staff of their respective branches of the armed forces. These officials, who enjoyed a large measure of autonomy in exchange for public servility to the Duce, were generally switched every three years or so. This system gave Mussolini the advantage of dealing with each of the armed forces separately; for him this advantage outweighed the consequent inefficiency and lack of co-ordination. The post of chief of general staff of the armed forces (see Comando Supremo), created by laws of 1925 and 1927, was held by Marshal Badoglio, one of the heroes of 1918. He was a meticulous, professional soldier but one whose mind was entirely closed to modern ideas, and he was little more than a figurehead.

Badoglio, who had no staff to head, acted as an adviser to the Duce and could only correspond with the chiefs of staff of the three arms through their respective ministries—which almost always meant going through Mussolini. He lacked any real powers but served to calm the anxieties of the crown and the public who, ignorant of the true state of affairs, saw him at the head of the armed forces and trusted him. Badoglio accepted this role and also took on other lucrative tasks: he was governor of Libya 1929–33 and commanded in Abyssinia in 1935–6. In 1938 Mussolini, wishing to give himself high military rank (notwithstanding his legal powers, he was still only a sergeant in the light infantry, or bersaglieri), passed a law making himself and the king ‘first marshals of the empire’. In 1940, on the eve of war, he persuaded the king to delegate overall military command to him personally.

As supreme commander, Mussolini was assisted by Badoglio, chief of the armed forces general staff, whose powers in relation both to the Duce and the three services were ill-defined. At the end of 1940 Badoglio was replaced by Ugo Cavallero who completely reformed the post in June 1941 (see below), before being replaced by Vittorio Ambrosio in 1943. The navy and the air force were both commanded by chiefs of staff who also retained the powers of ministerial under-secretaries (Mussolini himself being the minister in both cases); they were respectively Admiral Domenico Cavagnari (replaced in December 1940 by Arturo Riccardi and in 1943 by Raffaele De Courten) and General Francesco Pricolo (replaced by Rino Corso Fougier in 1941 and Renato Sandalli in 1943). From November 1939 the posts of chief of staff and under-secretary of the army, which had previously been combined, were separated and given respectively to Marshal Rodolfo Graziani and General Ubaldo Soddu. Soddu, who in June 1940 also became deputy chief of the armed forces general staff (and therefore Badoglio's deputy), briefly commanded the Italian troops in the Balkan campaign before being retired in December 1940. The post of deputy chief of the armed forces general staff was abolished by Cavallero as part of his reforms, while the under-secretaryship of war was held first by General Antonino Squero ( 1941) and then by General Antonio Sorice ( 1943). Despite being put in command of Libya after the death of Marshal Balbo on 28 June 1940, Graziani remained the army chief of staff until march 1941, aided as deputy chief of staff by Mario Roatta who himself assumed the post in 1941, being succeeded in January 1942 by Vittorio Ambrosio and in February 1943 by Ezio Rosi; finally in June 1943 Roatta returned once more.

This complex pyramid, complicated from the first months of the war by shifts in function and authority both in Rome and at the various military fronts, encouraged Mussolini's—and Ciano's—natural tendencies to intervene at all levels of the hierarchy with verbal, written, and telephoned orders which were often contradictory.

In the winter of 1940–1, disasters on land and at sea put an end to the ‘parallel’ war which Mussolini had hoped to win with only indirect German assistance. Hitler now intervened directly in the battle for the Mediterranean, not to win the conflict there but only to help his ally. Rommel's small but highly effective force stabilized the position in Libya while large German forces overawed Romania and Bulgaria and by June 1941 had conquered Yugoslavia, Greece, and Crete. In Germany's wake, Italy gained large but unpacified territories in Dalmatia, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, and Greece.

The substantial Italian forces detached to the Balkans from 1941 onwards were naturally involved in the anti-partisan campaigns, which were especially bitter in Yugoslavia, as were the units in France although to a much lesser extent. Alongside the excesses of these campaigns should be set the fact that the Garibaldi Division fought with Tito and the partisans and that the Italian military authorities saved some 600,000 Croatian Jews from the Ustašas and as (in 1942–3) protected approximately 240,000 French Jews from capture by the Germans and the Vichy police.

While the bulk of the German forces then turned on the USSR in June 1941 (see BARBAROSSA), and were employed almost exclusively on the Eastern Front until the summer of 1944, there began for Mussolini what was called—though not by him—the ‘subaltern war’, which aimed at currying favour with Germany. With the end of the Balkan campaign, which was at once followed by a guerrilla war, the structure of the Italian High Command settled down a little. Cavallero had replaced Badoglio in December 1940 but until May 1941 he had remained in Albania commanding the Italian Forces fighting the Greeks. He then returned to Rome and set up a real Supreme Command, somewhat larger and better organized than Badoglio's which even by December 1940 had numbered only a few more officers than the 26 of the previous June. He was unable to make himself the only intermediary between Mussolini and the armed forces because the heads of the navy and the air force, who as under-secretaries were part of the government, continued to deal directly with the Duce. However he did improve inter-service collaboration and he tried to improve protection for naval traffic with Libya, now being held to ransom by the British thanks to ULTRA intelligence. However his efforts to improve the quality of Italian equipment were still hampered by inefficiency and vested interests (see domestic life, above).

(b) Army

From 1937 the organizational target was an army of 126 divisions (see Graph for numbers actually achieved, and type). These formations—called ‘binary’ divisions as they had two regiments of three battalions each instead of the previous three of three—were really mixed brigades which included two regimental batteries of pack artillery of eight 65 mm. (2.5 in.) guns and two of 81 mm. (3.1 in.) mortars (12 guns), a divisional battalion of 81 mm. mortars (18 guns), a divisional regiment of artillery of 24 75 mm. (2.9 in.) guns and 12 100 mm. (3.9 in.) guns (all horse-drawn or pack) and sometimes in addition an anti-tank company of eight 47 mm. (1.8 in.) guns (not self-propelled), one anti-aircraft company of eight 20 mm. (0.8 in.) machine-guns and a somewhat shabby force of fascist Blackshirts (two small battalions).

The so-called ‘self-transportable’ divisions had a regiment of truck-drawn artillery and could move their infantry on specially assigned trucks. Motorized divisions had three motorized regiments (six battalions in all), and motorized artillery. Light divisions (celeri) consisted of two regiments of cavalry, one of bersaglieri on trucks, motor cycles, and bicycles, and a regiment of artillery which was partly horse-drawn and partly motorized. Armoured divisions had one regiment of infantry consisting of 184 light tanks, a regiment of bersaglieri (two battalions in trucks, the third on motor cycles) and a regiment of motorized artillery of 24 75 mm. guns. Alpine divisions consisted of two regiments of alpini and a regiment of artillery of 24 75 mm. pack guns. Anti-aircraft and anti-tank weapons were slightly increased in the motorized and light divisions, while in the armoured divisions only the 20 mm. guns were doubled in number. Alpine divisions had neither anti-aircraft nor anti-tank guns. Colonial divisions could be transported by truck but had particularly antiquated weapons.

Infantry divisions functioned as ‘attack columns’, which were easily self-transportable, to create and exploit any tactical opportunity, and control both of the movement of individual divisions and of the medium calibre guns was retained by army corps headquarters. Replacement of the First World War artillery was planned to start only in 1942–3. Automobiles were few and tanks, other than the 24 very poor M11s in Abyssinia and another 72 quickly sent to Libya, were always the feeble CV3 (see domestic life, above). Radio communications were generally backward, and no tanks were equipped with radios. The so-called ‘binary division’ can fairly be criticized because it served chiefly to increase the number of generals in the army. However, during the war almost every army lightened its divisions and Italy had to do so in the Western Desert campaigns in 1941–2, diminishing the infantry component yet further by increasing anti-tank and anti-aircraft units. The failure of the binary division in the Balkan campaign of 1940–1, which was fought in First World War style, was due above all to the fact that Mussolini had just sent 600,000 men out of a total force of 1,100,000 on leave for political reasons and, not wanting to recall them, filled the divisions with untrained men who were unfamiliar even with basic infantry weapons.

On 10 June 1940 the army numbered 1,600,000 men (600,000 overseas and 1,000,000 in Italy, to whom a further 100,000 were added during the summer), with 19,500 regular and 37,000 reserve officers. Excluding Italian East Africa, which had a separate organization, it comprised 26 army corps: one armoured, one self-transportable, one light, one alpine, and 22 ordinary corps. There were 73 divisions in the army: 3 armoured, 2 motorized, 3 light, 5 Alpine, 43 marching infantry, and 17 ‘self-transportable’. Of these, 14 self-transportable divisions (including 3 Blackshirt and 2 colonial divisions) were in Libya (Fifth and Tenth Armies), 5 in Albania (1 armoured, 3 infantry, and 1 Alpine), one infantry division was in the Dodecanese and the remaining 53 divisions were in Italy.

These forces were divided into three army groups. Army Group West (commanded by Umberto of Savoy, Prince of Piedmont) contained the First Army under General Pietro Pintor and the Fourth Army under General Alfredo Guzzoni and numbered 22 divisions, four of them Alpine. Army Group East (commanded by General Camillo Grossi) comprised the Second Army under General Ambrosio, the Sixth Army, the Po, under General Mario Vercellino, and the Eighth Army under the Duke of Bergamo. Army group South (commanded by Marshal Emilio De Bono) was composed of the Third Army under General Carlo Geloso, two army corps scattered on the larger islands, and the Albanian command. The Seventh Army (commanded by the Duke of Pistoia) formed a general reserve. Outside Italy there was an Aegean Islands Command under General Cesare Maria de Vecchi, while in Libya first Balbo and then Graziani commanded the Tenth Army under General Mario Berti and the Fifth Army under General Italo Gariboldi which amounted to fourteen infantry divisions, three of which were Blackshirts and two were colonial divisions.

During the course of the war the army groups and armies were frequently dissolved and reconstituted with varying shapes and contents. During 1940–1 the three army groups and First, Third, Sixth, and Eighth Armies were dissolved and a special army group was created for the Balkan campaign comprising two new armies, the Ninth under General Vercellino and then Alessandro Pirzio Biroli, and the Eleventh under General Geloso. After May 1941 they garrisoned Albania and Greece respectively. Yugoslavian territory was occupied until 1943 by the Second Army commanded by General Ambrosio, then Roatta, and finally Mario Robotti with a special corps in Montenegro under Pirzio Biroli. The Fourth Army under General Vercellino was stationed on the French frontier and in November 1942 occupied large areas of Vichy France. The Eighth Army, reconstructed in 1942, was sent to the Eastern Front (see below), while the Sixth Army under General Guzzoni, now with a very different composition, was in Sicily at the time of the Allied landings in July 1943. After the destruction of the Tenth Army in the Western Desert campaigns and the dissolution of the Fifth Army in Libya in 1941, Italian forces operated alongside Rommel's divisions only up to corps level; commanded first by Gariboldi and then by General Ettore Bastico, they included an armoured corps (commanded successively by Generals Gastone Gambara, Francesco Zingales, Ettore Baldassare, and Giuseppe De Stefanis). In 1942 these corps were incorporated into Rommel's German—Italian Panzer Army. This in turn was transformed into the First Italian Army in Tunisia (though it retained the German forces) and this force, under the orders of General (later Marshal) Messe fought bravely at Mareth, Wadi Akarit, and Enfidaville during the last phase of the North African campaign. Meanwhile other Italian troops fought in Tunisia under the command of the Fifth German Army.

In June 1940 some 30 divisions (First, Fourth, and Seventh Armies and part of Sixth Army), under the command of Prince Umberto, the heir to the throne, attacked through the French Alps with little success. Then 40 divisions were concentrated in the Veneto (the three regions of Venezia, Venezia Tridentina, and Venezia Giulia) for an attack on Yugoslavia, but this was forbidden by Hitler in August 1940. In the Western Desert Marshal Graziani, who had taken over command after Marshal Balbo had been shot down over Tobruk by Italian anti-aircraft fire, advanced 100 km. (62 mi.) into Egypt, using 72 M11 tanks alongside his infantry columns, but was subsequently defeated at Sidi Barrani, Bardia, and Beda Fomm.

From Italian East Africa, where the Duke of Aosta commanded 352 obsolescent aircraft, and 91,000 Italian and 200,000 native troops (divided into 2 divisions, 29 colonial brigades, and 34 other battalions), excursions were made into the Sudan and Kenya (see East African campaign), and British Somaliland was captured. But by mid-1941 these early victories had been turned into defeat.

Despite these commitments, Mussolini still had sufficient resources to take part in the German–Soviet war, even though the Germans had not initially asked for Italian assistance. An army corps made up of three divisions (Torino, Pasubio, and 3rd Light) was sent to the Eastern Front in 1941 and, under the command of Messe, fought well both on the offensive (at Petrikowka on the Dnieper, Stalino, and elsewhere) and on the defensive (in the Donetz basin). In 1942, this time at Germany's request, Italian forces were greatly expanded. The Eighth Army, now under the command of Gariboldi ( Messe was repatriated in October 1942), now had a further seven divisions in addition to the original three: Ravenna, Cosseria, Sforzesca, and Vicenza (infantry), and Julia, Tridentina, and Cuneense (Alpine) as well as some Blackshirt units. In total the force, which had numbered 60,000 under Messe, now amounted to 220,000 men. The air component, which in 1941 had amounted to some 90 fighter, reconnaissance, and transport planes, was expanded in 1942 by the addition of more modern fighters (MC202s), several reconnaissance and bomber squadrons (twin-engined Fiat BR20s), and other transport aircraft. Most importantly, the very few modern heavy and anti-tank guns went to the Eastern Front—36 of the 48 available 149 mm. (5.8 in.) guns, all 12 210 mm. (8.1 in.) howitzers and the only 36 75 mm. (2.9 in.) guns—as well as over 16,000 motor vehicles, more than would have been necessary to motorize all the Italian forces in North Africa. The Italian Army advanced to the Don where it was partially destroyed by the Soviet counter-offensive at Stalingrad which crushed the entire German southern wing of the front. Some midget submarines and small surface units of Italy's most successful special forces unit, the Tenth Light Flotilla, had a number of successes in the Black Sea, and on Lake Ladoga during the siege of Leningrad. But it was the employment of the Italian land forces on the Eastern Front which helped to frustrate a sketchy and ill-thought-out Mediterranean strategy pursued by the Axis in the spring of 1942.

In fact the matériel destined for the Eastern Front was collected together at a time when the efforts of the Italian fleet and German U-boats, together with the temporary air reinforcements granted by Hitler, would have allowed the shipment of more stores to Libya for several months. At the same time preparations were made during the siege of Malta for an amphibious attack on the island, in which the crack Folgore Parachute Division and a number of other, better adapted, units were scheduled to take part. All this was in vain when, after the capture of Tobruk on 21 June 1942, Hitler abandoned the Malta project in favour of pursuing the retreating British forces deep into Egypt. The epilogue occurred at El Alamein in October 1942, where the Italians sacrificed the Trento, Bologna, Brescia, and Pavia infantry divisions, the Folgore parachute division, the Sabratha Division (lost at the end of July), and most of the two armoured divisions (Ariete and Littorio).

By this stage, with the German failure in the east, which also shook the Italian Army, and with the North African landings heralding the start of the North African campaign, the Axis Mediterranean strategy had become simply one of survival. Fierce resistance was put up in Tunisia to this end, resulting in the loss of the last armoured division (Centauro), the Giovani Fascisti and Trieste infantry divisions (formerly motorized, they had survived Siwa and El Alamein respectively), and a number of other units initially destined for Malta (Pistoia, La Spezia, and Superga). Also destined for Malta was the Livorno Division which instead fought bravely in Sicily in July and August 1943. If the 20 coastal divisions, which were of little account, are subtracted from the 90 divisions—now totalling about three million men—which existed in 1943, along with the remnants of the 10 divisions lost on the Eastern Front, 10 lost in Sicily (of which 6 were coastal divisions), and the 40 or so divisions divided between the Balkans and France, there remained only about 15 divisions, some of whom opposed the German occupation after the armistice on 8 September 1943 and later fought with the Allies. In fact, despite Anglo-American lack of enthusiasm, Italian participation in the Italian campaign grew. Until the summer of 1944 the Italians were only permitted a ‘motorized group’ (a reinforced regiment), which fought at Monte Cassino, and the Italian Corps of Liberation (equivalent to a division) which operated chiefly in the Adriatic sector.

However, the transfer of some Allied forces from Italy for the French Riviera landings in August 1944 forced Alexander to arm six Italian divisions, of which four were used, although they were called ‘combat groups’ and not allowed to combine into a single corps for fear of political repercussions. The soldiers who made up these ‘groups’ (which were deployed from January to April 1945 in the front between Bologna and the Adriatic) fought bravely and at some cost: 1,868 died, 5,187 were wounded, and 443 were listed as missing, mostly killed.

To these losses, and those of 8 September 1943 (19,000 dead and wounded) may be added those suffered in the war against the Allies: some 200,000 dead (80,000 on the Eastern Front, more than 50,000 in the Balkans, 20–22,000 in Africa, some 40–50,000 at sea, in the air and in minor episodes), a larger but unknown number of wounded, and more than 600,000 taken prisoner. Even today there are no exact figures, but it is reasonable to estimate the total number of dead, including those who fell in the partisan war and the victims of Allied bombing, reprisals, German deportations, and so on, at above 300,000.

(c) Fascist Militia and Carabinieri

By 1940 the fascist militia or Blackshirts amounted to 177 legions (39 of which were attached to infantry divisions of the army while another six formed three divisions in Libya), as well as about 200 battalions (of which 132 were territorials and 30 were in Italian East Africa), and a number of specialized units which included DICAT anti-aircraft units (22 artillery legions with 228 batteries and 4,206 machine-gun squads) and MILMART coastal artillery (seedefence forces, above). Discounting militia units with non-military roles (roads, forests, post and telegraph), there were in Italy and its colonies more than 300,000 Blackshirts. The militia divisions in Libya were comparable to the ‘self transportable’ infantry divisions of the army. In addition, the fascist organizations formed battalions of fascist youth, some of whom were incorporated into the army and performed well in the Western Desert and in North Africa from the autumn of 1941 until May 1943.

The carabinieri, founded in Piedmont in 1814, came under the war ministry for their organization and equipment and under the interior ministry for their employment. They functioned as military police and sometimes formed combat units. There were also two other less important police forces: the public security police and the customs police (guardia di finanza). In 1940 the carabinieri amounted to 7 brigades, 28 territorial legions (the equivalent of militia regiments), one school, one pupil legion, and a number of overseas detachments in East Africa, Libya, Albania, and Egypt. It had also formed three administrative divisions, and by the summer of 1943 numbered 156,000 men.

(d) Navy

The Italian Navy was every bit as fiercely independent as the air force. As its head, Admiral Cavagnari served as chief of staff and under-secretary for seven years—an exceptionally lengthy period of command during the fascist regime. Its 6 battleships (2 modern and 4 re-built), 19 cruisers (7 of 10,000 tons), its 100 smaller surface vessels (which included three auxiliary cruisers), and 113 submarines were built on the basis of two erroneous suppositions: that Italy's enemy would be France alone and that the First World War naval battle of Jutland would remain the eternal model for all naval actions. The 168,614 officers and men of the Italian Navy in June 1940 (a number which had risen to 259,000 by August 1943) formed a separate body, perhaps better trained than the two other services but still a long way behind other navies in respect of its technical development. Leaving aside the lack of radar and ASDIC and the absence of aircraft carriers, it may be noted that naval gunnery put a premium on muzzle velocity and range rather than on accuracy, that speeds reached during trials could not be maintained on active service due to poor sea-keeping ability, and that night fighting was regarded as an improbability. Supplies of oil were limited from the start, amounting to only 1,700,000 tons which had been stockpiled before the war started and which, from the summer of 1941 onwards, had to be supplemented by a monthly supply from Romania. More serious was the attitude that large and expensive warships should not be risked lest Italy end the war without a navy. It was almost as though the naval High Command wanted to preserve its fleet even at the cost of losing the war.

It was this outlook, and not any lack of courage, which led to no risks being taken in the summer of 1940 when fuel was still abundant but peace seemed close at hand. However the fleet was employed at the end of 1941 and during the first half of 1942, despite the shortage of fuel, when Malta and the situation in the Western Desert made it inescapable. It was once again kept from danger in 1942–3 when, with peace looming, conserving a navy seemed more important than making a grand gesture; by this time, a shortage of light shipping exacerbated the problems of lack of fuel and air cover. Paradoxically, it was the British—the defenders, not the aggressors—who attacked first when they raided Taranto on 12 November 1940. Three Italian battleships were disabled by their antiquated Swordfish biplanes and the prudence with which Cavagnari had restrained his admirals during the summer, directing their operations from the navy staff war room at admiralty headquarters in Rome, went for nothing. Taranto cost Cavagnari his job (he was replaced by Admiral Arturo Riccardi), but the more determined deployment of surface vessels terminated in disaster at Cape Matapan ( 28 March 1941).

The most notable Italian achievements in the war at sea were attained by small submarine units; by torpedo bombers operating against the Malta convoys, especially during August 1942; and by Tenth Light Flotilla attacks on warships and merchant ships in British harbours at Alexandria, Suda Bay, and Gibraltar.

All in all, the navy performed well in supplying Italian troops in Libya for three years despite British intervention from Malta and above all the effects of ULTRA intelligence from the summer of 1941. The sacrifice of both men and ships was considerable: some 15,000 of the 33,859 men in the navy died and over 800,000 tons of merchant shipping was lost (see below). But when regarded in aggregate terms the results of this effort were remarkable: 91.7% of the 206,202 men and 84.6% of the 2,844,698 tons of stores and fuel sent to North Africa were landed there. Many more men were transported by plane, although capacity was limited by the need to carry fuel for the return trip. However, although the loads successfully carried by sea and air were large in percentage terms, they were much less than what was needed. Traffic was protected partly by mining the Sicilian straits and the confines of Tripoli using German mines; this contributed to the partial destruction of Force K in December 1941.

By the time of the armistice of September 1943 the navy had preserved six battleships and nine cruisers after sacrificing many smaller ships and submarines—the latter taking part in the battle of the Atlantic from 1941. Having possessed about 680,000 tons of shipping at the start of the war, to which were added 136,234 tons of new construction and 62,453 tons of seized foreign shipping, the navy had lost 334,757 tons (265,392 tons of surface shipping and 69,365 tons of submarines). Three cruisers, 11 destroyers, 6 torpedo boats, 15 smaller vessels, and 11 submarines had been sunk by gunfire; a battleship, 6 cruisers, 11 destroyers, 7 torpedo boats, 7 smaller ships, and 41 submarines had been sunk by aerial or naval torpedoes. The battleship lost was the Cavour, damaged at Taranto and not fully repaired by 8 September 1943. Aerial bombing accounted for 2 cruisers, 9 destroyers, 10 torpedo boats, and 98 smaller vessels. Mines sank 6 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats, 12 smaller ships, and 3 submarines. Finally a cruiser, 7 destroyers, 6 torpedo boats, 66 smaller ships, and 20 submarines were lost to unknown causes.

(e) Air Force

The Italian Air Force, the pride of fascism and greatly overrated by outsiders, comprised 23 flights of land bombers, 2 flights of naval bombers, 1 group of dive-bombers, 1 assault flight, and 2 combat groups; 6 flights, 8 groups, and 2 squadrons of fighters; 56 reconnaissance squadrons and 2 colonial groups. In all, these formations amounted to 1,753 front-line aircraft, of which only 900 were modern machines. The Fiat CR42 biplane fighters, which were even inferior to the British Gloster Gladiator biplane, and the bombers dating from 1936 which had operated in Spain, were counted as ‘modern’. Not all planes had radios and aerial inter-communications did not exist until well into 1942; few planes were equipped for night flying and torpedo bombers were not yet organized. The theories of strategic bombing propounded by General Giulio Douhet (1869–1930) were paraded by the air force, but only to justify its complete independence from the other services, an independence which prevented the manufacture of aircraft carriers and destroyed any hopes of air–navy collaboration. Germany's apart, Italy's was the only major navy which did not control its own aviation.

Between 8 and 15 July 1940, 490 triple-engined bombers attacked British naval squadrons in the Mediterranean using level-flight bombing tactics. Their bombs—50 kg. (110 lb.), 100 kg. (220 lb.), and a few 250 kg. (550 lb.)—were too small to have any effect even when, as happened only rarely, they hit their target. The pilots were brave but they did not have the same level of training as their opponents. Some squadrons bombed Gibraltar and even the Persian Gulf. When 200 planes were transferred from Italy to Belgium to take part in the Blitz against the UK, 20% of the force was lost or damaged in error during its flight over friendly territory. However, by the end of 1941 some fighter squadrons, flying Macchi 202s fitted with German Daimler Benz engines, began to show evidence of their effectiveness. Before then torpedo bombers had been introduced and pilots, operating slow and large S79s and S84s, attacked British convoys sailing to Malta with great tenacity in 1941–2, sinking or damaging a number of mechantmen and warships, among them the battleship Nelson ( 27 September 1941). But by the summer of 1943 the Italian Air Force numbered fewer than a hundred modern fighters and perhaps a thousand more older planes which were almost valueless.

(f) Special Forces

Amid their dreams of greatness, the Italians had forgotten the insidious means by which they had achieved their naval successes with light motor torpedo boats and human torpedoes during the First World War. Neglected until 1930 and then revived in 1940, too late to make a major impact when Italy entered the war, this type of operation, mounted by Tenth Light Flotilla, was especially suitable for employment by an under-developed country because it was economical in everything but courage. However, despite the valour of its crews, the novelty of its equipment, and the efficiency of its organization it had to wait many months for its first successes.

The Italians also operated a number of other special forces. The 10th Arditi Regiment's two battalions were trained in sabotage, either as parachutists or using jeeps, the former having some success when US aircraft were attacked on Benina airfield near Benghazi in June 1943. The Sahara companies, a rare example of effective co-operation between the Italian Air Force and the army, were under the command of air force officers. Used to defend the southern regions of Libya, they were eventually bested by Leclerc's French troops in the Fezzan campaigns. Other special units included the San Marco Landing Regiment, the Monte Cervino Alpini Ski Battalion, and the Libyan Carabinieri Parachute Battalion.

6. Intelligence

Neither the Italian High Command nor Mussolini, who retained direct personal responsibility for the preparation and co-ordination of the armed forces, ever understood the importance of a single unified system of military intelligence which was both authoritative and properly resourced. In consequence, both in peace and in war Italy had a number of intelligence services whose respective areas of competence were never clearly defined and which were riven with bitter rivalries, at considerable cost to their efficiency and credibility. (It should be noted that reliable studies of them are few since their archives remain closed.)

The most important agency was SIM (Servizio Informazioni Militari), a branch of the army. Technically the most efficient at intercepting and decrypting enemy communications, it was active both inside Italy and abroad but lacked overseas centres and spy networks. In the years before the Second World War SIM had shown a marked propensity to play a political role under the wing of Galeazzo Ciano, being extremist in the Spanish Civil War and anti-German in the period 1939–40. In 1940 it numbered 150 officers, 300 non-commisioned officers, and 400 other ranks. Alongside SIM there existed other military intelligence agencies: naval intelligence (Servizio Informazioni Segrete, or SIS) was very efficient, while air force intelligence (Servizio Informazioni Aeronautica, or SIA) was of minor significance. In addition overseas theatres of operations—East Africa, Libya, the Aegean, and Albania—each had its own autonomous military intelligence service.

Inside Italy intelligence functions were also carried out by the carabinieri (see 5(c) above) which, besides acting as military police, also operated against general crime and political opposition and furnished SIM with many of its personnel; and by the police, the fascist regime's preferred instrument in the suppression of opposition and the maintenance of order. The intelligence services of minor branches of the regime such as the fascist militia and the customs police (guardia di finanza) also played a part in counter-espionage. The ministry of foreign affairs, the governor of Albania, and the Italian African police also had their own intelligence services which dealt in part with military matters.

There was no co-ordination whatsoever between all these arms. Mussolini never acknowledged the necessity for such co-ordination since his own role as dictator was strengthened by rivalry between various organs of the state. The inefficiency of the military intelligence services was therefore only one facet of the general lack of military preparation for war. The extent to which the Comando Supremo, the Italian High Command, underestimated the importance of an up-to-date intelligence service is evident in the fact that SIM was dismembered in April 1940 as a consequence of a power struggle within the army, counter-espionage being detached from it until 1941. As a consequence of this situation SIM's evaluations of the strength of Allied forces in 1940 were vague and inaccurate and almost always greatly overestimated their powers. In any case Mussolini's decisions were always made without taking any account of the findings of his intelligence services. His decision to attack Greece in October 1940 was taken as a result of information from political and military sources in Albania that the Greek Army was about to disband; in fact SIM had contrary information which was more accurate but it was not consulted by Mussolini and the military chiefs, nor did it seek to challenge the dictator's decision.

Though their co-ordination and their influence on politico-strategic decision-making did not improve during 1941–2 the organization and general efficiency of the Italian intelligence services did (see below for two examples). However their work continued to be of marginal importance in the Mediterranean, not only because of the lack of co-ordination and therefore of general credibility but also because of the complete absence of any modern concept of intelligence in either the military and political hierarchy or among the secret services themselves. SIM and the other intelligence services were expected to provide concrete information in a restricted frame of reference, and not to incorporate it into an overall analysis of the strategic situation and of enemy strength, tasks which the operational command kept to itself. The main objective of the secret services remained the brilliant coup rather than the systematic collection and correlation of every scrap of information about the opposing side. As a result their work failed to make a major impact; the operational commands took whatever account of intelligence they thought fit in the absence of any synoptic intelligence appreciations. Overall, the organization and the activities of the Italian military intelligence services showed a cultural backwardness at all levels, since they were generally limited to traditional espionage and police-style counter-espionage and never developed the sophisticated role that intelligence work acquired in the UK and the USA.

A few examples of SIM's work are significant. In April 1941 it succeeded in penetrating the Yugoslavian radio communications system, thereby generating much confusion and disinformation. In so doing it helped to prevent a sudden attack on Italian troops in Albania who would have had to improvise a hasty deployment in the Scutari region with units switched from the Greek Front. More important was the successful microfilming of an American cipher, known as the Black code, in Rome in September 1941. For six months, between 18 December 1941 and 29 June 1942 (when SIM was commanded by General Cesare Amé), the daily situation reports on the Eighth Army transmitted by the American Colonel Bonner Fellers from Cairo to Washington were deciphered and passed to the Germans in Rome who then re-ciphered them and transmitted them to Rommel using the ENIGMA machine.

This episode raises some questions about the range of the ULTRA Intelligence derived from the British decipherment of ENIGMA radio messages. How did this escape being noticed for a good six months? For a long time some British writers claimed that the leak came to light on 9 July 1942 following the capture at El Alamein of documents belonging to a German advanced tactical radio interception unit. This does not seem credible since the leak had already been identified by the British on 29 June. Probably this explanation was one of those cover stories not infrequent in matters where national security is involved.

Among Italian intelligence failures was the exaggeration of the size of British and French forces in the Mediterranean in the spring of 1940. It has been claimed that the basis for this deception was an understanding between Badoglio, Ciano, and the then commandant of SIM, General Giacomo Carboni, to dissuade Mussolini from entering the war. However, even after war had been declared Badoglio insisted that Italian strategy be tailored to this ‘fact’. This was not the only time that SIM exaggerated the size of Allied forces; there were at least two other such episodes. The first related to Anglo-American forces in the Mediterranean in the spring and summer of 1943. The second, in August– September 1943, had to do with the German detachments deployed around Rome, which were credited with a tank strength approximately ten times larger than was actually the case. By this time SIM was once again under the command of General Carboni, who had taken up the post on 18 August 1943.

7. Merchant marine

In 1939 the Italian merchant fleet (counting vessels of over 100 gross tons) amounted to 3,448,543 tons. It was thus some 16% larger than the French and Dutch fleets and fifth in size after the British (over 21,000,000 tons), the USA (over 12,000,000 tons), the Japanese (over 5,500,000 tons), and the Norwegians (over 4,800,000 tons). The greatest loss was inflicted on it by Mussolini on the afternoon of 10 June 1940 when, in order not to miss the ‘historic moment’, he declared war, forgetting that there were 218 Italian ships totalling 1,215,000 tons in neutral or enemy ports outside the Mediterranean. This figure represented 35% of the total fleet and more than 50% of the losses due to the war, and was never made good.

Not all of what remained could be used to transport men and supplies to Libya, various Mediterranean islands, and Albania: many liners could not be used because of their excessive draught, among them the Rex (51,000 tons) and the Conte di Savoia (48,000 tons). Other passenger ships were used, however: conversion of the Augustus and the Roma into aircraft carriers (re-named the Aquila and the Sparviero) began in 1941 but was not finished by the time the armistice was signed in September 1943. In all, 597 ships (over 500 tons) totalling 2,190,857 tons were lost in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea along with another 1,278 ships (under 500 tons) amounting to 81,850 tons (see Table).

Out of a total loss of 2,272,707 tons, surface units sank 6.4%, submarines 36.5%, planes 33.9%, mines 6%, 9.5% scuttled themselves, and 7.7% sank due to natural or unknown causes. Over 800,000 tons of shipping of all types was lost on the routes to Libya and Tunisia; and the tonnage sunk while in port, although it cannot be ascertained with accuracy, was undoubtedly very high. Between June 1940 and September 1943 Italian shipyards produced 305,733 tons of shipping of all types. Figures for captured shipping incorporated into the Italian fleet are not complete. The main gain in the Mediterranean was represented by the 289,210 tons (of ships over 500 tons) seized from the French after Axis forces occupied the whole of France in November 1942 and shared between Germany and Italy.

Losses suffered between 9 September 1943 and 8 May 1945 can be calculated only for ships entered in the Italian Naval Register and do not include foreign ships incorporated into the Italian fleet. They amounted to 220 ships of over 500 tons, totalling 888,853 tons, and 994 smaller ships amounting to 88,049 tons. It is impossible accurately to identify the proportions lost to different causes, but it seems likely that most were scuttled to avoid seizure by the Germans: many liners, including the Rex and the Conte di Savoia, were sunk for this reason.

Italy, 7: Merchant shipping lost during hostilities

8. Resistance

Following the German occupation of northern Italy, the Committees for National Liberation (CLN) from Tuscany northwards functioned as clandestine local and regional governments, forming the backbone of an event which was without precedent in Italian history: a patriotic and political war in which bourgeois élites, workers, and peasants fought alongside one another. As was perhaps inevitable the myth of the resistance, which spread beyond the geographical and social boundaries of the area, combined with the international post-war situation to create a great many misconceptions.

The earliest bands were formed of soldiers who refused to obey the Germans and Mussolini's Italian Social Republic (RSI); many were men who at the armistice found themselves far from their homes and could only live outside the law. Ferocious German repression (as at Boves in Piedmont on 19 September 1943) and Nazi–fascist persecution of those who had helped thousands of Allied prisoners or groups of Jews whom the SS were hunting down, led to a rapid expansion of what was initially a spontaneous phenomenon. A measure of popular anti-German feeling which went back to the Risorgimento and the First World War was revived, especially by the survivors returning from the Eastern Front who had direct experience of German arrogance and of the systematic ferocity with which they had treated the Soviet population. Finally, military call-up by the RSI and the search for labour by the Todt Organization also played their part: men did not care to work for Germany and sheer survival then dictated that they fight against her.

In the cities resistance was organized by the political parties, above all the communists: it ran the gamut from military sabotage to attempts to assassinate the supporters of the ‘new fascism’ (some of them small fry, others well-known such as the philosopher Giovanni Gentile), and to acts which not everyone supported, such as the killing of 32 German soldiers in Rome which in turn triggered the Ardeatine massacre.

The war in the mountains was almost entirely in party hands. The largest groups were the ‘Garibaldi’ (communist) and ‘Justice and Liberty’ (Party of Action) formations, but there were also some autonomous apolitical groups, sometimes monarchist, socialist (‘Matteotti’), or Catholic (‘Green Flames’). However by no means all the leaders or followers in partisan bands owed their loyalty to the parties with which their names were associated; motivated by patriotism and nationalism, they made up the base on which the Italian resistance rested.

The Allies dropped supplies and missions (see also Balkan Air Force) to aid a movement which had already assumed a size and a character somewhat different from their own preference for a net of saboteurs on the lines of the French resistance. There was no lack of saboteurs, but from the spring of 1944 the mountain groups began to swell in size and by the autumn they numbered over 100,000 men. Aided by geography (the Alpine and Apennine valleys radiate from the main communication centres), these bands created military difficulties for the Germans, the seriousness of which is only now becoming fully apparent with the release of Wehrmacht documentation. Then there were the ‘republics’, vast tracts of land occupied by the partisans and governed by the CLN which restricted the area under RSI control to the plains. These ‘republics’ stirred up a violent reaction on the part of the Germans and the fascists—some, such as Ossola on the Swiss border, because of their political significance and others, such as those in Liguria and Emilia (Bobbio, Oltrepò, and so on) or in Piedmont (Langhe, Monferrato, Cuneese after the French Riviera landings), because of their military importance.

The political unity which prevailed in the south was reflected in the north. From June 1944 all the partisan forces (Voluntary Freedom Corps, or CVL) were co-ordinated into a collective command structure; at its head was the moderate General Raffaele Cadorna (parachuted in from the south), with two joint deputies, Luigi Longo (communist) and Ferrucio Parri (Party of Action). The second winter in the mountains was the worst. The Allied push came to a halt 15 km. (9.3 mi.) outside Bologna and, in a radio announcement which was also heard by the Germans, Alexander announced the suspension of operations for the winter, an error which the communists subsequently, but incorrectly, claimed had been a deliberate ploy by the British to rid themselves of politically inconvenient allies. Nevertheless, the Nazis and the fascists, who had already undertaken bloody reprisals against the civilian population (see Marzabotto massacre), then unleashed a terrible offensive against the Italian resistance (see Map 56) making considerable use of Soviet troops—chiefly two Cossack cavalry divisions (see Soviet exiles at war) and 162 infantry division commanded by General Oscar Ritter von Niedermayer. The CVL lost almost all the territory it had formerly controlled, its forces were decimated, and the population suffered terrible reprisals. But in February 1945 the great Soviet victories, followed later by those in the west, revived the movement, which acted vigorously and with considerable military effect.

The partisans knew nothing of the inconclusive surrender negotiations being conducted in Switzerland with SS Lt-General Wolff. By now the ‘republics’ had been recreated and at the first signs of the Allied spring offensive the partisans began operations which liberated Genoa, Milan, Turin, and other northern cities on 25– 26 April 1945, ahead of the Anglo-American forces. The final act was the shooting of Mussolini and the leading fascists after negotiations for their surrender to the resistance, using the Archbishop of Milan, Cardinal Schuster, as an intermediary, had failed. The CLN became the de facto government of the north and put itself forward as spokesman for the Allies and the government in the south. As was inevitable, victory vastly increased the number of partisans, though in fact their formations in the mountains were weaker on the eve of liberation than they had been the previous autumn (70–80,000 men).

The Italian resistance, of whom some 40,000 died (including the victims of reprisals), was one of the strongest in Europe. Its military successes did not, however, eradicate its internal divisions, of which the most significant was the split between the democrats and a Communist Party which, while highly intellectual and flexible, always remained subservient to the wishes of Moscow. Furthermore, notwithstanding popular participation, the resistance was a minority activity which had a limited impact on Italian secular backwardness which was so strongly in tune with the reactionary conservatism sustained by the Catholic Church and by the structure of agriculture and industry.

On foreign policy the resistance had no impact. Neither the Anglo-Americans nor the Soviets accorded it any importance and the punitive nature of the peace treaty and its enforcement were shaped by the Cold War and not by any recognition of the efforts of the Italian partisans. The resistance itself, Italy's detachment from Nazi Germany in 1943, and before that the struggles of the anti-fascists, were mistakes or pointless risks in so far as the Second World War witnessed a clash of powers which differed from what had occurred before only in terms of size. In fact, everything which had not been shattered by the time that the Cold War started (such as the Franco dictatorship, Hirohito's throne, and German rearmament), had a prosperous future. The resistance and the fight against fascism were regarded as obligatory by the minority who, in Italy as elsewhere, saw the upheavals which culminated between 1939 and 1945 in a world war as moral and political issues, but not necessarily national struggles. The few Italians who were ashamed of the alliance between their government and Nazism were part of the many who had fought against that government.

9. Culture

Before the war education, culture, and the arts were superficially ‘fascistized’. The Accademia d'Italia, set up in 1929 in imitation of France, never had any real prestige or significance although it numbered among its members a few men of real merit. Some, among them the philosopher Benedetto Croce and the playwright Roberto Bracco, refused to join it. In 1931 only thirteen university professors (out of a total of 1,200) refused to take a political oath of loyalty and forfeited their chairs; but those who took the oath did not teach from a fascist perspective if they were not themselves already fascists. Thus levels of moral and scientific learning remained high, as exemplified in the work of the jurists Piero Calamandrei and Arturo C. Jemolo, the philosophers Guido De Ruggiero and Guido Calogero, the historians Adolfo Omodeo and Federico Chabod, and the men of letters Concetto Marchesi and Luigi Russo.

The two reforms of secondary education (by Gentile in 1923 and Bottai in 1939) did not solve the problem of graduate unemployment, which was the result of an imbalance between education and the labour market. In different ways both sought to focus demand on professional and general education, discouraging access to those schools which could lead on to university. They failed because the social response was to reject this pattern of education and to continue to seek access to the universities. Nevertheless under Gentile's system the upper schools were of solid merit, although it is doubtful whether they would have maintained their standards had not Bottai's reforms been broken off due to the collapse of fascism. Bottai still had time to apply the racial laws to education, throwing out more than 200 teachers and some 5,000 Jewish students.

Failing to ‘fascistize’ the schools as a result of popular resistance to change, the regime had to limit itself to setting up a youth organization alongside them which sought to militarize all those between the ages of 6 and 21. This manufactured consensus was often so clumsy as to make fascism look ridiculous, while similar organizations for civil servants and workers (dopolavoro), with their trips, tours, films, and other functions, had a modest success, especially among the young.

All in all, though, fascism seemed to live from day to day without any deep foundations. Although it obsessively proclaimed its intention to last it did nothing to organize its own renewal, either at the centre or on the fringes. Thus no mechanism of succession to Mussolini existed and nothing was done to ensure that a genuine fascist technocracy, public or private, was created. There were transfers to and fro between party and technocracy, especially at the higher levels, but no institutions existed which could select and shape new political cadres and thereby compensate for the failure of the state educational system to produce such people.

In culture and the arts the war both accentuated existing trends and created new ones. The few opposition intellectuals who were at liberty included Croce, whose philosophical review La Critica had 3,000 subscribers in 1943. Alberto Moravia stayed on in Italy, though affected by the racial laws; in 1929, as a young man, he had published the nonconformist novel Gli indifferenti. Among those working in exile or abroad were the historian Gaetano Salvemini, the conductor Arturo Toscanini, and writers and scholars such as Ignazio Silone, G. Antonio Borgese, Lionello Venturi, and Emilio Lussu. The writer, Lauro de Bosis died in an aircraft in 1931 after having dropped anti-fascist leaflets on Rome. In 1937 the historian Nello Rosselli was murdered in France by fascist thugs, along with his brother Carlo. Antonio Gramsci died in prison that same year; and among those who worked from prison or confinement were the economists Ernesto Rossi and Pietro Grifone, the music critic Massimo Mila, and the painter Carlo Levi.

By and large, however, Italian intellectuals (save for a few fanatical fascists) switched between periods of support for and detachment from the regime, deluding themselves that by doing so they kept their work above everyday events; examples include the poets Giuseppe Ungaretti and Salvatore Quasimodo, the playwright Luigi Pirandello, and the painter, Giorgio Morandi. The words of the famous poet Eugenio Montale, written in 1925, certainly did not apply everywhere and to everyone: For this alone can we tell you today:
What we are not, what we want not.


On the other hand, in a totalitarian regime any speaking out was immediately suspect. With the outbreak of war opposition journals appeared, among them Oggi, edited by Mario Pannunzio and Arrigo Benedetti and suppressed in 1942, and Primato, actually produced by the minister for public education Bottai, an expert at playing the double game who combined flirting for moderation with a background as boss of a gang of fascist thugs. The list of contributors to Primato includes many noteworthy intellectuals; some were anti-fascists, such as Luigi Salvatorelli, Cesare Pavese, and Sergio Solmi, others non-fascist, among them Montale, Umberto Saba, Cesare Zavattini, and Giaime Pintor who later died in the resistance.

The parts played by Pavese, an anti-fascist, and Elio Vittorini, a left-wing fascist, were particularly important. It was through their efforts that American literature ( Faulkner, Dos Passos, Saroyan, Steinbeck, Melville, Gertrude Stein, and others) was translated and distributed through Italy. It was work which encouraged doubt, dissent, criticism, and renewal, carried out under the noses of fascist censors who were too ignorant to recognize its subversive character. Both deserve to be remembered not only as translators but as authors. Whatever may be said about their dependence on American models, they found tones which today can be interpreted as alarm calls. Thus in the allusive voyage of Conversazione in Sicilia (Vittorini, 1941) ‘abstract furies’ and the invocation of ‘new duties’ were based on the desperate wretchedness of Sicilians and on a mythical America, a ‘heavenly kingdom on earth’ where everyone ate several times a day. Much of the Italian literature, poetry, criticism, and historiography of subsequent decades was genetically linked to the war: examples include Pavese, Massimo Mila and Carlo Levi, Vittorio Sereni, Giorgio Bassani, Italo Calvino, Beppe Fenoglio, and Franco Venturi.

In the world of music the operatic style of the 19th century came to an end with Puccini's Turandot ( 1924), and during the war composers destined to influence future generations such as Giorgio F. Ghedini, Luigi Dallapiccola, and Goffredo Petrassi (the latter two working with the twelve-tone scale) managed to continue producing work. Jazz, which was banned by fascism, had little influence on the mediocre Italian light music of the day. Regional folk music persisted, but aroused no particular interest.

There was much noteworthy activity by architects, painters, and sculptors. Leaving aside the vexed question of which of the contemporary schools they belonged to, an incomplete list would include: Giuseppe Terragni, Edoardo Persico, Marcello Piacentini, Carlo Carrà, Giorgio Morandi, Giorgio de Chirico, Arturo Tosi, Felice Casorati, Alberto Savinio, Filippo De Pisis, Ottone Rosai, Renato Birolli, Renato Guttuso, Bruno Cassinari, Giacomo Manzù, Marino Marini, and Alberto Viani.

Despite fascist censorship, the war stimulated a renaissance in film-making (examples include Luchino Visconti's Ossessione, made in 1942, and Vittorio De Sica's I bambini ci guardano, made in 1943) which exploded in 1944–5 with the first breath of freedom and opened the era of neo-realism. Early post-war products of this cinematic flowering include Roberto Rossellini's Roma città aperta and Paisà and De Sica's Sciuscià, Ladri di biciclette, and Umberto D. Its rapid spread world-wide was a sign that Italy had emerged from her period of tyranny and suffering and that one of the world's oldest civilizations still had new things to say.

Lucio Ceva, Giorgio Rochat, and Lucio Ceva (Intelligence), ( andTr. John Gooch)

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—— Mussolini Unleashed (Cambridge, 1982).
Lamb, R. , War in Italy: 1939–45 (London, 1993).
Mitchell, B. R. , European Historical Statistics, 1750–1950 (New York, 1975).
Sullivan, B. R. , ‘The Italian Armed Forces, 1918–1940’, in Millett and Murray, op. cit., Vol. II.
On the Italian historiography of the Second World War, see also Mussolini , note at end.

Italy

History & Background

Italy is a parliamentary republic divided into 20 autonomous territorial regions. Each region is divided into provinces. Italian is the official language for the majority of Italy's 57.6 million inhabitants; however, regions with localized languages are considered "special status regions," and resources are provided to meet the educational needs of those living in these areas. Roman Catholicism is the most popular religion, but there is no official state religion. After experiencing political disunity from the fifth to the nineteenth century, Italy began unification in 1859 with the seizing of Lombardy from Austria.

As a member of the European community, Italy has become increasingly globalized and its population reflects the diversity of immigrant cultures and languages. The role of schools has expanded to accommodate the needs of changing demographics. In the nineteenth century there was a high degree of illiteracy among the Italian population, especially in the southern region, notably in Sicily. As Italy shifted from agricultural to industrial society, schools became increasingly more important to the socioeconomic and cultural development of the country in the twentieth century. In the new millennium, Italian schools are emphasizing literacy skills for a post-industrial global democracy.

Educational institutions, including religious, Catholic based and other private schools, had always been available to the ruling classes. The oldest university in Europe was established in Bologna in 1158.

Italian public education can be traced to 1859 when law 3725 mandated four years of free, compulsory elementary education and the Casati Law centralized the Italian educational system. In 1904, law 407 extended compulsory education, mandating all children through age twelve to attend schools. At the same time, the Italian governments recognized the needs of a more industrialized society and implemented vocational training.

In 1923, the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades were separated from elementary school and became scuole di avviamento (technical schools). Compulsory education was extended by two years. Elementary schooling, which was divided into three lower grades and two upper grades, continued until approximately 1957. Giardini d'infanzia (kindergartens) were established by a 1923 royal decree, but they were not officially operated until 1968.

During the fascist era (1922-1943), Ministry of Education and provveditori (provincial inspectors) controlled Italy's educational system and dictated the rigid curriculum and policy. Municipalities had very limited power. Elementary schools were allowed a more creative curriculum and upper secondary students were encouraged to engage in historical-critical inquiry, but the main emphasis was on standardized curriculum and methodology.

Since the 1950s, the Italian school system has undergone profound changes. Decentralization of administration has increased. Syllabi and curriculum have been revised, and teaching methodology has improved. Teachers have greater roles as instructional leaders in the educational process. Inservice training and other means of professional development provide educators with current information in their fields of specialization.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

In 1859, before the unification of Italy, the Legge Casati (Casati Law) established the provisions for the organization of state education. The law included five sets of regulations dealing with higher education, upper secondary classical education, technical education, primary education and normal schools (for elementary teacher preparation). This system called for highly centralized administration and a clear division of upper secondary education between the liceo classico (a pre-university requirement) and vocational, "utilitarian" secondary schools for practical job training. The Coppino law introduced compulsory schooling in lower primary grades.

The 1923 Gentile reform legislation made the following provisions: preschool (nursery school) was neither compulsory nor free; five-year-olds must attend primary schools, which were divided into two groups or cycles; lower secondary education had six different institutions; upper secondary education had five different institutions; and higher education included state-funded universities and private universities.

Radical school reform occurred as a result of the fall of fascism and the 1948 constitution that espoused democratic principles. The basic principles of education were established by the Italian Constitution, which emphasizes freedom of education; the nation/state's responsibility for providing educational institutions at various levels; education for all individuals regardless of background; parental responsibility for educating children; and financial resources for needy students to pursue higher education. Article 33 states that teaching about arts and sciences shall be free and open to all and that the republic shall establish the general educational principles and create state [public] schools of all levels. Article 33 reaffirms that schooling must be compulsory and free, but it allows private schools to be established as long as they meet all requirements and standards of public schools. This article also allows institutions of higher learning to be established autonomously within the limits of the law.

The first paragraph of Article 34 ensures that schools shall be open to all citizens and, like a portion of Article 33, emphasizes educational equality. This article provides for government scholarships for needy students. Article 117 establishes regional authority over vocational education (except those requiring higher education).

Some laws governing Italian education include law 1054, which relates to nursery school education (giardini d'infanzia, scuole materne ); law 653, which addresses school exams; and law 503, which is concerned the elementary school curriculum for scuole elementari. During the 1960s, a number of laws reformed Italy's educational system: law 444 applied to preschool education; law 1895 established middle schools (scuole media ); law 119 modified school examples; law 910 opened universities to upper secondary (liceum ) students, including those attending non-university track upper secondary institutions; and in 1961 a law made technical colleges more flexible so they could more easily adapt to technology advances.

Legislation passed in the 1970s led to significant educational reforms. Law 477 provided for the legal status of state school personnel, the establishment of school assemblies, and the implementation of experimental educational methodologies. Law 517 regulated teaching in elementary and secondary schools, student assessment, and integration of special needs students. Because of this legislation, evaluation of students' progress no longer relied exclusively on exam grades; teachers' analyses of students' progress and development were also included. Teacher-designed lessons were required to accommodate the needs of individual students and include remediation for special needs students.

Additional reforms in the 1970s focused on the structuring of schools and schooling to meet the needs of a growing global labor market. Curricula included the study of science, math, and languages. Student exchange programs were initiated and expanded. Teaching pedagogy and content, program criteria, and modes of student assessment were revised and updated. Inservice training for teachers encouraged them to become "transformational leaders."

Two key pieces of reform legislation were passed in the 1980s. Law 270 provided regulation regarding the legal status of teachers, recruitment, and training, and Law 168 established the Ministry for University of Scientific and Technological Research.

In the 1990s there were a number of new laws and presidential decrees relating to education. Law 148 reformed elementary education. Law 341 reformed the university teaching. Law 104 continued to emphasize the integration of handicapped students in school. Law 59, passed in 1997, reformed public administration and simplified school administrative procedures; implemented in 2000-2001, these regulations granted wider educational, organizational, and research autonomy to schools.

Several presidential decrees directly related to portions of Law 59: decree 275 established strict regulations concerning the number of students per class; decree 233 regulated territorial organization of schools; decree 258 ordered reorganization of the Educational Documentation library in Florence and the European Center for Education; decree 300 provided for the reform of Regional Institutes for Research, Experimentation and In-Service Training (IRRSAE); and decree 112 introduced strong education decentralization from the Ministry of Education to provincial and local authorities.

University autonomy has also been widened. Law 425 reformed state exams for higher education, and Law 9, passed in 1999, re-emphasized the need for compulsory education and extended it to 10 years.

In 2000, some legislative issues addressed the equity and equality of education between public and private schooling. Other legislative concerns targeted changes in Italy's education system that would better prepared its citizens to enter the twenty-first century job market.

Educational System—Overview

Basic Italian educational principles are constitutionally founded and ensure free, compulsory educational opportunity for all children. The Italian educational system's philosophy of education varies from teacher centered to student centered. The highly standardized curriculum was designed to facilitate school transfer in both public and private schools. There has been a gradual shift from rote memory assignments and assessments to less formal methods, which stress creativity and the application of critical inquiry and higher order thinking skills. In 1989 all issues related to higher education were transferred to the Ministry for Universities and Scientific Research.

The Italian educational system provides nursery school for 3- to 5-year-olds; elementary school for 6- to 11-year-olds; lower secondary or middle school for 11- to 14-year-olds; upper secondary school or vocational training for 15- to 18- or 19-year-olds; and university, university institutes, or Fine Arts academies for those 19 and older. Upper secondary schools include classic or scientific high schools (five years) leading to higher education/university studies; artistic (four years); technical school (five years); vocational school (five years or more); nursery school and primary teacher training (three years); and higher/university education (three to five years).

The overall responsibility for education in Italy rests with two bodies: the Ministry of Public Instruction for preschool, primary, and secondary education and the Ministry for Universities and Scientific Research. There are close links between these two ministries and the Finance Ministry regarding budget matters and the Labor and Social Security Ministry for connecting schooling with the world of work. Educational reform continues in Italy with its main focus on the role of the ministries regarding policy, budget, curriculum, pedagogy, and administration or distribution of responsibilities.

Since the late 1950s, educational responsibilities and services have become gradually decentralized, and in 1972 many of the Ministry of Public Instruction's administrative powers were transferred to regional and local authorities. Since 1975 regions have had the primary responsibility for vocational education and training; they have consulted with the Ministry of Labor to ensure the appropriate programs and training are being provided. In 1985 pedagogical and programs guidelines were established for elementary and lower elementary school. Since 1999, all citizens aged 6 to 16 years must attend a compulsory education program. Parents have the option of sending their children to school or providing compulsory education themselves or employing a tutor. Those parents who assume direct responsibility for their children's education must file yearly reports with the Provincial Director of Education documenting their compliance with the established curriculum, and the children must pass state exams. A very small percentage of parents select for this type of education.

Student attendance is the responsibility of head teachers (direttore didattico ) who are the equivalent of school principals in the United States. The mayor of each comune or township provides head teachers with lists of all children who, according to the General Registry Office, should be enrolled in school. When children complete their elementary education, head teachers are responsible for transferring students to lower secondary or middle schools. Head teachers contact parents of children not attending schools; non-compliance with attendance policies can result in punishment for parents or guardians.

Major reforms have taken place within the Italian school system to meet the needs of global education in the European Community and find educational compatibility within member nations. A Ministry of Public Instruction decree states that the study of other languages is essential for educational and professional development. Elementary schools were reorganized to include the study of modern languages, which are essential for effective communication and educational mobility within the European community. Middle and upper secondary school curricula include the study of foreign languages. Italians also realize that the study of languages and cultures are essential to meet the needs of immigrant populations as well as to encourage active, participatory citizenship in a global democracy.

This European dimension of education can be traced to Comenius (1592-1670), the Czech philosopher of education, who was concerned with schools as democratic arenas of intellectual discourse. His philosophy emphasized political unity, religious reconciliation, and educational cooperation. Initiatives of the European dimension on education include promoting equivalence of academic diplomas and mobility; fostering cooperation in education and research among universities; re-examining school curriculum, organization, exit exams, guidance and counseling, and extra-curricular activities.

A resolution from the European Community outlined objectives for strengthening the European dimension in education: to give young people a sense of European identity in the context of history and culture, and especially in safeguarding universal values of democracy, social justice, and human rights; to encourage youth to become full participants and contributing members in the European Community; and to point out the advantages and the challenges of European citizenship and cooperation in intercultural understanding The European dimension in education includes awareness of European citizenship in an interdependent world; the importance of building relationships; the involvement of extracurricular activities.

Educational legislative provisions are made within member countries of the European Community. EURYDICE, the Italian agency at the Library of Pedagogical Documentation, has strengthened its commitment for an integrative effort to publish and disseminate international information and documentation to benefit members of the European community. Italy cooperates with member countries on exchanges of classes, students, and teachers, as well as other educational initiatives and cultural agreements. Students who are citizens of the European community may attend school in Italy for professional education and training. The Office of Cultural Exchange at the Ministry of Public Instruction had directed its efforts to activities toward wide-ranging cooperative projects. A pilot project connected 300 territorial schools to the Internet so students would have international access to information and educational opportunities.

Educational cooperative efforts include implementing instructional reform, establishing school age levels of entry and exit, providing professional training courses for secondary students, reinforcing language acquisition, reducing the number of dropouts, providing student guidance and orientation, and organizing programs of equivalency, mobility, and exchange. Programs like SOCRATES, ERASMUS, and LEONARDO are essential to the development of quality education across members of the European Community. The ministries of education have increased a financial commitment to participate in the European education dimension.

An efficient service of pedagogical documentation, information, and research is needed to promote and develop autonomous projects within existing cooperative networks. Important aspects of the European dimension of education are to facilitate and integrate the process of communication, to provide for the service of information, and to ensure the dissemination of research results throughout regions, provinces, and countries in the European Community.

Intercultural education has become an essential component of the Italian educational system at all levels of schooling to create a new awareness of the European dimension in citizenship. These school programs define the dimensions of socialization by providing opportunities for students to come into contact with cultures and languages different from Italian society and to learn to become world citizens. The Italian educational system promotes cultural pluralism in the curriculum by encouraging students to develop a healthy sense of respect for cultural differences and to approach the study of issues from a multiple perspective, while maintaining universal values of social justice and equity.

Since 1985 primary schools have stressed instructional objectives that deal with the importance of inter-cultural education emphasizing the need for understanding and cooperating with culturally different persons to prevent the danger of stereotyping and prejudice. In 1991 these objectives became part of nursery school education where the term multicultural education was introduced and stressed the importance of identifying, recognizing, and valuing cultural diversity in school and global, democratic societies.

Secondary schools have had less direction from the state in incorporating multicultural awareness in the curriculum; however, there are initiatives included in educational objectives and curriculum to integrate intercultural communication and understanding, as well as develop multiples ways of thinking critically. A 1994 ministry educational decree emphasizes the need for providing multicultural awareness and activities as a global response to a society that is becoming increasingly multicultural. This decree also reinforces the rights of immigrant and migrant children to equal opportunity and equity of access to education and training.

Italy participates in European network projects created for intercultural and multicultural education. Many of these programs, coordinated by the Office of Cultural Exchange, are specifically designed for teacher training in intercultural and teaching and learning for a multicultural society, including bilingual education and teaching of Italian to immigrant students. The Office of Cultural Exchange published a report, "Intercultural Education: Experiences and Prospects," which gives an overall picture of the theoretical and practical aspects of intercultural and multicultural education and highlighting the importance of cross-cultural communication for global democracies.

In 1996 the central role of the European dimension in education was reaffirmed; schools will continue stressing intercultural awareness and understanding for a global society. Information and experiential opportunities for intercultural education issues and opportunity for international educational exchanges and multilateral school partnerships within the European Community are exemplified in programs like SOCRATES, LEONARDO, and ERASMUS. An increasing number of students participate in these programs throughout Europe. For example, Italian students enrolled in an agricultural course may be permitted to study in France or Portugal for one year and receive equivalency in mobility, credits, and grades.

A 1998 educational decree ensures that immigrant children in Italy must receive compulsory education, have access to information, and have all the rights to education services in the school and community. The school community respects the cultural and linguistic diversity of its members, encourages the sharing of cultural differences, and promotes mutual respect and tolerance. The school community promotes and encourages initiatives to respect and protect the culture and language diversity and provides opportunities for intercultural experiences and activities.

Preprimary & Primary Education

Schooling usually begins with noncompulsory early childhood education or nursery school for children aged three to five. Nursery school education is free for public institutions. As more women enter the workforce, more government sponsored and private childcare facilities are available for infants and young children. In 2000, approximately 96 percent of three to five year olds attended public or private nursery schools (Scuola Materna, Scuola dell'Infanzia, and Giardini d'Infanzia ). At age six, children enter free, compulsory elementary schools (Scuola Elementare or Scuola Primaria ), which last five years.

Nursery school teachers emphasize activities that enhance creativity skills, social attitudes, autonomy, and the learning process; children are readied for elementary school. Often children are placed in classes by developmental level, rather than age. Schools must accommodate students with special needs. Most classes have 25 students. Teachers are responsible for allocating the necessary hours and activities to meet the educational objectives. In 1992-1993 there were 27,274 preschools with approximately 1,569,811 students and 75,601 teachers. In September 2000, preprimary schools were given the autonomy in terms of organization, pedagogy, and curriculum, as long as the schools complied with the general objectives of the national educational system. Educational objectives for early childhood education include the interaction of culture and language with identity, autonomy, and competence. Curriculum includes body and movement; language (speech and words); spatial orientation and order of things; time and nature; and the self and relationship to others. There is a similarity between Italian and American early childhood curriculum and pedagogy; both have the goal of preparing children to become members of a democratic society.

Early childhood education in Italy has become world famous. The Reggio Emilia schools have become "laboratories" studied and modeled by teachers from many countries, especially the United States. The philosophical model of Reggio Emilia nursery schools and kindergartens focuses on constructivist theoretical foundations that emphasize a learner-centered curriculum and teaching methodology. These preschools link their practices to the theoretical perspectives of John Dewey, a progressive American educator.

The Reggio Emilia schools create an educational world in which children work and play in communities and learn to respect other persons and divergent points of view. Teachers guide children through critical inquiry. Many of the activities include building structural art objects that require critical thinking skills using linguistic and mathematical processes and the ability to work in cooperative groups. The curriculum includes long-term projects in a variety of media that foster connections between school and the home, family, and community and develop awareness and appreciation for regional, national, global cultural heritage.

Another influential early childhood theorist was Maria Montessori, the well-known Italian educator, who believed that children could learn math and language skills by applying knowledge. Her philosophy, curriculum and teaching methods have given impetus to Montessori schools in the United States and other countries. Montessori concentrated on the goal and process of education, rather than its methods. She defined the educational process as the development of the total human being in relationship to the environment and cultural context. Montessori believed that schooling should correspond to each child's developmental stage. She wrote that children begin exploring the world around them at birth, gradually moving from sensory to cognitive awareness.

In Montessori schools, children are introduced to materials in a sequential and logical progression. They are taught that freedom implies responsibility, self-discipline and working cooperatively with others. Montessori educational materials are designed for exploration and self-discovery. Academic study must have long, uninterrupted blocks of time to allow students to explore, reflect, and problem solve. For Montessori, the ultimate goal of education for a young adult is to develop within the individual the desire for life-long learning.

In 1985 and 1990 there were educational reforms regarding the curriculum and structure of primary education and its connection to preschool. Legislation in 1985 promoted early literacy and the development of the individual child. A 1990 law called for curricular connections between primary school activities with those of preschool and lower secondary school. These links encourage consistency of curriculum, pedagogy, and student cognitive development.

In 1999, compulsory education was extended to 10 years. Students begin the mandatory program when they are six-years-old. Primary/elementary schools (Scuola Elementare or Scuola Primaria ), which can be public or private, must follow some national educational regulations; however, the 1997 Bassanini law 59 allows some freedom in curricular and pedagogical structure. The number of number of hours spent in class varies; students may attend classes for 27, 30, or 40 hours per week. Teachers have the autonomy and opportunity to design flexible curricula that meet student needs and national educational objectives. They ensure that the curricula includes examples from the European perspective, develop cross-cultural activities with a European focus, and establish contacts with other schools via pen pal and other programs.

Schools are required to provide students' families with an instructional plan describing subjects and activities for regular and optional curriculum; student assessment methods; research and experimentation activities; and the role of teachers in the school organization. Support is given to special needs students. The inclusion of learning disabled students provides all children with an opportunity for understanding and respecting differences.

Children usually attend schools closest to their home. Most classes have 25 students, but schools are established when there are 10 or more children of compulsory education age. The school year has a total of 200 days per year. It begins in September and ends June 30 with holidays at Christmas, Easter, and in the summer. Classes are usually from 8:30 a.m. until 4:30 p.m. with a lunch break of approximately 90 minutes. In 1992-1993 there were 22,710 primary schools with approximately 2,959,564 students and 264,615 teachers.

Elementary education is divided into two cycles. Cycle one is two years, and cycle two is three years. Students pass automatically from cycle one to two. During cycle one, teachers play a dominant role in the classroom and use a multidisciplinary curriculum. At times various classes may be grouped together and team-taught. Classroom activities are the responsibility of the Teachers Assembly (Collegio dei Docenti ). During the second cycle, teaching is divided into subject areas and different teachers teach the various subjects according to their specialty. Teaching is organized into modules around three main areas: linguistic expression, scientific-logicalmathematical, and historic-geographic-social. Teachers coordinate activities to ensure coherence and uniformity. Textbooks are chosen by individual teachers. Primary school curriculum includes Italian language, foreign language (French, German, or other) depending on the region of the Italian border, mathematics, science, history, geography, social studies, art, music, physical education, and Catholic religion (optional).

Student assessment and progress are tracked throughout the year by teacher observations; homework; and written work, oral work, and presentations. Parents or guardians received non-numerical reports (scheda ) about three times per year that emphasize the student's overall development commitment to learn. Parents are allowed to meet with teachers for an explanation of the report. At the end of the fifth grade students must pass written and oral exit examinations (Esami di Licenza Elementare ), which will allow them to enter compulsory lower secondary or middle school (Scuola Media ).

Secondary Education

Secondary schools (Scuola Secundaria ) are divided into lower and upper secondary education. Lower secondary or middle school is compulsory, lasts three years, and is for students 11- to 14-years-old. In 1992-1993 there were 9,857 lower secondary school with approximately 2,059,044 students and 233,034 teachers. The goal of these schools is to prepare students for life and careers. Individual subjects are taught by teachers with specialty in the field; however, teachers use cooperative, interdisciplinary planning and curricular connections to ensure coherence and uniformity. The curriculum includes Italian, history, civics, geography, foreign language, mathematics, sciences (physics, chemistry, and natural sciences), technical education, art, music, physical education, and catholic religion (optional). Teachers use non-prescribed, commercial textbooks.

Student assessment no longer includes marks from 1 through 10 or remedial exams. Each teacher enters narrative comments on the learning progress and maturity level of the student. The personal report card (Sheda Personale ) is prepared by each teacher and presented to the class council (Consiglio di Classe ) where all teachers agree on a written final assessment with explanatory notes that is sent to parents. The class council decides on the student promotion to the following academic year. At the end of the third year, all students take an exam consisting of three written tests in the subject areas of Italian, mathematics, and a foreign language and a multidisciplinary oral test. Students who fail must repeat the academic year. Passing students earn an overall assessment of excellent, good, or satisfactory and receive a middle school certificate (Diploma di Licenza Media ). This enables them to enter upper secondary education.

Upper secondary education is available for students aged 14 to 19. Most upper secondary schools are public and require a fee that may be waived according to the family financial need and the student assessment at the end of the year. The school year is from September until the end of June. Programs vary from three to five years. The majority of Italian teenagers attend Liceo Classico and Liceo Scientifico to prepare for university studies. Others attend art schools (Liceo Artistico or Istituto d'arte ); music school (Conservatorio di Musica ); elementary teacher preparatory programs (Istituto Magistrale ) or nursery school preparatory programs (Scuola Magistrale ). Some students attend the Liceo Linguistico, a privately funded and operated upper secondary institution. Those students who do not wish to pursue a university education may enroll in technical or vocational schools (Istituti Tecnici or Istituti Professionali ) after middle school for three years or more of training and education in applied fields.

The classical type education includes the classic liceum and the scientific liceum. The classical liceum prepares students for the university and other types of higher education. Liceum studies take five years and consist of two cycles: the lower cycle of two years and the upper cycle of three years. Students attend school six days per week and lessons are one hour per subject. Curriculum includes Italian language and literature, Latin language and literature, Greek language and literature, foreign language and literature, history, philosophy, natural sciences, chemistry, geography, mathematics, physics, history of art, and physical education. Catholic religion is optional. The scientific liceum prepares students for university education with emphasis in the sciences. Curriculum includes Italian language and literature, Latin language and literature, foreign language and literature, history, philosophy, geography, natural sciences, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, physics, drawing, and physical education. Catholic religion is optional.

Teacher Training (Istituto Magistrale ) for primary school teaching provides access to further study at schools of education at the university level. This program requires four years of coursework and may include a fifth year leading to university studies in the field of education. Curriculum includes Italian language and literature, Latin language and literature, foreign language and literature, philosophy, courses on teaching methods and educational psychology, history, civics, geography, natural sciences, chemistry, mathematics, physics, drawing, history of art, choral music, and physical education. Students may elect to study the Catholic religion or a musical instrument.

Nursery school teacher training (Scuola Magistrale ) is a three-year course of study. Curriculum includes Italian language and literature, education courses, history, geography, accounting, mathematics, natural sciences, hygiene and pediatrics, music and choral singing, home economics, theory and application of physical education, handicrafts, drawing, and teaching methods. Catholic religion is optional.

Assessment for all types of classical, upper secondary schooling is done by individual teachers according to each subject. At the end of the year the Class Council determines each student's final assessment. Students must earn marks between a six and a ten for each subject; those with lower marks must repeat exams in September prior to entering a new school year. At the end of upper secondary school, students must take an exam consisting of two written tests and an oral test. The oral portion of the exam is given by an examining board, which asks questions based on the written exams. Students are expected to demonstrate expressive and critical ability. Those passing the exam receive a certificate of completion (Maturita ). In 1992-1993 there were 753 classical liceums with 231,064 students and teachers; 1,038 scientific liceums with 472,950 students and teachers; 541 primary teacher training schools with 159,518 students and 57,370 faculty; and 165 nursery teacher training schools with 21,522 students and teachers.

Artistic liceum provides students with specialization in painting, sculpture, stage design, and architecture. Coursework lasts for four years with access to higher education at the Fine Arts Academy (Academia di Belle Arti ) or schools of architecture at the university. Following a fifth year, students may obtain a certificate of art (Diploma di Maturita Artistica). General curriculum includes Italian language and literature, history, history of art, mathematics, physics, natural sciences, chemistry, physical geography, and physical education. Art curriculum includes life drawing, still life, figure modeling, ornamental modeling, geometric drawing, perspective, elements of architecture, and anatomy for artists.

Art schools (Istituti d'Arte ) prepare students for traditional craftwork in industry, such as in ceramics, textiles, printing, glass, or gems. Courses last approximately three years and lead to the master of art diploma (Diploma di Maestro d'Arte Applicata ). Students who complete two additional years of coursework obtain the upper secondary certificate (Diploma di Maturita di Arte Applicata ). Curriculum for art schools includes general subjects (Italian language and literature, history, civics, history of art and applied arts, mathematics, natural sciences, chemistry, and geography) and art curriculum (geometric and architectural drawing, life drawing, and plastic arts). Catholic religion is optional.

Special education is provided for by law and is available for special needs students, including the handicapped. Special students attend regular classrooms; however there also self-contained classrooms for students who are not able to be included in regular classroom instruction. There are also institutes for the blind and the deaf. Teachers at these institutes receive special training so they can work with these students. Classes for the blind include physical therapy, telephone switchboard, and basket weaving.

The handicap law of 1992 provides for special education for nursery school, elementary, and middle school students. Some classes are also held in rehabilitation centers and hospitals for children unable to come to school. These classes are set up by the provincial directorates of education in coordination with health services, as well as public and private centers under contract to the Health Ministry and the Ministry of Labor. Teachers with specific training in psychology and associated pedagogy are hired for these centers. Teachers with a specialized credential in special education become support teachers (Insegnanti di Sostegno ) in local school groups (Circolo Didattici ) for nursery and primary schools and in individual secondary schools. Special education teachers often work alongside a regular teacher, providing support to the special needs students.

Students between the ages of 14 and 17 may enroll in three-year technical or vocational programs that have an optional additional two years of education and training. Technical Schools (Istituto Tecnico ) prepare students to work in jobs in agriculture, industry, business, tourism, surveying, foreign trade, laboratory technicians, and many other practical professional occupations. Vocational Schools (Istituto Profesionale ) prepare students for work in industry, agriculture, trade, hotel business, and other skilled work in the labor market.

Technical and vocational schools have similar curricula, which include general classes (Italian language and literature, history, civics, geography, foreign languages, mathematics, physics, natural sciences, chemistry, drawing, and physical education) and coursework within the field of specialization. Catholic religion is optional. Assessment for these schools is similar to that of upper secondary schools. In 1992-1993 there were 2,962 technical schools with 1,273,682 students and 111,334 teachers and 1,702 vocational schools with 534,044 students and 51,852 teachers.

Higher Education

Italy has the two oldest universities in Europe. The School of Medicine in Salerno was founded in the ninth century, and the University of Bologna was founded in the eleventh century. A number of other universities were founded by the end of the sixteenth century. The University of Padua and the University of Modena were founded in 1200. The universities of Rome, Perugia, Pisa, Florence, Naples, and Siena were founded in 1300. The universities of Turin, Parma and Catania were founded in 1400, and Messina was founded in 1500.

Article 33 of the Italian constitution allows public and private entities to establish institutions of higher education: universities, academies, and non-university higher education, such as art institutes. Other higher education institutions include the Higher Institutes of Physical Education, higher institutions with special statutes (Oriental Institute of Naples, the Higher Naval Institute of Naples, the College of Education of Pisa), schools of postgraduate and specialist studies, and other university level institutions. These institutions function fairly autonomously and are overseen by the Ministry for University of Scientific and Technological Research, which ensures some uniformity of curricula, standards, and examinations.

In 2000, university education was provided by 76 universities: 51 national universities, three polytechnic institutes, 12 free universities, 5 university institutes, 2 universities for foreign students, and 3 high schools (upper secondary). More than 1.0 million students attend Italian universities that employ more than 65,000 faculty members. Levels of university coursework include first level programs leading to a university diploma (Diploma Universitario ), which has been eliminated under current reform law and Special professional Training Schools (Scuole Dirette a Fini Speciali ). Second level programs lead to a university degree (Diploma di Laurea ). Third level programs lead to a specialization degree (Diploma di Specializzazione ) and research doctorate (Dottorato di Ricerca). Admission to third level degrees requires a (Diploma di Laurea ).

Students who complete the liceum may go directly to the university. Admission to the university requires candidates to have an upper secondary school certificate (Maturita or Diploma di Istruzione Secundaria Superiore ) earned after five years of study. Entrance exams are required for certain university programs and count for 70 percent of the admission, while grades from the Maturita count for 30 percent. Students are given numbers and placed on waiting lists according to their grades. Those with higher marks will be admitted to the university. Some candidates retake exams to achieve the higher marks needed for entering the university. The most crowded university programs are medicine, veterinary school, international studies, and environmental sciences. Other programs are less competitive and do not limit admissions.

Candidates apply directly to the institution they wish to attend. University students may pay registration and other fees. Needy students may apply and qualify for grants and loans; they may also hold part-time jobs. The academic year, which may be divided into semesters, starts in early November and ends in mid-June with final yearly exams in July. University degrees (Diploma di Laurea ) can be earned in the following professional fields: science, medicine, engineering, agriculture, economics, political-social law, literature (humanities). For each area of specialty there are compulsory and elective courses.

The average time for completing university course-work is from four to six years. A 1990 reform allows student to earn a university degree in a specialized working field (diploma di specialista ) within two to three years of coursework. Higher non-university education is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Instruction or Ministry of Education.

In November 1999, regulation 509 established criteria for a new university structure that allows universities to plan courses of study and provide teaching autonomy. In 2000, reforms were underway to integrate the Italian educational system within the structure of the European community. The plan calls for two university cycles of study to allow for student transfers and mobility among universities in Europe. Additional reforms focus on student requirements and credits (Credito Formativo Universitario or CFU ) and the three-year Laurea (L ) degree and five-year Laurea Specialistica (LS ) degree. To enroll in L courses, students must have a Diploma di Istruzione Secundaria Superiore; to enroll in LS courses, students must have a Diploma di Superamento dell'Esame di Stato.

The Ministry of the University and Scientific and Technological Research has reorganized university studies into five main areas: medicine; science and technology; humanities; law, politics, social sciences, and economics; and engineering and architecture. The Diploma di Laurea is designed to prepare students a high level of professional competency in their chosen field. The Laurea Specialistica provides additional advanced understanding and skills in the specialized profession. Written and oral exams are administered before students are allowed to advance within the university.

The university president confers university degrees and diplomas, which also reflect the higher education requirements of the European community. Each diploma reflects the student's course of study and the specific curriculum in the field of professional specialization. Some universities, in conjunction with national, local, public and private entities, may offer one year finishing courses in certain fields of specialization.

Non-university education includes Academies of Fine-Arts (Academia di belle Arti ), Higher Institutes for Art Industry (Istituto Superiore per le Industrie Artistiche ), National Academy of Dramatic Arts (Academia di Arte Drammatica ), National Academy of Dance (Academia di Danza ), and Academy of Music (Conservatoria di Musica ).

Vocational education and training are also part of non-university education. Initial vocational training is intended to promote employment and to allow individuals to keep abreast of new scientific and technological developments in the labor force. Vocational training is offered to young people who completed compulsory education and wish to earn a vocational certificate. This training is usually provided throughout the year by the following regional authorities: Ente Nazionale Istruzione Professionale (ENAIP); Associazione Cattolica Lavoratori Italiani (ACLI); Centro Nazionale Opere Salesiane (CNOS); Istituto Addestramento Lavoratori-Confederazione Italiana Sindacati Lavoratori (IAL-CISL); and Ente Nazionale Formazione Addestramento Professionale dell'Unione Italiana Lavoratori (ENFAP-UIL).

Initial vocational training covers agriculture, industry, crafts, and services and includes courses leading to a first certificate; integration courses for completing secondary education; post-certificate courses for those requiring specialized certificates; courses and post-certification activities; and level two courses for additional certificates of specialization. During vocational education, students are often required to train in the workplace.

Some individuals between the ages of 15 and 25 have apprenticeships (Apprendistati ). Apprenticeships are based on a contract in which employers teach the student apprentice the necessary technical expertise to become a skilled worker. Apprentices receive financial compensation as they take theoretical courses and apply this knowledge in the workplace. At the end of the apprenticeship contract, these working students must pass a qualification exam in the particular apprenticeship field. There are approximately 605,000 young people involved in apprenticeship contracts; 53 percent are in the crafts sector. Approximately 80 percent of these apprenticeship enterprises are in Northern Italy.

Employment training contracts (Contratti di Formazione-Lavoro ) are covered by a 1983 law which provides for private and public companies and their consortia to take on a certain number of individuals between the ages of 15 and 30 for a period of 2 years. Enterprises must submit specific training plans and make a commitment to train and teach these individuals and assist them in transition to the world of work. The Italian government offers financial incentives to the companies that participate in this program.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Administration of the Italian Educational system was at one time highly centralized. Since the end of the 1950s, there has been a trend toward decentralization, from the Ministries to the regional and provincial offices. Presidential decrees in 1972 and 1977 transferred more educational responsibility to the regions, provinces, and communes; however, finance, personnel, curriculum, and scientific research, and other specialized areas remained centralized. In 1989 the Ministry of the University and Scientific and Technological Research was created to guide, regulate, finance, and help with the administration of universities and research. Other responsibilities of this university ministry include coordination with the European community and international integration of the university system, admission requirements, monitoring and assessment. The Ministry for Public Instruction continues to be responsible for elementary, secondary, and tertiary, non-university education.

A 1997 law continued to delegate some educational responsibilities to regional and local governments, but major decisions still remain centralized. A 1999 presidential decree provided additional regional educational autonomy in terms of administration and management, school time and classes, and some curricular decisions. The 1999 decree also created an agency for vocational training and education that will work in conjunction with the Ministry of Public Instruction and the Ministry of Labor for effective coordination of vocational education and training. Law Decree 300 also called for the merger of the Ministry of Public Instruction with the Ministry of the University and Scientific and Technological Research; the merger should be completed by 2003.

National education authorities include the Ministry of Education based in Rome; central offices; regional schools superintendents (Sovrintendenza Scolastica Regionale ); and the Provincial Director of Education (Provveditorato agli Studi ). Within the Ministry of Public Instruction, the minister is assisted by one or more under-secretaries. The organizational units within the Ministry of Public Instruction deal with different levels and types of schools, teacher education and training, cultural exchanges, personnel administration. The Ministry issues general guidelines, legislation and directives for schools and schooling. There is a special service for preschool education, and three inspectors are responsible for physical education, art education, and employee pensions.

The minister may call upon certain individuals for advice, tasks, and budget. These persons include the Secretariat, members of the minister's cabinet and offices working with the Minister of Public Instruction; regional and provincial undersecretaries of state appointed directly by the Minister; and ministerial advisers. Directors general, inspectors, and departments may also be called for expert advice.

The Higher Council for Education (Consiglio Superiore della Pubblica Istruzione ) has replaced the National Education Council. This council assists the Minister of Public Instruction with planning and supervision of education policy. The central general administration of nursery schools (Servicio per la Scuola Materna ) assists the Minister in policy making and the implementation of educational activities (Orientamenti dell'Acttivita Educativa ). The central general administration of elementary and secondary education (Directorates ) deal with primary and lower and upper secondary schooling. These directors submit regulations to the Minister of Public Instruction regarding curricular implementation, teacher recruitment, non-teaching staff, student assessment, funding, and other school issues.

Central general administration of higher education under the Ministero dell'Universita e della Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica is responsible for the implementation and evaluation of the university strategic plan; ensures the autonomy of individual universities; enhances university research; supervises and monitors university research plans; allocates funds according to specific, designated criteria; coordinates educational activities and research projects at the national and international level, especially within the countries in the European community; works in conjunction with the Ministero della Istruzione Pubblica in coordinating education at various levels in terms of inservice training of school personnel; fosters research in the field of education; and promotes cultural exchanges among schools and universities. The Ministry of University and Scientific and Technical Research is assisted by three departments: the Department of University and Student Autonomy (Dipartimento per l'Autonomia Universitaria e gli Studenti ), the Department for the Development and Promotion of Research (Dipartimento per lo Sviluppo e il Potenziamento del'Attivita di Ricerca ), and the Department for Economic Affairs (Dipartimento per agli Affari Economici ).

Additional councils assist the Ministry in matters of university education and administration. The Consiglio Universitario Nazionale (CUN) oversees university planning, the appointment of professors and researchers, and teaching regulations. The council is composed by 15 professors, 3 of whom representing 3 scientific disciplines; 8 student representatives; 4 technical and administrative staff representatives; and 3 members of the Conferenza Permanente dei Rettori della Universita Italiana (CRUI). These representatives are all elected members who remain in office for four years. CRUI is involved in the development of objectives for the university, the allocation of financial resources, and in the administration of didactic and scientific regulations regarding research.

The Commissione di Esperti per il Coordinamento tra l'Istruzione Universitaria e gli Gradi di Istruzione (Commission of Experts for the Coordination of University Instruction) is composed of three members appointed by the Consiglio Nazionale della Pubblica Istruzione, three members appointed by the CUN, two members appointed by the Consiglio Nazionale dell'Economia e del Lavoro (CNEL) representing employers and employees, one representative from the Regional Institute for Research and Refresher Courses (IRRSAE) which coordinates in-service teacher training, three experts nominated by the Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, and three experts nominated by the Ministero dell' Universita e della Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica. This commission concerns itself with students following university education and preparation for teaching.

Two new councils will be formed after 2000: the Consulta Nazionale per il Diritto agli Studi Universitari (National Council for the Rights of University Students) and Consiglio Nazionale degli Studenti Universitari (National Council of University Students). The National Council for the Rights of University Students will be composed of five university representatives, five regional representatives, and five students. The National Council of University Students will be comprised of 28 student members, elected by their peers, who are enrolled in degree or diploma programs. This council will be concerned with general criteria and teaching guidelines.

In Italy, local school administration includes provinces and communes. Education power at the provincial level includes the Provveditore agli studi and the Assessore Provinciale alla Pubblica Istruzione. These individuals are responsible for state and local administration of schools. The Provveditore is in charge of the promotion, coordination, supervision, and monitoring of provincial schools, except for the Fine Arts Institutes. He interprets the central laws and regulations for primary and secondary education in regional schools. The Provincial Director of Education establishes relationships among provincial andlocal school authorities. The Provveditore is also responsible for inservice education for teachers, special education, and health education. The Provincial Scholastic Council (Consiglio Scolastico Provinciale ) serves as a consulting body to the Provveditore. The Assessore alla Pubblica Istruzione is responsible for upper secondary education in terms of establishing and annexing schools and other aspects of physical facilities, including the integration of handicapped students, school networking, and school safety.

Commune offices and authorities, often representing small residential communities, are distributed throughout Italy and are concerned with the performance of functions and services needed in the daily operation of schools and student attendance. Additional responsibilities include subsidized student transportation, cafeterias, textbooks, and financial assistance for needy families. Communes have similar responsibilities as provincial bodies.

Specific administration and management of schools have become increasingly decentralized and grant schools autonomy in teaching, administration, research, and development. Schools are viewed as expressions of functional autonomy aimed at determining and providing educational opportunity. Schools are seen as institutions that assist with the cognitive, sociocultural, and moral development of citizens in a pluralistic society. Each school prepares a Piano dell'Oferta Formativa (POF), a plan that includes the philosophy, missions, and goals consistent with the general educational objectives and national standards. Schools are expected to reflect the cultural, social and economical realities of each community and provide equal opportunity in education for all citizens. The POF includes different teaching strategies that consider teaching and learning styles, especially the needs of culturally diverse students.

The Collegio del Docenti (Teacher Council) makes decisions regarding teaching and learning on the basis of general objectives defined by the Consiglio di Circolo (Cycle Council) or Consiglio di Istituto (Institutional or School Council). Parents and students have input in the decision-making process. School goals, regulations and decisions are distributed to students and parents during enrollment at the start of each academic year. Statutory rule of law concerning school autonomy makes it clear that schools must take into account cultural pluralism; provide equal opportunity for students; foster academic freedom in teaching and learning; as well as plan and implement educational and training interventions, which assist in the development of all learners. School decentralized decision-making includes teaching autonomy, organizational autonomy, and research autonomy. Teaching autonomy means that schools must carry out a plan that includes national objectives leading to an educational environment conducive to learning for all students.

Class schedules and lessons are flexible and arranged into modules, according to subject areas, which best meet student needs. Students are grouped for enhanced learning and teaching opportunity. In terms of organizational autonomy, schools are allowed to decide how to best allocate teaching resources and adapt teaching methodologies and curriculum according to student needs, as long as the schools follow their POF. Autonomy of research, experimentation, and development provides for curricular planning and assessment; training and professional development of school personnel; innovation of curricula and pedagogy; theoretical and experiential teaching and learning; and interdisciplinary curricular integration, including vocational education and training.

School autonomy also allows individual schools to increase course offerings and educational activities that take into account the social and cultural needs of the community. Schools are encouraged to build networks with other schools, universities, and private corporations and associations. These community network relationships encourage curriculum innovation, a variety of methods and strategies, collaborative research opportunities, cooperation in educational resources, and teacher exchanges.

Schools are given administrative and financial autonomy in staff recruitment, hiring, and teaching assignments. The Ministry of Education establishes guidelines for school autonomy to ensure some uniformity within the Italian educational system. This guiding framework includes specific educational objectives, minimum curriculum standards, compulsory curricular timetables, general criteria for student assessment, and general organization of adult education. Universities function under the guidelines of the Ministry of the University and Scientific and Technological Research, but they also have some provincial and regional autonomy in terms of staffing, curriculum, and research.

The Ministry of Public Instruction allocates funds directly to technical and vocational schools to use for materials and laboratories and other facilities needed for experiential education. Regions have specific powers and needs regarding school buildings, vocational education, school transportation, school meals, and providing textbooks free of charge. Provinces and communes are usually given freedom to use resources and finances to meet the needs of individual communities, while still maintain standards and requirements of the Ministry of Public Instruction. Provincial authorities cover the building cost of primary and lower secondary schools, as well as technical and scientific upper secondary schools. The communes cover the cost of upper secondary classical schools.

The Ministry of Universities and Scientific and Technological Research disperses financial resources among state and private universities that meet state level requirements. Private universities also received funding from private organizations, associations, or foundations. State universities are allowed to accept private funding contributions for resources and research. Additional income for universities comes from student tuition.

Evaluation of educational institutions is a concern. In 1999 the government established the National Institute for the Evaluation of the Educational System, which is responsible for the administration of institutional evaluation, documentation, and educational research. This institute monitors institutional evaluation and provides technical guidance and support. Inspectors from the Ministry of Education pay regular visits to schools to ensure educational quality and equity and implementation of ministerial directives. Inspectors' responsibilities include giving educational assistance in terms of planning, organization, and implementation of programs; technical assistance and advice for experimental and research activities; and defining and implementing in-service training for faculty and staff.

Article 33 of the Italian constitution establishes educational policy, which states that the government must establish a state school system for all children, providing opportunities commensurate with their aspirations, regardless of economic status and social situation, such as ethnic or linguistic background. Private bodies and individuals are entitled to establish schools and colleges of education. These schools may get state funding if they follow rules and guidelines, including health regulations, similar to those of public schools and ensure equal opportunity to students.

Nationally recognized private schools are also authorized to provide certificates of completion. Provincial Directors of Education supervise private schools at the preschool level. Private elementary schools include officially recognized schools (Scuole Parificate ) also supervised by the Provincial Director of Education (Provveditore agli Studi ); and authorized private schools run by persons with a Primary Teaching Training Certificate, or a classical or technical diploma (Magistrale from the Scuola Magistrale ). Teachers at these private schools may be asked to articulate a faith and morality statement.

Private education at the secondary level includes legally recognized schools (Scuole Legalment Risonosciute ) and state authorized schools (Scuole Pareggiate ). These schools have the same validity as state schools and can award a middle school certificate (Diploma di Licenza Media ). In recognized schools, curriculum, student assessment, and teacher qualifications are similar to public schools. Private schools may receive public funding in terms of government grants. Private education at a higher level include universities and other higher education institutions, as well as non-university higher level education for high levels of specialization, such as art institutes. If these institutes follow state guidelines, they may award certificates. The Ministry of Education's art inspector supervises the private art institutes.

Nonformal Education

At one time the primary goal of nonformal adult education was to eliminate illiteracy. Since the level and quality of literacy have risen, adult education has been focusing on preparing adults to enter the workforce and preparing individuals to continue their own educational attainment. Many of the students enrolled in adult education include housewives, unemployed persons, and immigrants seeking newer opportunities for employment and further education.

Scuole Populari were first established in 1947 to help eliminate illiteracy. These schools abolished in 1982. However, there are literacy courses for elementary and secondary school certificates of achievement for those who did not follow all prior educational steps. Management of adult schools is the function of territorial centers, which decide on the specific needs of communities. Adult education is planned and coordinated at the district level. Adult education centers usually function within an established school. The school principal is the coordinator for the adult education center.

Activities in adult centers include counseling and guidance for applicants; literacy education at various levels, including preparation for higher education; language (Italian) education and special language training for immigrants and others; vocational education and training; and preparation for certificates of achievement in compulsory elementary education and secondary school certificate. Many adults return to school for retraining and changing career paths. Most classes are offered in the evening to meet the needs of the working student population. Certification includes Diploma di Licenza Elementare, Diploma di Licenza Medi, and statement of vocational training and similar certificates of achievement for secondary education.

Italy is part of EDUVINET, Education via networks, a partner team of European Community member countries for Internet-supported teaching and learning and distance education in and among schools in Europe. Objectives of EDUVINET include training teachers, administrators, and students in using internet resources effectively; preparing young people and adults for the information age in interdependent democracies; extending educational European content available on the internet; and using educational resources more efficiently throughout European schools.

The EDUVINET Web site includes discussion forums, like EDUTALK; teaching, methodology, and curriculum; full text teaching resources; exemplary teaching content; teacher training opportunities; links to schools, teaching subjects, curriculum and pedagogy, and European information; opportunities for publishing with EDUVINET; and searching engines. EDUVINET is supported financially by the SOCRATES Open and Distance Learning Program. EDUVINET can also be a support network for distance education available through the Open University, which started in the England and has expanded through many European countries. Adult students find the Open University Distance Education opportunity a flexible means of continuing educational goals.

Teaching Profession

Teachers have always been considered government employees; however, they have their own collective bargaining unit at school level. Educational reforms have lead to increased decentralization. Individual schools are becoming the groups primarily responsible for the administration and management of the teaching staff. The Ministry of Public Instruction continues to be responsible for orientation, coordination, and verification of teaching status.

Until 1997-1998 primary school teachers were trained at upper secondary schools (Istitutos Magistrales ) for four years where the curriculum included academic courses on teacher training that included theory, methods, and teaching practice. Since 1998 nursery school and elementary teacher education are required to complete a four-year university degree (Laurea ).

Secondary school teachers always had been required to attend and earn a university degree in a specialized field. They may obtain the designation of Abilitazione from two-year specialization schools (Scuole di Specializzazione ). Those wishing to take the teaching exam (cattedre ) must have this designation. Teachers must pass another exam (concorso ) to obtain professional teaching status. Teachers also receive training on the integration of special needs students, such handicapped students; some teachers have a specialization in areas of special education. Teachers in recognized private schools must meet the same qualifications as public school teachers.

School principals or head teachers (Preside, Direttore Didattico, or Dirigente Scolastici ) are responsible for the overall management of the school, including instructional, financial, and personnel issues and represent the school within the community. They report directly to the Provincial Director of Education. The principals or head teachers coordinate all school activities and are responsible for meeting legislative provisions. They must guarantee equal opportunity and equity of resources to all students, taking into account the sociocultural needs of the community. These school leaders implement School Council decisions; organize the school internally, promoting and coordinating activities for faculty and staff; and develop class schedules, teacher assignments, and student disciplinary action. Other teachers or administrative directors may assist the principal or head teacher.

The recruitment of new Dirigente Scolastici is done through a course-competition announced by the Ministry of Public Instruction. Teachers with a university degree (Laurea ) who have been teaching for at least seven years can be admitted to this competition. Teachers who complete the general training course-competition satisfactorily and who meet placement qualifications can be placed in primary and middle schools. Teachers who complete specific secondary training can be placed as head teachers in upper secondary schools.

The School Council (Consiglio di Istituto ) is responsible for budgetary methods and the organization and planning of non-educational extra curricular activities. The council decides on the purchase of school equipment, teaching materials, and other resources; on the use of school facilities for curricular and extra curricular activities, including sports; on the remedial and support courses to be offered, and on the cooperative efforts with other schools and community groups. The council includes teachers, parents, and students. The chair of the council is an elected parent representative, and the principal serves an ex-officio member.

Teaching and educational activities are the responsibility of the principal, the Teachers' Assembly (Collegio dei Docenti ), the Interclass Council (Consiglio d'Interclasse ) for primary schools and Class Council (Consiglio de Classe ) for secondary schools. The Teachers' Assembly is composed of all the permanent and temporary teachers of each primary school group or individual primary or secondary school and is chaired by the school principal. The Teachers' Assembly is responsible for teaching and educational plans for each school year. The group must follow national legislation and guidelines and be cognizant of community needs and concerns. It encourages academic freedom and interdisciplinary teaching and learning. The Teachers Assembly is also responsible for evaluating teacher performance, selecting textbooks and other resources in consultation with teachers and parents, and for providing inservice for teachers and staff.

Rectors are univerisities' legal representatives. The faculty members at each university select someone among them to serve as rector or president. The rector carries out the decisions of the academic senate (Senato Academico ), the university decision-making body regarding academics and other educational issues. The president also works with the Consiglio di Administrazione, the board responsible for administrative and financial management. Various faculties within departments carry out instructional and research activities in fields of specialization. University teaching requires a doctorate in a field of specialization. The Faculty Committee, comprised of deans, professors and researchers, coordinates and carries out the academic responsibilities of the university related to curriculum, scholarship, and student advising. The committee makes decisions about teaching and research. Students may be a part of this committee. Inspectors visit schools to ensure that educational objectives are being met.

The federal government finances public education by providing salaries for teachers and staff and purchasing textbooks and other instructional materials and resources. Most funding is sent directly to regional and provincial offices for schools to use as they deem appropriate following guidelines from the Ministry of Public Instruction. The School Council is responsible for allocating funding for school maintenance, facilities, equipment, library expenditures, and academic resources. Preliminary budgets are prepared by an Executive Board elected by the School Council and chaired by the school principal. The school secretary, an ex-officio member of the board, is responsible for recording accounting and expenses.

University rectors are responsible for posting recruitment needs, procedures, and competitive exams for the posts of full, associate, and research professor. University faculty includes full professors and associate professors. Full professors are professors with tenure of first level (Professori di Prima Fascia or Ordinari ), and associate professors have tenure of second level (Professori di Seconda Fascia ). Professorial levels are assured academic freedom in teaching and research. Research professors (Professori di Ricerca ) contribute to the development of research and integrate and apply it to their teaching.

Contract professors are hired according to Ministry for Universities for Scientific and Technical Research (MURST) regulations for one- to six-year contracts to teach and assist in scholarship activities with professors and university students within specific fields of specialization. Budget considerations may limit these contracts. Native language collaborators and linguistic experts who have earned a Laurea may be hired to work on specific research projects with faculty and students for a specific time period. Lecturers from other countries are also hired for their areas of expertise and work for a limited contract period.

Summary

The Italian school system is divided into three tiers: primary, secondary, and higher education. School reform was introduced in the early 1960s and continues. The primary or elementary school is compulsory and free; elementary education starts at 6 years of age and lasts until a student is 11 years old. Students are required to pass an aptitude exam at the end of elementary school before entering secondary school.

Compulsory education has been extended to lower secondary education or middle school and, in 1999, to the first year of upper secondary school. At the end of middle school, students take another aptitude test before entering upper secondary school. At the end of upper secondary education, students must pass a final exam (Esame di Stato ) that allows them to earn a certificate (Diploma di Maturita ) to enter the world of work or gain access to universities and non-university higher education schools. Upper secondary schools, sometimes also referred to as higher education, include the classic, linguistic, and scientific schools (liceos ); education schools for nursery and elementary teachers; and technical, vocational, and professional schools.

There are private schools for all levels of education. Funding for private schools is primarily from private organizations; however, private schools may receive state funds if they follow the same guidelines as state public schools in terms of curriculum, personnel, and management.

Adult education exists for those who wish to acquire job skills, improve literacy levels, and continue their education. The Italian educational system recognizes the importance of cultural and linguistic pluralism and in schools. Accommodations are made for students with special needs. Italy, as a member of the European Community, is engaged in the European dimension of education and participate in a network of international initiatives.

Bibliography

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Center for Continuous Training in European Dimension, 30 April 2001. Available from http://www.ceses.it.

Commission of the European Communities. The Education Structures in the Member States of the European Communities. Brussels: EEC, 1987.

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Consiglio, Vincenso. Education in Italy. Rome: Italian Ministry of Education, 1987.

EDUVINET, 23 March 2001. Available from http://www.land.salzburg.at.

European Community Educational Database, 2001. Available from http://www.eurydice.org.

Italian Ministry of Public Instruction, 2001. Available from http://www.istruzione.it.

Katz, Lillian G., and Bernard Cesarone. Reflections on the Reggio Emilia Approach. Urbana: ERIC Clearing House on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, 1994.

de Kerchove d'Exaerde, George. A Human Face for Europe. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1990.

Lillard, Paula Polk. Montessori Today. New York: Schocken, 1996.

Ministry of University and Scientific and Technical Research, 10 November 1999. Available from http://www.murst.it.

Shennan, M. Teaching Europe. London: Cassell, 1991.

Le Transformazioni della Scuola nella Societa Multiculturale. Roma: Ministero della Publica Istruzione, 2001.

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—Maria A. Pacino

Italy

Basic Data

Background & General Characteristics

The Italian media system entered the new century with a combination of continued reliance on the traditional printed press and participation in the global shift to new delivery systems, including online journalism, the spread of personal computers, and digital television. Despite increasing reliance on digital technologies in every area of communication in Italy, the term "press" still mainly connotes the daily newspapers. Italy's daily newspapers have five distinguishing characteristics that set this medium apart from its counterpart in other west European countries: historically low levels of readership; a predominance of regional over national papers; a notable lack of independence of the press; virtual nonexistence of a popular press; and the existence of a group of daily "news"papers that are devoted solely to either sports, religious news or other specialized topics.

The first characteristic is the one most often stressed by analysts of the Italian press. Compared with other member countries of the European Union (EU), Italy's aggregate daily newspaper circulation (the social indicator used as a proxy to measure readership) ranks just above Greece and Portugal, the two least advanced Mediterranean European Union (EU) members. Paolo Mancini reports that aggregate daily newspaper circulation in Italy stood at 109 per thousand citizens in 1999, and he remarked that this is very low indeed when one considers that the comparable figure is near 600 in Norway (323). Throughout most of the twentieth century, readership of daily newspapers was constant at about five million. There was a small increase in the 1980s, fueled by a turn to commercialization of the press, to a high 6.5 million in the year 1990. Since then, the number has been falling again, to 6 million in 1998 (ISTAT 214). This figure of 6 million was computed by taking the annual circulation of daily periodicals, (2.2 million) and dividing by 365 days. This also means that aggregate daily newspaper circulation has decreased to 105 per thousand persons.

There are several direct and indirect causes of the low-readership phenomenon. A direct cause is related to the logistics of matching the reader with the paper. As is typical in other European nations, newspaper distribution in Italy is conducted almost exclusively via newsstands. However, for a variety of reasons related to permit requirements and attempts by operators to limit competition, the number of newsstands in Italy per 1000 persons is below that in Germany and France. Another technical problem is the fact that prices are determined by a joint committee of government and business, and have inevitably crept up. In addition to pointing to availability of newsstands and price per copy, we can address the obvious question: do Italians simply not read in general? True, Italians are not avid readers, but this statement needs to be qualified.

According to a survey conducted in 1956 (Lumley 4), nearly two thirds of the population reported never reading anything at all. Regional differences are significant, however. Until the fifties, Italy's population outside the major urban centers was mainly rural and poor, and illiteracy was still fairly high in the Mezzogiorno region and in rural areas in general. Almost four fifths of the population spoke a local dialect and were not very familiar with Italian. In some local dialects, the lira was referred to as the franc, while in another it was called a pfennig, which lends testimony to Italy's much more fragmented history. Italian is still in the process of becoming the language that every Italian is comfortable with, and much of the new vocabulary, including technical and specialized language transliterated from other languages, was slow to trickle down to the less educated tier of the population. More often than not, Italian journalists writing for major daily papers did not engage in concerted efforts to translate or explain unfamiliar words to their reading public.

Literacy rates increased in the next two decades, and most Italians were now able to read a newspaper. Yet, they still chose not to do so, for a variety of reasons, including alienation from bureaucracy and journalistic jargon used by the press, the non-availability of popular magazines and dailies, and the fact that a high proportion of the potential readership, women in particular, felt excluded from the mainstream public sphere (Lumley 4). Other types of media have a higher appeal to this population. Since the 1950s, radio and TV were the media of choice. More recently, it is not surprising that newspaper circulation decreased in the last decade, due to increased reliance on the Internet for access to daily news.

The predominance of regional over national newspapers in Italy is striking. One reason for this phenomenon is that the capital, Rome, is not an international center on the order of New York, Paris, or London, while several cities in northern Italy, notably Milan and Turin in the northwest, Bologna and Venice in the northeast, are important urban centers. While some regional newspapers have a high circulation and are nationally distributed, they tend to convey a regional bias that is often linked to the family that owns the paper. This has been the case for Il Corriere della Sera, whose owners have long imposed their own Milanese bias, and for La Stampa, owned by the Agnelli family of Turin, who are the major stockholders of the Fiat Company and who impart a Piedmontese bias to this nationally distributed paper. The lack of a truly national newspaper leaves room for many regional and multi-regional papers, e.g. Il Mattino, which is based in Naples and Il Resto del Carlino, based in Bologna (Lumley 2). Some party-affiliated daily newspapers, notably L'Unitá, and other sectarian daily newspapers have a truly national character and nationwide readership, and seem to be filling the void to some extent.

The third characteristic of the Italian daily press, its lack of independence, is intertwined with the previous one. Ownership by rich families, industrial groups and other financial power centers is typical, with often many newspapers published by the same group. A notable non-industrial financial center is the Catholic Church, which supports publication of the widely circulated daily paper of the Vatican, L'Osservatore Romano. In past decades, it was also typical to see daily newspapers published by political parties, which used the medium to circulate information to their members. While the Italian reading public is small, it is politically savvy. Italians display high percentages of party membership and voting turn-out, and membership is also high in labor unions and in a variety of cultural, professional and political interest groups (Mancini 320-1). Party newspapers could thus derive great political benefit from this method of communicating with their members. While most of the party papers have disappeared in the past decade, L'Unitá, the traditional publicity arm of the Communist Party (recently reborn as the Democratic Party of the Left) is still circulated nationwide, but has declined in importance.

One origin of Italy's press sectarianism is the genre of journalism that historically developed in Italy. As is the case in several other west European countries, journalism in Italy has grass-root beginnings in literary gazettes. As such, journalism has traditionally specialized in interpretation, intricate commentary and complex analysis rather than direct news reporting and detailed descriptions of events. Italian journalists are experts at the inchiesta giornalistica, the investigative in-depth report. Analysts of the Italian daily newspapers often note the irony residing in the fact that this medium of public discourse employs highly skilled journalists who face a public that does not read daily newspapers in significant numbers. Other origins lie in the fact that the press developed at the time of unification of the country, which fostered the founding of the Party newspapers, and the fact that the seat of power of the Catholic Church happens to be in the Italian peninsula. The Vatican is the world's richest nation in terms of income per capita, and it constitutes one of the main power bases, with a political agenda that is definitely not independent.

The final two major characteristics of the Italian press, non-existence of a popular press and the presence of daily newspapers devoted to a single non-news topic, are to some extent overlapping. Instead of producing tabloids, a format that is popular in several other EU member countries, Italian publishers focus on newspapers with specialized topics that tie in with a major passion of all Italians, sport, and in particular soccer. On days following a national soccer match or a World Cup competition, the circulation of sports papers like La Gazetta dello Sportand Il Corriere dello Sport-Stadio soars into the hundreds of thousands (Grandinetti 29, 40).

Daily, Weekly & Other Periodicals

According to the most recent statistics (Annuario Statistico Italiano 214), slightly over 10 million distinct periodicals appear in Italy (data for 1998). A relatively small percentage of these are daily printed newspapers. Of these, about two-thirds are listed as providing general daily news coverage, while the others deal with a variety of topics, including topics of interest to members of professional areas, commerce, sports, the arts, and labor unions (Annuario 214). A detailed listing of current and out-of-print newspaper titles, together with their place and first date of publication, ownership, editorial board, description of relevant facts, and a short bibliography related to each newspaper is provided by Grandinetti (1992) and readers interested in this detail should consult that publication. For the purpose at hand, a brief description of the major national, regional and party-affiliated papers follows. The nationwide Italian press has two major daily newspapers: La Republica and Il Corriere della Sera, both of which are published with local sections for each of the major urban areas. There are also a number of large regional and newspapers, notably Il Mattino (Naples), Il Messaggero (Rome) and La Stampa (Turin), which is the third largest daily newspaper. Many of the daily papers covering general news originated in the nineteenth century. Today, the major national and local newspapers are no longer affiliated with political parties, as used to be the rule in the past. The notable exception remains L'Unitá, the traditional newspaper of the Communist Party (Mancini 323).

In addition to the relatively few daily newspapers, there is a large number of weekly (482), biweekly (384) and monthly (2,148) magazines, with an additional 6,817 periodicals that have a lower frequency of circulation (Annuario 2000 214). In the beginning of the twenty-first century, the number of daily newspapers has increased, from a low of 113 in 1995 to 126, while the number of weeklies has declined significantly, from 624 in 1995 to its 2002 total of 482. Weekly magazines play an important role in distributing general news information to the public, with 176 of them devoted solely to news coverage and the remaining to music, sports, religion, and many other topics. The widest circulated weeklies in the general news category are Panorama and L'Espresso. Considering that these two weeklies are owned, respectively by the Mediaset-Berlusconi Group and the Espresso-La Republica Group, they reflect the main political trends of weekly press coverage and journalism.

New trends in commercial journalism

The year 1989 accentuated a new trend in Italian journalism, as the "soft" revolutions took their course in central and eastern Europe. Press coverage on events impacting on Italy, in particular increased immigration, revealed the dimensions of an Italian national identity. Immigration from north and central Africa, Asia and the ex-Eastern bloc nations has seen a rise since 1970 and increased sharply after 1989, especially from Albania, Poland, Romania, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and India. Lax immigration policies and an extensive economia sommersa (under-ground economy) have traditionally lured immigrants, the vast majority of whom are illegal, to the peninsula. Anna Triandafyllidou's study published in 1999 documents the concomitant upsurge of ethno-nationalism in Italy. She points out that national community in Italy is not merely based in its territorial boundaries and its culture, but also by the melding of a restoration of Roman historic tradition with the revolutionary elements of the fascist legacy into the so-called Risorgimento (resurgence) movement. The development of a xenophobic attitude has been both demonstrated and perhaps even accelerated by public discourse in the press. Articles in the representative weeklies Panorama and L'Espresso show a discourse that continually differentiates Italians from immigrants. Immigrants are treated "not as individuals but as members of a given group that is categorized beforehand… (83)." The following titles of articles published in the two weeklies are representative of this public discourse: L'integrazione impossible (The impossible integration), L'Espresso, Oct. 10, 1990; L'Immigratio checi meritamo (The immigrant we deserve), L'Espresso, Oct. 13, 1991; A ciascuno il suo profugo (a refugee for everyone), L'Espresso, June 23, 1991; Oggi albanesi, poi… (Today Albanians, tomorrow…), Panorama, June 30, 1991; and Immigrati: quanti sono davvero e come fanno a entrare? (Immigrants: How many are there really, and how do they get in?).

In March 1999, the United Nations Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination issued a strongly worded criticism of Italy's practice of discrimination against Roma people. While it did not single out the Italian press, the Committee made mention of the lack of appropriate knowledge and training of law enforcement and other public officials in regards to the provision of the Convention. In looking at the role the Italian press has played in the public discourse regarding immigration, using the sample of titles of articles listed above, one may conclude that the press has not helped educate the public about the human rights of marginalized people and has instead devoted coverage to their "otherness."

Economic Framework

Prior to the onset of commercialization of the 1980s, expansion of their paper's readership was not a prime economic strategy of newspaper publishers. Enzo Forcella, a well-known analyst of Italian journalism, explained in a 1959 essay entitled Millecinquecento Lettori that a journalist should try to reach only the following 1,500 privileged readers (Forcella 451):

"…a political journalist can count on about one thousand five hundred readers in Italy: ministers and under-secretaries (all), members of parliament (some), party leaders, trade-union representatives, high prelates and some industrialists who want to appear well informed. The rest don't count, even if the newspaper sells three hundred thousand copies. First of all, it is not believed that the common reader reads the first pages of the newspaper and, in any case, his influence is minimal. All of the system is organized for the relationship between journalists and the privileged group of readers."

Forcella's comments are often quoted because they encapsulate the main goals of newspaper publishers in the period up to the oil crisis and the resulting economic stagflation periods experienced by west European countries, and notably Italy, in the mid-seventies. The mid-seventies were a watershed for European economies, and Italy in particular. Until 1971, the Italian economy enjoyed high growth rates and unemployment rates that were stable, with high unemployment concentrated in the Mezzogiorno. Wage pressure was becoming evident in the northern industrial region at the end of the sixties, contributing to strikes and fueling wage inflation. Then came the two oil shocks of the 1970s, and economic growth could only be maintained by an accommodating monetary policy adopted by the Banca d'Italia. Accordingly, inflation reached 20 percent per year. Following the second oil shock of 1979-80, unemployment rates started to rise despite the easy monetary policy. High unemployment and inflation are costly for both business and government, because of two mechanisms. The first is the cassa integrazione (generally called the cassa ), a system jointly financed by business (at the rate of one percent of gross salaries) and by government. It pays at least 80 percent of one's salary over a period that may be unlimited. Many of the unemployed continue to work, at near full compensation, in the underground economy, which is estimated to be 20-35 percent of the economy (Neal and Barbezat 232). The underground economy is very diversified and closer to the surface than in other EU members, as many enterprises in Italy sublet their business space during night hours (Dauvergne 31). The second mechanism interacting with inflation, and some arguing that it is the main cause of inflation, is the scala mobile, which indexed salary increases to the projected cost of living. Since rising wages were a major factor causing rises in the cost of living, the Italian economy was caught in an inflationary wage-price spiral that contributed to a number of problems, including rising pension costs, balance of payments deficits and government deficits.

On the government side, economic problems contributed to short-lived administrations. On top of being plagued by persistent economic problems, Italy entered the period of the terror of the Red Brigades. The Brigatte Rosse (Red Brigades) was founded in 1969, an offshoot of the student protests and social movement of 1968, and vouched to establish a Marxist-Leninist state in a new Italy that would no longer be a member of NATO. The Red Brigades started a spate of terrorist acts in 1973, which included kidnapping and shootings of businessmen and others. Indro Montanelli, the editor of Il Giornale, was shot in the legs in 1977. The group lost all political support from the Left when it murdered former prime minister Aldo Moro, who was then the leader of the left wing of the Christian Democratic Party. After many members were arrested, the group disappeared in 1989. The murder of government adviser Marco Biagi in March 2002 has led to fears that the Red Brigades may be staging a comeback, however.

In the private sector, big industry is described (Dauvergne 32) as having found a "second wind" in the 1980s, but this was largely accomplished by means of massive layoffs (Locke Chapter 2) rather than truly innovative strategies. In the communications industry, the second wind was the beginning of a period of crass commercialization, and an end to the period where industrial groups held on to publishing enterprises that were not profitable and were considered useful mainly as a public relations tool.

The rise in commercialization of the media since the 1980s and the development of the Internet, has led to a shift from the printed press to the mass media as the prime vehicle for carrying political messages to the people, and this in an increasingly profit-oriented fashion. Gone are the party newspapers like Il Popolo, L'Avanti and La Vocce Republicana, the respective daily newspapers of the Christian Democrat, Socialists and Republican political parties. The new political party of Forza Italia relies solely on paid messages carried via commercial media for its advertising.

The market approach, so evident since the 1980s, has also brought with it an end to the era of massive subsidies from political and industrial owners to the media (Mancini 322), and this happened without reliance on money-making infotainment, and fluff entertainment programming. Indeed, TV news programming has increased significantly in the 1990s (it rose 11 percent from 1992 to 1996), and has well kept pace with cultural programming, which itself rose 13 percent during the same period (Mancini 322). However, it must be admitted that political sensationalism and exaggeration of conflicts is more visible in the new commercialized news environment than it was prior to the 1980s. Reporting is done using a simpler, less nuanced, less complex and, hence, less analytical and critical manner in the new media environment. There is an additional hidden social cost to the "sensationalization" of events in an effort to attract readers and viewers in the profit-oriented media. Sensationalization places increased emphasis on escalation of conflicts and de-emphasizes peacemaking and conflict resolution. Accordingly, coverage of the possibility of America waging war on Iraq takes on the quality of a TV program rather than the grim reality of a bloody war.

The Attempt at an Independent Press

While private ownership of the press was also typical in Italy before 1980, the owners of the media did not pursue a profit motive as much as they sought to favorably influence public opinion. What has remained unchanged throughout, is the lack of success of independent newspapers. Most attempts at establishing an independent newspaper in Italy fail. A typical example is the appropriately named L'Indipendente, founded in November 1991 with financial backing from a group of northern Italian investors (Publikompass) under the leadership of Guido Roberto Vitale, an investment banker, and also brother to Alberto Vitale, the CEO of Random House. The investors adopted the mission to create an objective newspaper in the English tradition. The paper's founding editor-in chief, Riccardo Franco Levi expressed the paper's ambitious editorial goal: "The idea was to found a quality newspaper, which Italy does not really have…In Italy, newspapers are aimed simultaneously at university professors and taxi drivers. We wanted to split that target, and we also wanted to separate news from opinion, something not usually done in Italy. And we wanted to be rigorously independent, as the masthead suggested" (Shugaar 16). The Levi interview uses the past tense, because the experiment in independent journalism was short-lived, even though L'Indipendente continues to be published to date. Although the paper contained truly independent journalism in its initial months, it was perceived by the reading public as uninspired and sterile. No one read the paper any more after its first few days and the other investors relieved Riccardo Franco Levi as editor-in-chief on February 14, 1992. By then, circulation had plummeted to about 15,000 after an early peak of 200,000. He was replaced by Vittorio Feltri, who represented the paper's financial backers and who adopted the goal of turning the paper into the black, even if this would involve making political alliances. By year-end, circulation recovered to the respectable 100,000 level, and the paper had become another mouthpiece for the northern industrial/political power base (Shugaar 17).

Press Laws & CENSORSHIP

The foundation for Italian press law is provided by the constitutional principle of freedom of individual expression, and in additional legislation. Article 21 of the Italian Constitution, approved on December 22, 1947 and effective January 1, 1948. The article sets out by providing that all persons have the right to express their thoughts freely, either verbally, in written form, or in any other form of communication (Pace). It further makes clear that the press will not be subjected to any authorities or to censorship. However, the broad freedom granted to the press in this sentence is immediately curtailed in the following paragraph of Article 21, which was the subject of heated debate during the constitutional assembly. As a rule, expressions in the press that are "counter to morality" are not permitted. Under certain circumstances, judicial authorities may order restraints to the press, provided that they base these orders on existing press laws in the civil and criminal code. In extreme situations and when judicial authorities have not yet been able to apply legal restraints police authorities may enforce a 24-hour sequestration.

A number of specific laws governing the press are also included in the Italian legal code, notably the Albertine Edict of 1848, the Penal Code, Public Security laws, and legislation setting up the Order of Journalists (1963) that lays out the guidelines for the journalism profession. Article 2461 of the Civil Code established the RAI (Radio televisione italiana ). Additional legislation provides legal penalties for slander against the state's religion, attacks against heads of state of foreign nations, espionage and similar offenses. In reality, however, court-ordered sequestration or legal penalties have seldom been applied to the printed media, despite the publication of sometimes-vicious attacks on the pope, the president, and other government officials. A notable exception took place during the legal court proceedings against members of the Red Brigade terrorist group, when Il Messagero published parts of an informant's secret pre-trial testimony, and a prison sentence was imposed on the journalist and a law enforcement officer.

While direct sequestration and penalty are rare, censorship of a more insidious variety has characterized the Italian press since the passage of the Constitution, since editors have been subservient to a political party, groups of industrial owners or the editorial politics of the private owner of a media empire (Berlusconi).

Compared with other advanced industrialized nations, freedom of the Italian press is not highly ranked. In its global survey of 186 countries, Freedom House (2001) assessed each country's system of mass communications. The authors of this study strive to use universal criteria, rooted in the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, notably freedom of opinion and expression. Rather than studying constitutions and other laws, an attempt is made to observe everyday reality and practice. The following four dimensions are taken into account: government laws on the content of the news media; the degree of political influence on news content; economic influence on the media, either by government or private parties; and the degree of oppression of the media, either by means of physical threats or harm to journalists, or via direct censorship of the news and its distribution. Data for each dimension are gathered from a number of sources, including judgments of overseas correspondents and findings of international human rights organizations. When a form of restriction is considered to be present, points are recorded. Hence, the more points a nation scores, the less free is its press. While most European countries received low scores and ranked in the "free press" category, Italy received a ranking of 32, placing it in the "partly free" press group. Considering the pattern of ownership, industrial and political control of the major newspaper publishing groups and media networks, this finding is not too surprising.

In a more recent evaluation of the Italian media, the second annual Freedom of Expression awards, handed out by the Index on Censorship group in London in March 2002, the censorship award went to Silvio Berlusconi, for having placed "unprecedented powers of censorship into practice," and for having combined in the person of the prime minister the triad of "media, man and government" (Wells).

State-Press Relations

While Italian newspapers have been tied to politics since the nation's unification, a political party press emerged towards the end of the nineteenth century, with the publication of the Socialist Party's newspaper Avanti!, which was followed by the publication of daily newspapers by every political party, from Anarchists to Republicans. This press subculture provided discourse within the parties, while the commercial press reached out to the wider reading public. An obvious result of the strong party affiliation of a group of newspapers over approximately a century has been the move of journalists to high-level politicians and vice versa. Giovanni Spadolini's career path from editor of Il Corriere della Sera to leader of the Republican Party and subsequently to prime minister is a typical example (Lumley 6). Silvio Berlusconi's path from a brief term as prime minister to Mediaset media mogul is even more extreme, since he moved back into the prime minister seat in June 2001 and yet retained control over his media empire.

During the Fascist period, government interference in the press and political shaping of newspaper content were common. After the end of World War II and in the middle of the Cold War, government interfered with the press by means of covert funding of some newspapers and spying on the activities of others. During the stagflation period in the mid-1970s, a system of government subsidies to the press and a legal limit on TV advertising were instituted to protect newspapers that were failing financially. Dependence on government assistance and favorable legislation indirectly increased the political subservience of newspaper editors. At the same time, the journalism profession itself was molded by government in the postwar period. Political parties voted in 1944 to keep legislation that restricted access to the journalism profession to those persons admitted to the so-called albo dei giornalisti (the journalists' register). Furthermore, a 1963 law defined the profession of journalism, as it also defined the professions of lawyer and physician (Lumley 6-7).

While the period 1946-1974 can certainly be characterized as one where the press was largely beholden to government, many of the wide-circulation newspapers were molded by industrial owners rather than by government, and were used by them to gain access to the public political sphere. A newspaper that is owned by an industrial group will tend to be soft on environmental concerns, and cater to its owners' interests, lest its editor-in-chief be replaced.

The 1980s saw a major transformation of the mass media in Europe, and the Italian media shared in this transformation. It was evidenced in an economic expansion of the media system, persistent replacement of public by private ownership and increasing market competition. The major daily newspapers and periodicals were in 2002 owned by industrial groups.

Three major industrial groups presently have control, directly or indirectly, of daily and weekly publications and their publishers. These three groups are (1) the Espresso-La Republica group; (2) Fiat-Rizzoli (which owns part of Il Corriere della Sera, La Stampa and the publishing company Rizzoli ); and (3) Mediaset-Berlusconi group, which controls the daily newspaper Il Giornale, the weekly magazine Panorama and TV channels Canale 5, Italia 1 and Rete 4 (Triandafyllidou 85). Fiat-Rizzoli is the primary stockholder of Il Corriere della Sera, until recently the widest-circulated daily newspaper (Mancini 319-20) When we add La Stampa, the number-three paper in terms of circulation, to the portfolio, the power of Fiat-Rizzoli over the daily news is shown to be extensive. La Republica, which is the long-standing contender for first place, and has temporarily taken over Il Corriere della Sera in sales volume, is part of a large portfolio of newspapers, the Espresso-La Republica Group, owned by De Benedetti, a private entrepreneur. Lastly, Silvio Berlusconi, the one time ex-prime minister who was recently reelected as prime minister under a center-right coalition, owns the Mediaset empire, in addition to a number of other businesses.

Attitude toward Foreign Media

Members of foreign media, operating either as foreign correspondents in Italy or in association with offices of foreign press agencies there, are treated with the utmost cordiality by Italians. The foreign press has access to office facilities, receives subsidies for some operating expenses, and its members receive a number of personal perks. It is not unusual for a foreign correspondent stationed in Rome to remain in Italy after retirement.

Expulsions of members of the foreign media are unheard of in Italy today. However, there are instances where cordiality ends. There are occasions when journalists, including foreign correspondents, are simply not allowed to witness certain events, e.g., when law enforcement officers crack down heavy-handedly on immigrants. One such occasion, reported by eyewitnesses to the European Roma Rights Center (2000), was the raid of the Roma camp at Tor de' Cenci near Rome, on March 7, 2000, and the clandestine expulsion of 112 of its occupants. The foreign media are also treated with disdain by leading politicians when they react to their objective coverage of elections, scandals and general political events in Italy. Foreign correspondent for The Observer, Rory Carroll (2001) described Berlusconi's accusations of the foreign press as engaging in a communist plot and conducting character assassination. The foreign press did indeed engage in a concerted effort to paint Berlusconi ad a crook who should never have been considered eligible for public office because he heads a media empire. In the words of Giovanni Agnelli, the head of Fiat and a business rival of Berlusconi in the media field, the foreign newspapers "addressed themselves to our electorate as if it were the electorate of a banana republic." However, foreign correspondents do not have to go in hiding after filing their stories critical of Italy's most powerful politicians, showing again that the foreign media are well treated. The concerted feeding frenzy of the foreign media concerning the Berlusconi re-election and corruption scandals may however have led some Italians to lose respect for what they believed to be an objective foreign press.

News Agencies

The national Italian news agency is the Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata (ANSA), the National Associated Press Agency. ANSA is Italy's largest press agency, and was established in Rome on January 13, 1945 as a cooperative company that was committed to maintain standards of independence and objectivity. Its statute declared that ANSA services would be distributed to publishers of Italian newspapers and to third parties, in the spirit of democratic liberty that is guaranteed by the Constitution, and to foster mutual assistance among its partners. The statute went on to state that collection and distribution of information to partners and non-partners would be done under criteria of rigorous impartiality and objectivity. The agency's written promise of rigorous independence was compromised as early as 1949, when ANSA became the recipient of government subsidies and its directors became government appointees.

ANSA presently consists of 43 publishing houses that print 50 daily newspapers. It has employment of 1000, as follows: 400 correspondents (94 of these abroad), 400 technical and administrative staff and 200 other employees. It is headquartered in Rome and maintains 19 regional bureaus in Italy and around the world. ANSA distributes domestic and foreign news, regional news, and international news in non-English languages, by means of satellite and data lines. ANSA no longer plays a pivotal role in providing information to Italy's daily newspapers, since the major international agencies (Associate Press, Reuters, United Press International and Tass) are available at low cost to Italian newspaper editors. ANSA's website can be accessed at http://www.ansa.it.

There are several other active news agencies, all of which are specialized to some extent. AGI Italy distributes daily news and columns on energy, life in Italy, European statistics, and other areas. ADN Kronos (owned by Guiseppe Marra Communications) focuses on daily news and job advertisements from both employers and job seekers. The Zenit news agency, which distributes religious news under the heading "The World Seen from Rome."

Broadcast & ELECTRONIC News Media

Until the 1990s Italy's national media consisted of print and broadcasting, the telephone system was not yet integrated with broadcasting, and the media economy was tied in to the state in a variety of ways. An attempt was made in 1990s to regulate the media and its ownership. Legge Mammí or Law 223, passed in 1990, prohibited cross-ownership between publishing and television companies, while Legge Maccanico or Law 249 capped the number of television channels that could be owned by the same operating company to 20 percent of the market, and prevented Telecom Italia, the nation's largest telecommunications company, from entering the terrestrial television market (Forgacs 131). The attempt at regulation was largely ineffective due to the integration of the various media markets. Analysts Pilati and Poli (199) argue for introduction of pragmatic rules rather than quantitative ceilings as a method to control market share.

In the 1980s and 1990s, the non-print media system was still dominated by television. Recently, however, Italian audiences have begun to turn away from generalist television, both because of its program content and because of increased use of the Internet for both entertainment and access to news. As mentioned above, TV journalism is more sensationalist and less complex than the traditional written word in the Italian Press. Since the largest audiences for news are TV audiences, TV basically sets the stage for what printed journalism must cover. Mancini (323) points to an important change in the role of the news-consuming public in Italy in the past 20 years. The average citizen in today's public sphere must possess his or her own political point of view and must have a strong emotional response to the sensationalized political events. He speculates whether the new dramatization in TV and press alike will "draw citizens closer to politics or contribute to their progressive withdrawal from it."

There are two major broadcasting networks in Italy: RAI (Radio televisione italiana) and Mediaset. Public service radio and television has been provided solely by the RAI, which operates under a renewable charter granted by the State. Its current charter will expire in 2014. RAI is set up as a limited company of national interest (societá per azioni d'interesse nationale ), outlined in Article 2461 of the Civil Code and headquartered in Rome. (Hibberd 153). Since it began operations in 1945, when liberal democracy had been restored, it was important for Italians to establish an impartial broadcasting network. The president of RAI stated its goal as follows (Hibberd 159):

In a liberal regime, characterized by the coexistence of different political parties and by the possibility of an alternation of power, the radio cannot be the instrument of government power or of the parties of opposition, but must remain a public service of dispassionate and impartial information which all listeners, whatever their beliefs, can draw upon.

Until September 2000, the state holding company IRI (Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale) held 99.5 percent of RAI's shares. After that date, its ownership was turned over to the Treasury. In 1976, the monopoly of RAI was ended by the Italian Constitutional Court, and the broadcasting system was opened to market competition. In the new century, with the application of new technologies and convergence of all forms of communication, it is likely that several parts of public service broadcasting, until today still under the auspices of RAI, will be privatized.

Television subscriptions numbered near 16 million in 1999 (ISTAT 215), or 276 per 1000 persons. Although this number has steadily decreased over the last few years, TV access is still much more widespread than daily newspaper use. There are again significant regional differences. Most of the subscribers to RAI-TV are from the North-Central region (11 million, for 309 subscriptions per 1000 inhabitants), and a much smaller number from the Mezzogiorno region (4.6 million, or 219 per 1000 inhabitants). The extremes are Liguria (357 per 1000 inhabitants) and Campania (175 per 1000 inhabitants).

The number of hours of TV programming broadcast by the two major networks is spread over several channels. RAI-TV's Rai Uno and Rai Due broadcast 8,760 hours in 1999 (27 percent of the total for the network) and Rai Tre broadcast 15,227 hours (47 percent). Mediaset's Canale 5, Italia 1 and Rete 4 each broadcast 8,760 hours. News programming was mostly provided by Canale 5 (3,209 hours) and Rete 4 (1,580 hours).

Similar to the printed press, Italy's broadcasting network also has a large number of companies that provide programming at the local level. A recent study of Italy's local broadcasting network interprets the meaning of the term local on the basis of both geographical location and own-programming. F. Barca (1999) conducted a quantitative count of the number of companies and then distinguished between those who produce at least a limited share of their own programming, on the one hand, and those who simply reproduce programs that were originally broadcast by other companies, on the other. The author found that the local broadcasting network is a crowded and active one. Owning a local TV station does not only yield direct economic advantage, but plays a more indirect role in owners' other economic activities as well (e.g., political participation).

As Italy is entering the digital age, an Internet audience numbering into the millions has emerged among the public. Recent online surveys of Italian Internet audiences (Magistretti 2001) show that they constitute the better educated, more well to do, and more liberal among the Italian population. The Internet audience comprises people who are distrustful of both the daily press and television, and use the Internet to obtain access to objective news (not just Italian), music, various forms of entertainment, merchandise and services.

The Internet also provides services for those who simply seek easier access to their favorite daily newspaper, or who wish to read their paper while away on travel. On-line newspaper delivery has expanded in the last few years. The first electronic editions to appear online were those of L'Unitá and L'Unione Sarda, both in 1995. The following is a list of Italian newspapers, with their URLs, that can be read online. The list is likely to expand.

• Brescia oggi, www.bresciaoggi.it
• Il Corriere del Sud, www.corrieredelsud.it
• Il Golfo, www.ischiaonlin.it/ilgolfo
• Il Messagero, www.ilmessagero.it
• L'Unitá, www.unita.it
• La Stampa, www.lastampa.it
• La Repubblica, www.repubblica.it
• La Gazzetta dello Sport, www.gazzetta.it

Online journalism in Italy is more innovative than its printed paper form, but is constrained by advertising. While the layout of printed newspapers maintains boundaries between articles and advertising, the Internet makes possible the use of links that take readers to a variety of products or to the website of a sponsor where they can read more detailed information about the topic treated in the journal article. This makes the article the hub of a variety of advertisements, and compromises the independence of the journalist and the newspaper (Sorice 206). On the positive side, however, the Internet makes possible the use of advertisements that are that are interactive with the consumer (Pasquali 188). Another problem faced by Italian online journals is their local focus, which to some extent conflicts with the global focus of the Internet. Thus far, printed newspapers have not seen a decline in sales that is directly due to a shift of readership to their online versions. La Republica has had remarkable success with the combination of its printed version and a very differently formatted online version, where readers can move to in-depth analyses of stories, participate in dialogues, and access a variety of special services and offers (Sorice 207). Personalization of service is an important marketing tool to attract subscribers to online newspapers.

The Italian television system is about to enter digital terrestrial television (DTT), which is expected to be widely available and replace analogue television in the next few years. Law 249 of 1997 also set up the Autoritá per le Garanzie nelle Comunicazioni , a regulatory agency that became operational in 1998. It made a number of recommendations in its white paper on digital terrestrial television, made public in November 2000. AGCOM predicts that DTT will enhance diversification of programs and will bring the public back to their television units. DTT will also be interactive and thus provide a number of flexible user options. Another visual medium, Italian cinema, is lagging behind in technology. To once again become a significant participant in the global market, with films that have more appeal than the mere nostalgia of films like Il Postino and La Vita é Bella, the Italian film industry must begin to use strategies that rely on digital technology and integration with culture production in other media.

Education & TRAINING

The journalism profession is outlined in legislation of 1963 that set up the Ordine dei Giornalisti (Order of xsJournalists). The Ordine established two basic categories of journalists, professionisti (full-time professionals, typically employed by one newspaper), and pubblicisti (free-lance journalists). A third category was added in the late 1970s, comprising such professionals as managing editors of professional and academic periodicals. The Ordine further establishes the vertical hierarchy from apprenticeship to licensed professional. The Ordine has the legal authority to impose penalties for violations of the rules and is accorded a number of other disciplinary powers. In 1968, a provision was added relating to press organization, in particular, the requirement that the dit-tore responsabile be a member of the Ordine. The dittore responsabile is a designated individual in whose single person resides the responsibility and, hence, liability for the material printed in the publication. This person may not be a member of Parliament, because deputies and senators are immune. For newspapers where the dittore responsabile is not an actual editor, the day-to-day operations of the paper are conducted by a managing editor or editore operante (Porter ix). The position of dittore responsabile existed in Italy more than hundred years prior to the 1968 provision, which only stipulated that the person be registered on the Ordine. Historically, Italian printers were often punished for producing materials they did not themselves write and expressing views that they might not even agree with. The Albertine edict of 1848 (named for King Carlo Alberto of Sardinia) separated printers from the responsibility for the content of their productions by stipulating that each piece of publication must have a designated dittore responsabile.

To become a professional journalist in Italy, even today, requires that one achieves registration to the Ordine. To become registered, aspiring journalists must pass an examination (the Esame di cultura generale ) and complete an apprenticeship. The examination is offered in April and October, and contains questions covering law, politics, and general knowledge, and can only be taken if applicants are at least 18 years of age and after they have completed an 18-month apprenticeship as a practicanto for low pay or no pay at all. Candidates who pass the written examination must stand for an oral examination held the next day, which covers questions on the following five topics determined by law: elements of the history of journalism; elements of sociology and social psychology; techniques and practices of journalism; judicial standards related to journalism and legislation relevant to the media; and professional ethics. The strict regulation of the journalism profession is reminiscent of the medieval guild system. Since most of the professional journalists have achieved registration via this route, university education and the earning of a degree in journalism is not yet highly valued as a way to enter and be successful in the profession (Holtz). Most professional journalists maintain the belief that the skills needed to become a member of the trade consist of writing skills, intuition, curiosity, and guts, as opposed to an education focusing on the humanities and the social sciences. The powerful journalists' trade association, the FNSI, still lobbies to limit expansion of university programs in journalism and also to directly limit the number of journalists listed on the Ordine. An aspiring journalist can theoretically obtain an apprenticeship by walking into the offices of the newspaper and applying for the position. In reality, however (Porter 51), apprenticeships tend to go to those applicants whose path has been prepared by means of a phone call or a letter from "somebody who knows somebody."

Once the apprentice is in the door, actual on-the-job training is very limited, since those who know and practice the craft have no time to teach it to a practicanto. The main pedagogical tool is trial and error, learning by cues, and the accumulation of skills by watching the more experienced journalists at their desks. This type of learning is not restricted to fresh practicanti. It is typical to news-room operations, and even staff members receiving an assignment to one of the foreign desks do not receive formal training.

Despite the political opposition from the organized profession and its political backers, journalism schools and universities are beginning to be sanctioned by the Ordine as an acceptable alternative to the apprenticeship. Students using this education plan still have to pass the examination, however. Four schools (located in Bologna, Milan, Perugia and Urbino) and two universities (Milan and Rome) offer journalism programs that are recognized by the Ordine. Many additional journalism programs have been installed in educational institutions in Italy and as extension programs of universities abroad, and universities that have degree programs in Communications also are adding more and more journalism. These programs and courses have yet to be recognized as equivalent by the Ordine. Only those programs that have course content approved by the Ordine will eventually be approved as equivalent to the apprenticeship.

Summary

The Italian media has been characterized by low degrees of freedom of the press, small numbers of readers and circulation of both newspapers and weekly magazines, lack of presence of both a popular press, and nonexistence of truly national let alone international newspapers. The media have traditionally been subservient to the state and to private owners. Even the profession of journalism is under government control. Since the printed press tends to follow agendas set by its industrial owners, and there is no popular press, television has temporarily captured the attention of the public. However, excessive commercialization and disenchantment with programming content has turned many viewers away from the medium in the 1990s. New technology is making its way into media communication, in the form of mobile telephony, satellite dishes, increased use of personal computers and the Internet, online journalism, and introduction of digital terrestrial television. Several trends can be predicted for the early twenty-first century:

• While dependence of the press on political and industrial powers is not typical for member countries of the EU, this phenomenon is not likely to disappear, since media mogul Silvo Berlusconi was elected prime minister in 2000. Since economic realities have led newspaper owners to expect profits denominated in Lira or Euros, rather than merely political gain, one can expect that government subsidies to the media will rise. This will not decrease the dependence of the press; rather it is tantamount to exchange of one master by another.
• Journalism will become more and more a profession learned by means of higher education at Italian universities, rather than a craft learned in apprenticeships and through experience. The globalization of the press via the Internet and the ease of access to foreign media is likely to contribute to this trend.
• Events in relation to terrorist attacks in the United States, with the help of networks operating in Europe, and the continuing influx of illegal immigrants who are refugees from the Balkans and other parts of the world is likely to continue to fuel anti-immigrant sentiments in Italy, which is likely to color the public discourse for a number of years.
• In view of the concentration of ownership of the non-public media in private hands, it is very unlikely that the Italian people will become avid consumers of domestically produced news and related materials. More likely than not, the foreign press may increase in importance, both in hard copy form, TV programs and access to the Internet. Why read a politically biased domestic paper when one can read the BBC News, Le Monde, The Economist and a host of well-respected media online?
• Looking beyond the current prime minister's negative stance towards the EU, it seems likely that Italy cannot distance itself significantly from the EU and yet remain one of the participants in the G7 summit meetings of the leaders of the worlds main economic powers. Thus, Romano Prodi's pro-EU stance (Willey) is likely to see a return in future Italian prime ministers, bringing with it the EU directives and a social contract that combat media elitism and seek to encourage use of the media to provide social inclusion rather than exclusion based on politics, region, class and immigrant status. The Italian press would benefit from participation in the public discourse surrounding this trend.
• Convergence of the different segments of the Italian media (print, film, broadcasting, telephony) will continue, with newspapers and magazines having online editions, broadcasting organizations having websites, digital TV transmission, digital editing and online delivery of films. (Forgacs 2001). Technical convergence also will contribute to increased economic convergence, which in Italy is a disturbing trend considering the lack of independence of the press and the media. The concomitant rise in consumer convergence, however, is a positive trend and a possible vehicle to democratize the media, provided that use fees do not lead to exclusion of the economically disadvantaged.

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Brigitte Bechtold

Italy Ĭt´əlē , Ital. Italia, officially Italian Republic, republic (2005 est. pop. 58,103,000), 116,303 sq mi (301,225 sq km), S Europe. It borders on France in the northwest, the Ligurian Sea and the Tyrrhenian Sea in the west, the Ionian Sea in the south, the Adriatic Sea in the east, Slovenia in the northeast, and Austria and Switzerland in the north. The country includes the large Mediterranean islands of Sicily and Sardinia and several small islands, notably Elba , Capri , Ischia , and the Lipari Islands . Vatican City and San Marino are two independent enclaves on the Italian mainland. Rome is Italy's capital and largest city.

Land and People

About 75% of Italy is mountainous or hilly, and roughly 20% of the country is forested. There are narrow strips of low-lying land along the Adriatic coast and parts of the Tyrrhenian coast. In addition to Rome, other important cities include Milan , Naples , Turin , Genoa , Palermo , Bologna , Florence , Catania , Venice , Bari , Trieste , Messina , Verona , Padua , Cagliari , Taranto , Brescia , and Livorno .

Northern Italy, made up largely of a vast plain that is contained by the Alps in the north and drained by the Po River and its tributaries, comprises the regions of Liguria , Piedmont , Valle d'Aosta (see Aosta, Valle d' ), Lombardy , Trentino–Alto Adige , Venetia , Friuli–Venezia Giulia , and part of Emilia-Romagna (which extends into central Italy). It is the richest part of the country, with the best farmland, the chief port (Genoa), and the largest industrial centers. Northern Italy also has a flourishing tourist trade on the Italian Riviera, in the Alps (including the Dolomites), on the shores of its beautiful lakes (Lago Maggiore, Lake Como, and Lake Garda), and in Venice. Gran Paradiso (13,323 ft/4,061 m), the highest peak wholly situated within Italy, rises in Valle d'Aosta.

The Italian peninsula, bootlike in shape and traversed in its entire length by the Apennines (which continue on into Sicily), comprises central Italy ( Marche , Tuscany , Umbria , and Latium regions) and southern Italy ( Campania , Basilicata , Abruzzi , Molise , Calabria , and Apulia regions). Central Italy contains great historic and cultural centers such as Rome, Florence, Pisa , Siena , Perugia , Assisi , Urbino , Bologna, Ravenna , Rimini , Ferrara , and Parma . The major cities of S Italy, generally the poorest and least developed part of the country, include Naples, Bari, Brindisi , Foggia , and Taranto.

Except for the Po and Adige, Italy has only short rivers, among which the Arno and the Tiber are the best known. Most of Italy enjoys a Mediterranean climate; however, that of Sicily is subtropical, and in the Alps there are long and severe winters. The country has great scenic beauty—the majestic Alps in the north, the soft and undulating hills of Umbria and Tuscany, and the romantically rugged landscape of the S Apennines. The Bay of Naples, dominated by Mt. Vesuvius, is one of the world's most famous sights.

The great majority of the population speaks Italian (including several dialects). There are small German-, French-, and Slavic-speaking minorities. Nearly all Italians are nominally Roman Catholic, although there are small Protestant, Jewish, and Muslim communities.

Economy

Italy began to industrialize late in comparison to other European nations, and until World War II was largely an agricultural country. However, after 1950 industry was developed rapidly so that by 2006 industry contributed about 30% of the annual gross domestic product and agriculture only 2%. The principal farm products are fruits, vegetables, grapes, potatoes, sugar beets, soybeans, grain, olives and olive oil, and livestock (especially cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats). In addition, much wine is produced from grapes grown throughout the country, and there is fishing.

Tourism is one of Italy's most important industries and a major source of foreign exchange. Manufacturing is centered in the north, particularly in the "golden triangle" of Milan-Turin-Genoa. Italy's economy has been gradually diversifying, shifting from food and textiles to engineering, steel, and chemical products. The chief manufactures include machinery; iron, steel, and other metal products; chemicals; motor vehicles; clothing and footwear; and ceramics. Although many of Italy's important industries are state-owned, the trend in recent years has been toward privatization. The service sector has growing importance in Italy and employs well over half of the labor force.

Italy has only limited mineral resources and has consistently increased its mineral imports; the chief minerals produced are petroleum (especially in Sicily), lignite, mercury, zinc, potash, marble, barite, asbestos, and pumice. There are also large deposits of natural gas (methane), and much hydroelectricity is generated. Italy, however, is still greatly dependent on oil to meet its energy requirements, and most of it must be imported.

Italy has a large foreign trade, facilitated by its sizable commercial shipping fleet. The leading exports are engineering products, textiles and clothing, machinery, motor vehicles, transportation equipment, chemicals, food and beverages, tobacco, minerals, and nonferrous metals. The main imports are raw materials, chemicals, transportation equipment, metals, textiles and clothing, foodstuffs, and petroleum. The chief trade partners are Germany, France, Spain, and Great Britain.

Italy's economy has deceptive strength because it is supported by a substantial "underground" economy that functions outside government controls. Despite significant government progress in its war against organized crime, criminal organizations such as the Mafia and Camorra continue to exert a strong influence in S Italy, at times hindering governmental programs aimed at integrating the region more fully economically and politically into the national scene.

Government

Italy is governed under the constitution of 1948 as amended. The president, who is the head of state, is elected by both houses of Parliament and 58 regional representatives for a seven-year term; there are no term limits. The premier, who is the head of government, is appointed by the president and approved by Parliament. The Council of Ministers, head by the premier, serves as the country's executive; it must have the confidence of parliament. The bicameral parliament consists of the 630-seat Chamber of Deputies, whose members are popularly elected, and the Senate, with 315 members elected by region, plus a few life members. All legislators serve five-year terms. In 1994, 1996, and 2001, most deputies and senators were directly elected, with approximately a quarter of the seats in both houses assigned on a proportional basis. Changes enacted in 2005 returned the country to a proportional system for electing national legislators except for those seats awarded to the winning coalition as a bonus. Administratively the country is divided into 15 regions and five autonomous regions, which also have parliaments and governments.

History

The following generalized outline of the highly complex history of Italy can be supplemented by the articles on individual cities and regions and by such general articles as Etruscan civilization ; papacy ; Italian art ; Italian literature ; and Renaissance .

Ancient Italy

Little is known of Italian history before the 5th cent. BC, except for the regions (S Italy and Sicily) where the Greeks had established colonies (see Magna Graecia ). The earliest known inhabitants seem to have been of Ligurian stock. The Etruscans, coming probably from Asia Minor, established themselves in central Italy before 800 BC They reduced the indigenous population to servile status and established a prosperous empire with a complex culture. In the 4th cent. BC, the Celts (called Gauls by Roman historians) invaded Italy and drove the Etruscans from the Po valley. In the south, the Etruscan advance was checked about the same time by the Samnites (see Samnium ), who had adapted the civilization of their Greek neighbors and who in the 4th cent. BC drove the Etruscans out of Campania.

The Latins, living along the coast of Latium, had not been fully subjected to the Etruscans; they and their neighbors, the Sabines , were the ancestors of the Romans. The history of Italy from the 5th cent. BC to the 5th cent. AD is largely that of the growth of Rome and of the Roman Empire, of which Italy was the core. Augustus divided Italy into 11 administrative regions (Latium and Campania, Apulia and Calabria, Lucania and Bruttium, Samnium, Picenum, Umbria, Etruria, Cispadane Gaul, Liguria, Venetia and Istria, Transpadane Gaul). By that time, at the beginning of the Christian era, all of Italy had been thoroughly latinized, Roman citizenship was extended to all free Italians, an excellent system of roads had been built, and Italy, made tax exempt, shared fully in the wealth of Rome. Never since has Italy known an equal degree of prosperity or as long a period of peace. Christianity spread rapidly.

The Barbarian Invasions

Like the rest of the Roman Empire, Italy in the early 5th cent. AD began to be invaded by successive waves of barbarian tribes—the Germanic Visigoths , the Huns , and the Germanic Heruli and Ostrogoths . The deposition (476) of Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman emperor of the West, and the assumption by Odoacer of the rule over Italy is commonly regarded as the end of the Roman Empire. However, the Eastern emperors, residing at Constantinople (see Byzantine Empire ), never renounced their claim to Italy and to succession to the West.

On the urging of Zeno, the Eastern emperor, the Ostrogoth Theodoric the Great invaded Italy, took (493) Ravenna (which had replaced Rome as capital), killed Odoacer, and began a long and beneficent rule over Italy. Roman institutions were maintained with the help of scholars and administrators such as Boethius and Cassiodorus. After Theodoric's death (526), the murder (535) of the Gothic queen, Amalasuntha , was followed by the reconquest of Italy by Emperor Justinian I of the East and his generals, Belisarius and Narses . Except, however, in the exarchate of Ravenna, the Pentapolis (Rimini, Ancona, Fano, Pesaro, and Senigallia) on the central Adriatic coast, and the coast of S Italy, Byzantine rule was soon displaced by that of the Lombards , who under Alboin established (569) a new kingdom.

The papacy emerged as the chief bulwark of Latin civilization. Gregory I (reigned 590–604), without assistance from Byzantium, succeeded in saving Rome and the Patrimony of St. Peter from the Lombard conquest, thus laying the basis for the creation of the Papal States . At the same time, he effectively freed Rome from allegiance to the Byzantine conquerors.

The Lombards warded off Byzantine efforts at reconquest and in 751 took Ravenna; their advance on Rome resulted in the appeal of Pope Stephen II to Pepin the Short , ruler of the Franks, who expelled the Lombards from the exarchate of Ravenna and from the Pentapolis, which he donated (754) to the pope. Pepin's intervention was followed by that of his son Charlemagne , who defeated the Lombard king, Desiderius, was crowned king of the Lombards, confirmed his father's donation to the papacy, and in 800 was crowned emperor of the West at Rome. These events shaped much of the later history of Italy and of the papacy. Among the direct results were the claim of later emperors to Italy and the temporal power of the popes.

Medieval Italy

In the divisions (9th cent.) of the Carolingian empire (see Verdun, Treaty of ; Mersen, Treaty of ), Italy passed to the successive emperors Lothair I , Louis II , and Charles II ; however, their control was largely nominal. Under Carloman (d. 880) and Emperor Charles III (reigned 881–87), local power became increasingly strong in Italy. Emperor Arnulf (reigned 896–99) failed to reassert authority.

From 888 to 962 Italy was nominally ruled by a series of weak kings and emperors including Guy of Spoleto, Berengar I of Friuli, Louis III of Burgundy, and Berengar II of Ivrea. The petty nobles were constantly feuding, and by the end of the period the papacy had sunk to its lowest point of degradation. The Magyars plundered N Italy, and in the south the Arabs seized (917) Sicily and raided the mainland. In 961, heeding an appeal by the pope for protection against Berengar II, the German king Otto I invaded Italy. In 962 he was crowned emperor by the pope. This union of Italy and Germany marked the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire .

Although the Alps had never prevented invaders from entering Italy, they did prevent the emperors from exercising effective control there. Again and again the emperors and German kings crossed the Alps to assert their authority; each time their authority virtually vanished when they left Italy. At best, their power was limited to the territories north of the Papal States. The popes, by exerting their influence and by arranging alliances with other powers, were important in frustrating imperial control.

Apulia and Calabria, after being briefly held again by the Byzantines, were conquered (11th cent.) by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his successors, who also wrested Sicily from the Arabs and established the Norman kingdom of Sicily. In central and N Italy, the prevailing chaos was increased by the conflict between the emperors and the popes over investiture and by the contested succession to Tuscany after the death (1115) of Countess Matilda . Because the many petty lords were independent of imperial authority and because the cities gradually gained control over these lords, feudalism did not gain a firm foothold in central and N Italy. However, in the south the Norman kings and their successors, the Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties, firmly entrenched the feudal system, the worst features of which were later perpetuated by the Spanish rulers of Naples and Sicily. Thus, the great difference in social and economic structure between N and S Italy, which continued well into the 20th cent., can be traced back to the 11th cent.

The Rise of Cities

The characteristic development in central and N Italy was the rise of the city (see commune and city-state ), beginning in the 10th cent. The rise was partly political in origin—the burghers were drawing together to protect themselves from the nobles—and partly economic—contact with the Muslim world was making the Italian merchants the middlemen and the Italian cities the entrepôts of Western Europe. The survival of Roman institutions and the example of the commune of Rome facilitated the process.

To protect their commerce and their industries (particularly the wool industry) cities grouped together in leagues, which often were at war with each other. The leagues were particularly strong in Lombardy. The attempt by Emperor Frederick I to impose imperial authority on some cities led to the formation of the Lombard League , which defeated the emperor in 1176. Rivalry among the cities, however, prevented the formation of any union strong enough to consolidate even a part of Italy. In the 13th cent. the struggle between Emperor Frederick II and the papacy divided the cities and nobles into two strong parties, the Guelphs and Ghibellines . Their fratricidal warfare continued long after the death (1250) of Frederick, which marked the virtual demise of imperial rule in Italy and the ascendancy of the papacy. In 1268, Frederick's grandson, Conradin, was executed at Naples, thus ending Hohenstaufen aspirations.

The factional strife led to the rise of despots in some cities. These despots, who were of noble or bourgeois origin, were generally factional leaders, who, having obtained the magistracy, made it hereditary. Some of them managed to restore order in the cities. In many cities, however, the republican institutions were upheld with little interruption. In other cities, dynasties were established and invested (14th and 15th cent.) with titles by the emperors, who still claimed suzerainty over N Italy. The most powerful princes (e.g., the Visconti and Sforza of Milan, the Gonzaga of Mantua, the Este of Ferrara, and the dukes of Savoy ) and the most powerful republics (e.g., Florence, Venice, and Genoa) tended to increase their territories at the expense of weaker neighbors. The cities in the Papal States passed under local tyrants during the Babylonian captivity of the popes at Avignon (1309–78) and during the Great Schism (1378–1417).

By the end of the 15th cent. Italy had fallen into the following chief component parts: in the south, the kingdoms of Sicily and Naples, torn by the rival claims of the French Angevin dynasty and the Spanish house of Aragón; in central Italy, the Papal States, the republics of Siena, Florence, and Lucca, and the cities of Bologna, Forlì, Rimini, and Faenza (only nominally subject to the pope); in the north, the duchies of Ferrara and Modena, Mantua, Milan, and Savoy. The two great merchant republics, Venice and Genoa, with their far-flung possessions, colonies, and outposts, were distinct in character and outlook from the rest of Italy.

Constant warfare among these many states resulted in political turmoil, but did little to diminish their wealth or to hinder their cultural output. The wars were generally fought in a desultory manner by hired bands led by professional commanders (see condottiere ). Compared to the Black Death, the plague that ravaged Italy in 1348, the local wars did little harm. Material prosperity had been furthered considerably by the Crusades; by the expanding trade with the Middle East; and by the rise of great banking firms, notably in Genoa, in Lucca, and in Florence (where the Medici rose from bankers to dukes). The prosperity facilitated the great cultural flowering of the Italian Renaissance, which permanently changed the civilization of Western Europe.

Political Disintegration and Rebirth

The Renaissance reached its peak in the late 15th cent. Meanwhile, Italy's political independence was threatened by the growing nations of France, Spain, and Austria. Quarrels among Italian states invited foreign intervention. The invasion (1494) of Italy by Charles VIII of France marked the beginning of the Italian Wars , which ended in 1559 with most of Italy subjected to Spanish rule or influence. Early in the wars, in which France and Spain were the main contenders for supremacy in Italy, several Italian statesmen, notably Machiavelli , came to the belief that only unity could save Italy from foreign domination. Pope Julius II consolidated the Papal States, but his Holy League , devised (1510) to drive out the French, failed to create a wider Italian unity.

After 1519 the Italian Wars became part of the European struggle between Francis I of France and Emperor Charles V . By the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559), Spain gained the kingdoms of Sicily and Naples and the duchy of Milan. Foreign domination continued with the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14; see also Utrecht, Peace of ) and the War of the Polish Succession (1733–35). By 1748, Naples, Sicily, and the duchies of Parma and Piacenza had passed to branches of the Spanish Bourbons, and the duchies of Milan, Mantua, Tuscany, and Modena to Austria. Remaining independent were the Papal States, the declining republics of Venice, Genoa, and Lucca, and the kingdom of Sardinia (see Sardinia, kingdom of ), created in 1720 by the union of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia under the house of Savoy.

These centuries of political weakness were also a period of economic decline. The center of European trade shifted away from the Mediterranean, and commerce and industry suffered from the mercantilist policies of the European states. Taxes rose under Spanish rule, the amount of land under cultivation declined, the population decreased, and brigandage increased. Nevertheless, Italy continued to have considerable influence on European culture, especially in architecture and music. Yet to subsequent generations in Italy (especially in the 19th cent.), preoccupied with the concepts of national independence and political power, the political condition of 18th-century Italy represented national degradation. The French Revolution rekindled Italian national aspirations, and the French Revolutionary Wars swept away the political institutions of 18th-century Italy.

Napoleonic Triumph and the Rebirth of Italy

General Bonaparte (later Napoleon I ), who defeated Sardinian and Austrian armies in his Italian campaign of 1796–97, was at first acclaimed by most Italians. Napoleon redrew the Italian map several times. Extensive land reforms were carried out, especially in N Italy. The Cispadane and Transpadane republics, established in 1796, were united (1797) as the Cisalpine Republic , recognized in the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797). In 1802 the Cisalpine Republic, comprising Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna, was renamed the Italian Republic; in 1805 it became the kingdom of Italy (enlarged by the addition of Venetia), with Napoleon as king and Eugène de Beauharnais as viceroy.

From 1795 to 1812, Savoy, Piedmont, Liguria, Tuscany, Parma, and the Papal States were annexed by France. In 1806, Joseph Bonaparte was made king of Naples; he was replaced in 1808 by Joachim Murat , Napoleon's brother-in-law. Sardinia remained under the house of Savoy and Sicily under the Bourbons. Napoleon's failure to unite Italy and to give it self-government disappointed Italian patriots, some of whom formed secret revolutionary societies such as the Carbonari , which later played a vital role in Italian unification.

The Congress of Vienna (1814–15) generally restored the pre-Napoleonic status quo and the old ruling families. However, Venetia was united with Lombardy as the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom under the Austrian crown, and Liguria passed to Sardinia. Naples and Sicily were united (1816) as the kingdom of the Two Sicilies . Austrian influence became paramount in Italy. Nevertheless, the efforts of Metternich and of the Holy Alliance (e.g., in quelling insurrections in Naples and in Palermo) could not suppress the nationalist movement. The Risorgimento , as the movement for unification was called, included three groups: the radicals, led by Mazzini , who sought to create a republic; the moderate liberals, who regarded the house of Savoy as the agency for unification; and the Roman Catholic conservatives, who desired a confederation under the presidency of the pope. In 1848–49, there were several short-lived revolutionary outbreaks, notably in Naples, Venice, Tuscany, Rome, and the kingdom of Sardinia (whose new liberal constitution survived).

Unification was ultimately achieved under the house of Savoy, largely through the efforts of Cavour , Garibaldi , and Victor Emmanuel II , who became king of Italy in 1861. At that time, the kingdom of Italy did not include Venetia, Rome, and part of the Papal States. By siding against Austria in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Italy obtained Venetia. To Napoleon III of France, who had helped Sardinia defeat Austria in 1859, Sardinia had ceded Nice and Savoy. The protectorate of Napoleon III over the Papal States delayed the Italian annexation of the city of Rome until 1870. Relations between the Italian government and the papacy, which refused to concede the loss of its temporal power, remained a major problem until 1929, when the Lateran Treaty made the pope sovereign within Vatican City. After 1870, Austria still retained areas with largely Italian populations (e.g., S Tyrol and Trieste); Italian agitation for their annexation (see irredentism ) went unfulfilled until World War I.

1861 to the Rise of Fascism

From 1861 until the Fascist dictatorship (1922–43) of Benito Mussolini, Italy was governed under the liberal constitution adopted by Sardinia in 1848. The reigns of Victor Emmanuel II (1861–78) and Humbert I (1878–1900), and the first half of the reign of Victor Emmanuel III (1900–1946) were marked by moderate social and political reforms and by some industrial expansion in N Italy (mainly in the 20th cent.). Periodic social unrest was caused by the dislocations attending industrialization and by occasional economic depression. In the underdeveloped south, rapid population growth led to mass emigration, both to the industrial centers of N Italy and to the Americas.

The outstanding statesmen of the pre-Fascist period were Agostino Depretis , Francesco Crispi , and Giovanni Giolitti . Colonial expansion was emphasized under Crispi, but was otherwise sporadic. A severe setback to Italian colonial aspirations was the establishment (1881) of a French protectorate over Tunisia ; it was an important motive for the conclusion (1882) of Italy's alliance with Germany and Austria (see Triple Alliance and Triple Entente ). Later, Italy acquired part of Somaliland in 1889 and Eritrea in 1890, but further advances in NE Africa were checked by the Ethiopian victory (1896) at Adwa . Libya and the Dodecanese were conquered in the Italo-Turkish War (1911–12).

In World War I, Italy at first remained neutral. After the Allies offered substantial territorial rewards, Italy denounced the Triple Alliance and entered (1915) the war on the Allied side. Although the Italians initially suffered serious reverses, they won (1918) a great victory at Vittorio Veneto , which was followed by the surrender of Austria-Hungary. At the Paris Peace Conference, Italy obtained S Tyrol, Trieste, Istria, part of Carniola, and several of the Dalmatian islands. Italian possession of the Dodecanese was confirmed. However, these terms granted far less than the Allies had secretly promised in 1915. Italian discontent was evident in the seizure (1919) of Fiume (see Rijeka ) by a nationalist band led by Gabriele D'Annunzio .

Within Italy, political and social unrest increased, furthering the growth of Fascism. The Fascist leader (Ital. Il Duce) Mussolini , promising the restoration of social order and of political greatness, directed (Oct. 27, 1922) a successful march on Rome and was made premier by the king. Granted dictatorial powers, Mussolini quashed opposition to the state (especially that of socialists and Communists), regimented the press and the schools, imposed controls on industry and labor, and created a corporative state controlled by the Fascist party and the militia. The Fascist economic program as a whole was a failure, but some programs of lasting value (e.g., the draining of the Pontine marshes and the construction of a network of superhighways) were undertaken. The problems caused by an increasing population were aggravated by drastic immigration restrictions in the United States and by the economic depression of the 1930s.

World War II

Mussolini followed an aggressive foreign policy, and after 1935 he turned increasingly to militarist and imperialist solutions to Italy's problems. Italy conquered Ethiopia in 1935–36, easily overcoming the ineffective sanctions imposed by the League of Nations (from which Italy withdrew in 1937). At the same time, Italy drew closer to Nazi Germany and to Japan; in 1936, Italy formed an entente with Germany (see Axis ). Italy intervened on the Insurgent side in the Spanish civil war (1936–39), and in 1939 it seized Albania .

At the outbreak of World War II, Italy assumed a neutral stance friendly to Germany, but in June, 1940, it declared war on collapsing France and on Great Britain. In 1940, Italian forces were active in North Africa (see North Africa, campaigns in ) and attacked Greece; however, they were unsuccessful until German troops came to their aid in early 1941. Later in 1941, Italy declared war on the Soviet Union and on the United States. Soon Italy suffered major reverses, and by July, 1943, it had lost its African possessions, its army was shattered, Sicily was falling to U.S. troops, and Italian cities (especially ports) were being bombed by the Allies.

In July, 1943, discontent among Italians culminated in the rebellion of the Fascist grand council against Mussolini, Mussolini's dismissal by Victor Emmanuel III, the appointment of Badoglio as premier, and the dissolution of the Fascist party. In Sept., 1943, Italy surrendered unconditionally to the Allies, while German forces quickly occupied N and central Italy. Aided by the Germans, Mussolini escaped from prison and established a puppet republic in N Italy. Meanwhile, the Badoglio government declared war on Germany, and Italy was recognized by the Allies as a cobelligerent. The Allied Italian campaign was a slow, grueling, and costly struggle (see Cassino ; Anzio ). The fall of Rome (July, 1944) was followed by a stalemate. In Apr., 1945, partisans captured and summarily executed Mussolini. In May, 1945, the Germans surrendered.

After the war, Italy's borders were established by the peace treaty of 1947, which assigned several small Alpine districts (see Brigue and Tende ) to France; the Dodecanese to Greece; and Trieste, Istria, part of Venezia Giulia, and several Adriatic islands to Yugoslavia (now in Slovenia and Croatia) and to the Free Territory of Trieste. In 1954, Trieste and its environs were returned to Italy. As a result of the war, Italy also lost its colonies of Libya, Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland.

Postwar Italy

In 1944 the unpopular Badoglio cabinet had resigned, and thereafter various coalition cabinets followed each other until Dec., 1945, when Alcide De Gasperi , a Christian Democrat, became premier. De Gasperi remained an important influence on Italian politics until his death in 1954. In May, 1946, Victor Emmanuel abdicated, having previously transferred his powers to his son, Humbert II . After a month's rule, Humbert was exiled when the Italians in a plebiscite voted by a small majority to make the country a republic. A new republican constitution went into effect on Jan. 1, 1948.

Following the war, Italy became firmly tied to the West, joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949 and the European Economic Community (now the European Union) in 1958. It was admitted to the United Nations in 1955. In internal politics, Italy's Christian Democrats, Communists, and Socialists emerged from the war as the chief parties. The split of the Socialists into the majority Socialists (the left wing) and the minority Social Democrats (the right wing) enabled the Christian Democrats to maintain power at the head of successive coalition governments with the Social Democrats (until 1959) and other center parties and to exclude the Communists from the government. However, in the postwar years the Communists dominated the local politics of Tuscany, Umbria, and Emilia-Romagna.

In 1962, Premier Amintore Fanfani , a Christian Democrat, formed a center-left coalition with a cabinet that again included the Social Democrats, as well as the parliamentary support of the Socialist party, led by Pietro Nenni. However, Fanfani's government fell after general elections in 1963 and there was considerable uncertainty before Aldo Moro , also a Christian Democrat, was able to form a center-left coalition in late 1963. The Moro government fell in 1964 and in 1966, but on each occasion was re-formed after a brief hiatus. In late 1966, N and central Italy suffered severe flooding, with resulting damage to art treasures and libraries, especially in Florence.

The Continuing Political Seesaw

Beginning in the late 1960s, there was considerable industrial unrest in the country as workers demanded higher wages and better social services. Following the general elections of May, 1968, the Moro government fell again and a government crisis began that was only ended in Dec., 1968, when Mariano Rumor , a Christian Democrat, formed a coalition government with Socialist support. After Rumor's coalition fell for a third time in July, 1970, he was replaced as premier by Emilio Colombo , also a Christian Democrat.

Colombo resigned in Jan., 1972. After a long period of crisis, Giulio Andreotti , also a Christian Democrat, formed a new coalition government in June, 1972; for the first time in 10 years, the government had a center-right, rather than a center-left, character. But this combination also did not last long and was replaced (July, 1973) by a slightly left-of-center coalition headed by Rumor. In Mar., 1974, Rumor resigned, but he soon formed another center-left cabinet, the 36th government since the fall of Mussolini in 1943. In mid-1974, Italy faced an economic crisis; an austerity program was initiated in an attempt to reduce the soaring inflation rate and the overwhelming foreign trade deficit. Rumor's administration resigned again in October and was replaced by Moro.

Many other governments followed but had little success dealing with economic decline, corruption, and lawlessness. Growing popular dissatisfaction with Italy's chaotic political situation helped the Communists achieve a measure of participation in the government coalition in 1977. The extreme left and right, excluded by the coalition between Christian Democrats and Communists, accounted for a steady increase in political violence that terrorized politicians, businessmen, intellectuals, and members of the judiciary. In 1978 former premier Moro was kidnapped and murdered by the Red Brigade, a left-wing terrorist group.

Center-left coalitions dominated by the Christian Democrats continued to hold power until 1983, when the republic's first Socialist-led coalition took power under Premier Bettino Craxi . The continuing sluggishness of the economy caused Craxi to institute another austerity budget, which included tax increases, service cuts, and wage adjustments. Craxi led the government for four years, until he resigned in 1987 and was replaced by Christian Democrat Giovanni Goria. Ciriaco De Mita succeeded Goria in 1988, and was himself succeeded in 1989 by Giulio Andreotti, who at the age of 70 became premier for the sixth time. In 1991 the Italian Communist party changed its name to the Democratic Party of the Left. In the 1992 elections the Christian Democrats barely maintained their coalition with the Socialists, the Liberals, and the Social Democrats. Socialist Giuliano Amato was named premier.

Corruption probes, begun in 1992 and headed by Amato, led to the arrest of hundreds of business and political figures and the investigation of many others, including several party leaders and former premiers. In 1993 Premier Amato resigned and Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, head of Italy's central bank, succeeded him. In addition, legislation largely ending proportional representation in parliament was passed. The Christian Democratic party changed its name to the Italian Popular party in 1994, but after a split in 1995, the center-right faction became the United Christian Democratic party.

In new elections in Mar., 1994, a coalition of conservatives and neofascists won a majority in parliament. Billionaire industrialist Silvio Berlusconi of the fledgling conservative party Forza Italia became premier, but his coalition government disintegrated in Dec. It was succeeded by a "nonpolitical" center-left government under Lamberto Dini, and then, after elections in Apr., 1996, by a center-left government under Romano Prodi that included the Democratic Party of the Left. Following a series of upheavals over austerity measures put in place to prepare for European economic union, Prodi's government collapsed in Oct., 1997.

Massimo D'Alema , of the Democratic Party of the Left, became premier as head of a new coalition government that included several political parties. Parliament named former premier Ciampi as president in May, 1999, replacing Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, who had held the office since 1992. In Apr., 2000, D'Alema resigned after his coalition suffered loses in regional elections. Socialist Giuliano Amato, D'Alema's finance minister and a former premier, formed a new center-left government that was substantially similar to D'Alema's.

Parliamentary elections in 2001 gave Berlusconi's conservative coalition a solid victory, and he became premier of a center-right government for a second time, ending six years of liberal rule. In 2003 parliament passed a law making the premier and other top Italian officials immune from prosecution while in office. The law was seen as a heavy-handed move to end Berlusconi's trial for bribery, and provoked an outcry from many in Italy. The constitutional court overturned the law, however, allowing the trial to proceed, and he was acquitted (2004) of bribery; other charges were dismissed.

Losses by the governing coalition in local elections forced Berlusconi to resign in Apr., 2005, and re-form his government. Later in the year Berlusconi secured passage of electoral changes that reestablished proportional representation as a basis for electing national legislators; the changes were designed to minimize his coalition's losses in the 2006 elections. In the Apr., 2006, elections Berlusoni's coalition narrowly lost to a center-left coalition led by Romano Prodi. Berlusconi challenged the results, alleging irregularities, but Italy' supreme court confirmed them later in the month. In May, Giorgio Napolitano, of the Democratic Party of the Left, was elected to succeed Ciampi as Italy's president, and Prodi subsequently formed a government. A government reorganization plan that would have increased the premier's powers and the autonomy of Italy's regions was defeated in a referendum in June, 2006; the plan had been proposed by Berlusconi's coalition.

In Feb., 2007, Prodi's government lost a foreign policy vote in Italy's senate and resigned, but the following week he re-formed his government and won a confidence vote. Later in the year the Democratic party was formed through the merger of the Democratic party of the Left and center-left former Christian Democrats. Prodi's coalition unraveled in Jan., 2008, and he resigned after losing a confidence vote. Parliamentary elections were held in April, and resulted in a solid victory for Berlusconi's coalition; Berlusconi again became premier. In Sept., 2008, years of negotiation with Libya over compensation for three decades of Italian colonial rule ended with Italy agreeing to pay for 20-year, $5 billion compensation package.

Several hundred people died in Apr., 2009, in a earthquake whose epicenter was near L'Aquila, Abruzzi; damage was estimated at €12 million ($15.9 billion). In 2010, Italy, like many eurozone nations, was forced to adopt austerity measures to reduce government deficits that had increased as a result of the 2008–9 global downturn, but the proposed legislation provoked strong oppostion. A number of financial scandals involving government ministers as well as personal scandals involving Berlusconi also led to a loss of popularity for his government. There were increasing tensions and ultimately splits within the governing coalition during 2010; the government narrowly survived a no-confidence vote in December, and again in Oct., 2011.

In 2011 the government suffered losses in local elections (May) and in referendums on several pieces of legislation (June). As concerns over the country's financial situation increased in mid-2011, the government adopted an austerity budget in July, which was subsequently revised as Italy's difficulties with the bond markets continued and the European Central Bank made aid contingent on increased austerities. Berlusconi struggled to hold his splintering coalition together, and was finally forced from office by the erosion of market and EU confidence in his economic and financial policies. In Nov., 2011, Berlusconi's government resigned; Mario Monti , an economist and former member of the European Commission, became premier of a nonpartisan government consisting of technocrats, and subsequently won passage of a broad austerity and economic reform package.

Bibliography

A bibliography of the early period and the barbarian invasions is listed under Rome. For the medieval period, see D. P. Waley, The Italian City-Republics (1969); J. K. Hyde, Society and Politics in Medieval Italy (1973); C. Wickham, Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society, 400–1000 (1981). For the Renaissance, see bibliography under Renaissance. For the modern period, see B. King, A History of Italian Unity (2 vol., 1924, repr. 1967); D. M. Smith, Italy (1959, repr. 1969); C. Seton-Watson, Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870–1925 (1967); F. R. Willis, Italy Chooses Europe (1971); J. C. Adams, The Government of Republican Italy (3d ed. 1972); S. J. Woolf, A History of Italy, 1700–1860 (1979); R. J. B. Bosworth, Italy: The Least of the Great Powers (1980) and Mussolini's Italy (2006); H. Hearder, Italy in the Age of the Risorgimento (1983); M. Clark, Modern Italy, 1871–1982 (1984); F. J. Coppa, Dictionary of Modern Italian History (1985); V. S. Pisano, The Dynamics of Subversion and Violence in Contemporary Italy (1987); P. Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics, 1943–88 (1988) and Italy and Its Discontents: Family, Civil Society, State, 1980–2000 (2003); R. S. Cunsolo, Modern Italian Nationalism (1989); S. Tarrow, Democracy and Disorder: Protest and Politics in Italy, 1965–75 (1989); A. Stille, Excellent Cadavers: The Mafia and the Death of the First Italian Republic (1995); C. Duggan, The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy since 1796 (2008).

Italy

Recipes

1 GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND ENVIRONMENT

Located in southern Europe, Italy is slightly larger than the state of Arizona. Most of Italy is mountainous, and it is home to Mount Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the European mainland.

A fertile valley surrounds the Po River, the largest river in Italy. Many different plants thrive in its rich soil. Italy is surrounded by water on three sides and benefits from a variety of seafood and coastal vegetation.

Climate varies depending on elevation and region. Colder temperatures can be found in the mountainous regions, particularly within the high peaks of the Alps, a mountain range in the northwest. Temperatures are warmer in the Po River valley, the coastal lowlands, and on Italy's islands (Sicily and Sardinia), with an average annual temperature around 60°F.

Plants and animals also vary depending on elevation and region. Italy hosts a wide variety of trees, including conifers, beech, oak, and chestnut in the higher elevations. Evergreens, cork, juniper, laurel, and dwarf palms are widespread throughout the Po River Valley and Italy's islands.

2 HISTORY AND FOOD

From the early Middle Ages (beginning around A.D. 500) to the late 1800s, Italy consisted of separate republics, each with different culinary (cooking) customs. These varying cooking practices, which were passed down from generation to generation, contributed to the diversity of Italian cuisine. Italy's neighboring countries, including France, Austria, and Yugoslavia, also contributed to differences in the country's cuisine.

Italy changed in many ways when the economy flourished following World War II (1939–45). During this time, farming was modernized and new technologies and farming systems were introduced. Various culinary practices throughout the country's regions began to be combined after people started migrating from the countryside to the cities. Many southern Italians traveled to the north at this time, introducing pizza to northern Italians. Those from the north introduced risotto (a rice dish) and polenta (a simple, cornmeal dish) to the south. Fast foods, mostly introduced from the United States, have brought more culinary diversity to Italy. However, pride in the culture of one's region, or companilismo, extends to the food of the locality, and regional cooking styles are celebrated throughout the country.

3 FOODS OF THE ITALIANS

Although Italians are known throughout the world for pizza, pasta, and tomato sauce, the national diet of Italy has traditionally differed greatly by region. Prior to the blending of cooking practices among different regions, it was possible to distinguish Italian cooking simply by the type of cooking fat used: butter was used in the north, pork fat in the center of the country, and olive oil in the south. Staple dishes in the north were rice and polenta, and pasta was most popular throughout the south. During the last decades of the twentieth century (1980s and 1990s), however, pasta and pizza (another traditional southern food) became popular in the north of Italy. Pasta is more likely to be served with a white cheese sauce in the north and a tomato-based sauce in the south.

Italians are known for their use of herbs in cooking, especially oregano, basil, thyme, parsley, rosemary, and sage. Cheese also plays an important role in Italian cuisine. There are more than 400 types of cheese made in Italy, with Parmesan, mozzarella, and asiago among the best known worldwide. Prosciutto ham, the most popular ingredient of the Italian antipasto (first course) was first made in Parma, a city that also gave its name to Parmesan cheese.

Pasta e Fagioli (Noodle and Bean Soup)

Ingredients

• 5 cups water
• 1½ cups dried white beans: navy, baby lima, or northern
• 1 onion, coarsely chopped
• 2 cups canned Italian-style tomatoes, with juice
• 1 cup each of celery and carrots, finely chopped and sliced
• 3 cloves garlic, coarsely chopped, or 1 teaspoon garlic granules
• ½ pound cooked smoked ham, chopped
• 3 bay leaves
• ½ cup macaroni (shells, bows, or elbows), uncooked
• Salt and pepper, to taste
• ½ cup Parmesan cheese, grated, for garnish

Procedure

1. Place water and beans in saucepan.
2. Bring to a boil over high heat for 3 minutes and remove from heat.
3. Cover and set aside for 1 hour.
4. Add the onion, tomatoes, celery, carrots, garlic, smoked ham, and bay leaves.
5. Mix well and bring to a boil over high heat.
6. Reduce to simmer, cover, and cook until beans are tender (about 1½ hours). Stir frequently.
7. Add macaroni and mix well. Cover and continue simmering until macaroni is tender (about 12 minutes).
8. Remove and throw out bay leaves before serving.
9. Serve hot soup in individual bowls with a side dish of Parmesan cheese for the guests to sprinkle into their soup. Serve with crusty bread to dip in the soup.

Serves about 6.

Fettucine Alfredo

Ingredients

• 1 cup butter or margarine at room temperature
• ½ cup heavy cream
• ½ cup Parmesan cheese, grated
• 1 pound cooked pasta, such as fettuccini (cook according to directions on package)
• Salt, pepper, and ground nutmeg to taste

Procedure

1. Cook pasta according to directions on package. Warm a serving bowl in the oven set to the lowest temperature until ready to use.
2. Place butter or margarine in a mixing bowl, and using a wooden spoon, beat until light and fluffy. Gradually add cream and mix until well blended.
3. Add the cheese by Tablespoon, beating well after each addition.
4. Using oven mitts, remove the heated serving bowl from oven and place on a heatproof work surface.
5. Place the drained, cooked pasta in the warm bowl and add cheese mixture.
6. Make sure all the pasta is coated with the sauce.
7. Add salt, pepper, and nutmeg to taste and continue to coat pasta.
8. Serve while very hot with a side dish of grated cheese.
9. The dish goes well with a green salad with Italian dressing and warm garlic bread.

Polenta

Commercial instant polenta is available in packages in the supermarket, usually displayed near the packaged rice. It would be an adequate substitute for the traditional method of preparation.

Ingredients

• 1 pound coarsely ground corn meal
• 8 cups water
• 1 teaspoon salt

Procedure

1. Measure the water into a large pot, add the salt, and heat the water to boiling.
2. Add the corn meal to the boiling water in a very slow stream, stirring constantly with a wooden spoon to keep lumps from forming.
3. Don't let the water stop boiling.
4. Continue stirring as the polenta (mush) thickens, for about 30 minutes, adding small amounts of boiling water if necessary (the longer you stir, the better the polenta will be; the finished polenta should have the consistency of firm mashed potatoes).
5. The polenta is done when it peels easily off the sides of the pot.

Saltimbocca alla Romana (Veal Scallops with Sage and Prosciutto)

Note: This recipe involves hot oil. Adult supervision is suggested.

Ingredients

• 12 slices of veal scallops (1½ pounds)
• 12 fresh sage leaves
• 12 slices of prosciutto ham
• Flour, for dusting
• 3 Tablespoons unsalted butter
• 3 Tablespoons olive oil
• 1 cup white wine
• 1½ pounds freshly cooked spinach, seasoned with salt and pepper

Procedure

1. Spread out veal scallops and lay one sage leaf and one slice of ham on each.
2. Roll up and secure with toothpicks.
3. Lightly dust each with flour.
4. Heat the butter and oil in a skillet large enough to hold all the rolls in one layer.
5. Sauté, turning the rolls carefully, until brown.
6. Lift the veal from the pan and set aside on a warm platter.
7. Add the wine to the skillet, add salt and pepper to taste, and cook to reduce the size by half.
8. Arrange the hot spinach on a warm dish, place the veal on it, and cover with the wine sauce.

4 FOOD FOR RELIGIOUS AND HOLIDAY CELEBRATIONS

Every Italian village celebrates its own saint's day with a festival featuring fireworks, feasting, and dancing. The traditional main dish for these festivals is roast suckling pig. A popular Easter dish throughout Italy is Agnellino (roast baby lamb), often served with roasted artichokes.

Santa Lucia Dinner

Minestrone soup

Osso bucco (braised veal shanks) with baby artichokes

Lemon orzo (a rice-like pasta)

Arugula salad with lemon-garlic vinaigrette dressing

Ripe peaches and figs

Biscotti

Although the holiday bread called panet-tone is the best known of Italy's many holiday desserts, regions throughout the country have their own traditional holiday sweets featuring local ingredients. In the north, butter is a major ingredient of these desserts. Zelten cakes, similar to fruitcake, are filled with raisins, dates, figs, almonds, pine nuts, orange peel, rum, and cinnamon, are baked two or three weeks before Christmas because they improve with time. Strudel is popular in the Tyrol region in northern Italy. In the south, dessert recipes are more elaborate and use olive oil (instead of butter), lots of eggs, candied fruit, and honey. Among the best known are struffoli, fried cubes of egg pastry covered with honey and sprinkled with colored sugar, a specialty from Naples.

Italian Easter Bread

Ingredients

• 3 cups flour
• ¼ cup sugar
• 1 package active dry yeast
• 1 teaspoon salt
• ⅔ cup warm milk
• 2 Tablespoons butter, softened
• 7 eggs
• ½ cup mixed candied fruit, chopped
• ¼ cup almonds, chopped
• ½ teaspoon anise seed
• Vegetable oil

Procedure

1. In a mixing bowl, combine 1 cup flour, sugar, yeast and salt.
2. Add milk and butter; beat 2 minutes on medium.
3. Add 2 eggs and ½ cup flour; beat 2 minutes on high.
4. Stir in the fruit, nuts, and anise seed, mixing well.
5. Stir in enough remaining flour to form a soft dough.
6. Place on a lightly floured board and knead until smooth, 6 to 8 minutes.
7. Place in a greased bowl; turn once. Cover and let rise in a warm place until doubled, about 1 hour.
8. If desired, dye remaining eggs (leave eggs uncooked); lightly rub with oil.
9. With a fist dipped in flour, punch dough down. Divide in half and roll each piece into a 24-inch rope.
10. Loosely twist ropes together; place on the baking sheet and form into a ring. Pinch the ends together.
11. Gently split ropes and tuck eggs into openings. Cover and let rise until doubled, about 30 minutes.
12. Preheat oven to 350°F.
13. Bake for 30 to 35 minutes, or until golden brown. Remove from the pan and cool on a wire rack.

Serves about 6.

Panettone (Italian Christmas Bread)

Ingredients

• 4 Tablespoons yeast
• 2 cups warm water
• ½ pound butter, melted
• 4 teaspoons salt
• 1 cup sugar
• 4 eggs, beaten
• 6 egg yolks, beaten (discard egg whites or save for another use)
• 10½ cups flour
• 2 cups citron, sliced fine
• 2 cups raisins, seedless

Procedure

1. Dissolve yeast in the water. Mix in the butter, sugar, salt, eggs, and yolks.
2. Stir about 10 cups of flour into the butter and yeast mixture until blended.
3. Spread a little flour on a board. Turn dough out onto the board and knead for 8 to 10 minutes. When the dough is soft and smooth, knead in the citron and raisins.
4. Place dough in a greased, round pan, and brush the top with melted butter.
5. Cover, and allow to rise until the dough has doubled in bulk (about 1 hour).
6. Preheat oven to 425°F.
7. Using a sharp knife, cut a deep cross in the top of the loaf.
8. Bake for about 8 minutes, or until the top begins to brown. Lower heat to 325°F and bake for 1 hour more.

Serves about 10.

Biscotti

Ingredients

• 6 eggs
• 1½ cup sugar
• ½ cup butter, melted
• ½ cup vegetable oil
• 3 cups flour
• 2 teaspoons baking powder
• 4 teaspoons vanilla or almond extract

Procedure

1. Preheat oven to 350°F.
2. Beat eggs. Add sugar and beat until thick and golden.
3. Add melted butter and oil and beat well.
4. Add vanilla or almond extract and blend well.
5. Add flour and baking powder, and beat until a thick dough forms.
6. Turn dough into ungreased 9-inch by 13-inch pan.
7. Bake at 350°F for 15 to 20 minutes.
8. Remove from oven and slice into three strips, 3 inches by 13 inches each.
9. Cut each strip into slices about 1 inch wide.
10. Place slices on a cookie sheet. Toast slices under the broiler. Turn, and toast other side.

Biscotti should be crunchy. Serve with coffee. Makes about 24 biscotti.

5 MEALTIME CUSTOMS

Italians generally eat three meals a day. Adults eat a light breakfast (la prima colazione ), often stopping at a coffee shop on their way to work for a caffellatte (coffee with milk) or cappuccino with bread, butter, and jam, or cake. Lunch and dinner are similar meals. They consist of an antipasto (an appetizer based on cold meats), a pasta or rice dish (depending on the region) such as risotto, a main meat or fish course, a salad, and cheese and fruit. Lunch (il pranza or la seconda colazione ) is the main meal of the day for many Italians and is eaten between noon and 2 p.m.

Whether eating at home or in a restaurant, Italians take food seriously. They prefer to dine in a leisurely fashion, savoring their meals over a bottle of wine and conversation. Wine and bread are always served during main meals. Even children are often allowed a taste of wine. In southern Italy, where people take a long break during the hottest part of the day, dinner (la cena ) is served later than in the north, often after 7:30 p.m.

In addition to their main meals, Italians have two traditional snack times. Spuntini (midmorning snacks) and the mid-afternoon merende. Both usually serve a type of bread dough with toppings. Some typical merende are bruschetta (usually a long loaf of bread, cut into slices and topped with seasonings), focaccio (an Italian flatbread), and crostini (fried slices of polenta). Originally a rural tradition, these snacks lost popularity following World War II as people migrated to

Italian cities. However, increased interest in traditional dishes and consuming healthy, lighter meals has helped these snacks become popular again, even in the United States.

Frittata

Ingredients

• 2 eggs
• 1 teaspoon flat-leaf parsley, finely-chopped
• 1 small zucchini (known as courgettes throughout Europe), sliced thin
• 1 Tablespoon olive oil
• Salt and pepper to taste

Procedure

1. Place eggs and parsley into a bowl and beat well.
2. Heat oil in a skillet over medium heat.
3. Swirl the oil around in skillet to coat the bottom. Add the egg mixture.
4. Arrange zucchini slices in a single layer on top of the eggs.
5. Cook for 3 to 4 minutes. Hold a lid over the pan, and turn the pan over, flipping the frittata into the lid. Carefully slide the frittata back into the skillet, cooked side up. Cook other side until firm, about 2 more minutes. Add salt and pepper to taste.
6. Cut into 4 or 6 wedges.

Serve warm or at room temperature. Serves 4 to 6.

Bruschetta (Toasted Garlic Bread)

Ingredients

• 6 slices of crusty white bread, cut ½- to ¾-inch thick, slices each cut in half
• 2 cloves garlic, lightly crushed
• ¼ cup extra virgin olive oil
• Salt

Procedure

1. 1. Grill or broil the bread on each side.
2. 2. Rub each slice with a crushed garlic clove, letting the juices sink into the bread.
3. 3. Sprinkle olive oil and salt on the bread.
4. 4. Serve warm, if possible.

Cannoli

Ingredients

• 18 ready-made cannoli shells
• 2 pounds ricotta cheese
• 2 cups powdered sugar
• ¼ cup candied orange and citron, finelydiced
• ¼ cup semisweet mini-chocolate chips
• ⅓ cup pistachio nuts, chopped medium to fine

Procedure

1. Mix the ricotta with the powdered sugar until it is no longer grainy.
2. Blend in the candied fruit and chocolate.
3. Whisk until the mixture is very creamy.
4. Place filling in a wide-nozzled pastry tube and fill the shells. (A spoon may also be used).
5. Place the chopped nuts on a flat surface and lightly dip both ends of the cannoli into the nuts to decorate.

Serve immediately. Serves 18.

6 POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND NUTRITION

The government in Italy controls much of the agriculture of the country. It controls how much wheat can be produced, for example, and how much wheat can be imported. The government was not successful during the 1990s in its efforts to increase agricultural production. Italy imports about one-half of its meat, and in the late 1990s and through 2001, concerns over European beef because of mad cow disease and hoof and mouth disease caused the prices of beef to increase.

7 FURTHER STUDY

Books

Albyn, Carole Lisa, and Lois Webb. The Multicultural Cookbook for Students. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1993.

Field, Carol. Italy in Small Bites. New York: William Morrow, 1993.

Halvorsen, Francine. Eating Around the World in Your Neighborhood. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998.

Lukins, Sheila. All Around the World Cookbook. New York: Workman, 1994.

Penza, John, and Tony Corsi. Sicilian and American Pasta: 99 Recipes You Can't Refuse. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1994.

Roden, Claudia. The Good Food of Italy, Region by Region. New York: Knopf, 1991.

Web Sites

Delicious Italy. [Online] Availabe http://www.deliciousitaly.com/ (accessed August 7, 2001).

Epicurious: For People Who Eat. [Online] Available http://epicurious.com (accessed February 11, 2001).

International Women. [Online] Available http://www.internationalwoman.net/recipesitaly.htm (accessed August 7, 2001).

Lidia's Italy. [Online] Available http://www.lidiasitaly.com/ (accessed August 7, 2001).

Italy

As in other southern European countries, in Italy, new family structures are coming into being more slowly and in a smaller measure than in northern European countries and North America. These new structures include such patterns as cohabitation, extramarital births, single parenthood, and one-person households. These countries are examples of the so-called Mediterranean model (Laslett 1983). At the same time, Italian families, as well as those of the other Mediterranean countries, have been experiencing important transformations both in dimensions and in the relationships among their members (Barbagli and Saraceno 1997).

Since 1970, Italy has witnessed great changes in family size, age at marriage, marriage stability, and birthrate (among the lowest, if not the lowest, in the world), although the pace of change has differed by region: family behaviours in north-central regions are more like those of western European countries than of southern Italian regions. People marry later and less frequently, have fewer children, divorce more often, and create new family models such as cohabitation, extramarital births, single parenthood, and one-person households.

Beyond the traditional differences between north and south are other relevant regional variations: The so-called Third Italy (Umbria, Marche, Abruzzo, Toscana, Emilia, Veneto, and Friuli) was characterized in the past by patrilocal residence and by multiple or extended family structures, while southern regions were characterized by neolocal independent residence and nuclear families, even if women married very young. The nuclear structure of southern families may be connected to the concentration of property in fiefs, and to the settling of peasants in rural towns. This is unlike Tuscany or Lombardy in the north, where peasants lived in "poderi" or "cascine" located in the fields. Both patterns were traditionally evident in northwestern regions, with nuclear families in the urban areas and extended families in the countryside. The situation changed in the last half of the twentieth century, as multiple and extended families steadily decreased all over the country. Regional differences remain, although they are less marked than before (Barbagli 2000).

Italian families maintain strong bonds over generations. Children, after leaving home to establish new families, maintain strong relationships with their parents. Usually they live very near to one of the two parental families, make daily telephone calls to their parents (mainly the mother), and visit them weekly. Their relationships with their parents typically display strong reciprocal support and exchanges, including childcare, care of the elderly and ill, help with economic troubles, loans, and advice. One of the main characteristics of Italian families is the strong intergenerational solidarity that allows Italians to overcome difficulties, find jobs, look after children, and ask for loans in situations in which the family network provides what, in other Western countries, is granted by public or private institutions. This sense of connectedness explains the great relevance that family as an institution assumes in Italian culture. To be a member of a family is what gives the individual a guarantee against any serious trouble in life, more so than being a member of any other group (C. E. R. 1999).

Marriage and Children

People in modern Italy marry less frequently and at an older age than in the past. Women get married at age twenty-seven, on average, and men at almost thirty. By the end of the twentieth century, Italians faced a new model of marriage that caused a shift forward of all the different phases of the family life cycle: later exit from the family, later achievement of independence, and later experience of parenthood.

In 1999, separations and divorce increased in the north (respectively, 5.1% and 3%) more than in the south of Italy (2.7 percent and 1.2 percent per 1,000 married couples). When couples separate or divorce, more than 90 percent of minors live in the custody of their mothers, 94 percent of those under six years of age.

Civil marriages have increased as well, (16.8 percent in 1990 and 20.3 percent in 1996), mainly because second marriages have become more common, and one cannot marry twice in the Catholic Church. Consequently, new models of cohabitation, in which one or both spouses have had a previous marriage and children, become less unusual.

The number of marriages in which one of the members of the married couple is not an Italian doubled in the 1990s, from 2.2 percent in 1989 to 5 percent in 1999. These marriages take place mainly in the north of Italy, and most involve Italian men who marry women from Eastern Europe or Latin America. Very few Italian women marry

foreigners, and in these cases they marry mainly European men and men from North Africa, above all Morocco.

These processes and transformations of Italian families have been accompanied by a dramatic drop in the birthrate caused by the postponement of the birth of the first child, delayed marriages, and a new trend in deciding when one wants to become a parent. In 1971 the average age of women having their first child was 25.1; in 1998 it was 28.4. Only a small minority of Italian women have more than three children, and the majority have one or two. The average number of children per woman dropped from 2.4 in 1981 to 1.2 in 1998. In 1993-94 one-child families represented 43.8 percent of the total of all families with children; in 1997–98 they represented 45.2 percent.

To understand these changes in Italian family structures, it is important to consider the changes in the relationship of women to education and employment.

Education and Gender Roles

Italian women attend high school more successfully than do Italian men, and also more frequently. In 1950 only 7 percent of girls between the ages of fourteen and seventeen went to school, while 12 percent of boys did. In 1998-99 84 percent of the girls and 81 percent of the boys attended high schools. At university level women outnumbered men by the late 1990s. The increased level of education of Italian women helps to explain the greater presence of women in the labor market. However, Italian women are still well below the levels of other European and American countries (in 1999, 35.3% of Italian women aged fifteen and older were employed outside the home).

Women's traditional role of wife and mother is no longer appealing, and young housewives perceive their situation more as a necessity than as a choice. Working mothers declare themselves more satisfied than housewives and mothers, although they are weighed down by an enormous amount of work when one adds the work in the house to the work outside: 35 percent of young working mothers spend more than seventy hours working per week, and more than half, including those who work more than seventy, work more than sixty hours per week.

Italian men contribute very little to housework and childcare. The relations between husband and wife within the family are still very traditional, with a rigid separation of gender roles. Even children are asked to do very little housework, and gender differences are still present in the expectations of sons and daughters in helping with the housework: Boys are asked and expected to do less housework, have more freedom, and are less controlled by parents than are girls.

That Italian men contribute very little to housework and childcare may partially explain why Italy is experiencing a strong reduction in the number of children per couple among young couples. Italian mothers, unlike those of other western European and Western countries, do not leave the labor market even temporarily after having a child. The rigidity of the Italian labor market makes it extremely difficult, if not impossible, for mothers with young children to re-enter the job market, even after only a few years out. These mothers are not attractive to employers, who prefer men or childless women. Furthermore, part-time jobs are not common, and families have serious difficulties in living on only one salary. Therefore, the reproductive strategies of Italian families have changed, drastically reducing the number of children. This is compounded by the limited participation of the husband in childrearing and housework. Typically, a woman waits to get a good job, and after which it becomes very complicated to have more than one child without giving up the job.

Marriage and maternity are delayed to accomplish different goals: graduation from high school and university and the attainment of a stable occupation. These deep transformations are visible in the data from the Italian National Institute of Statistics (Istat 1998) on mothers with small children. The majority of women who have at least one small baby (0-2 years old) are working mothers (47.4 percent) while 42.8 percent are housewives. In the north of Italy 63.1 percent of mothers of young children are working; in the center 54.95 percent; while in the south the figure is only 31 percent, with 53.7 percent of the mothers as housewives.

Young People Living in the Parental Family

The rise in the age at first marriage means that young people spend a longer time living in the parental family, which is favored over alternatives such as premarital cohabitation.

According to the data from the Multiscope survey "Family, Social Subjects, and Childhood Conditions" carried out in 1998 by ISTAT, only 2 percent of youths (4% of males compared to 2.5 percent of females) between the age of eighteen and thirty-four are living with a partner, 3.8 percent are living alone, and roughly 60 percent are living in the parental family, a higher percentage than in earlier years. In fact, in 1990 about 52 percent of youths in the same age group were living with their families. The experimenting of alternative family models, such as cohabitation and living alone, does not seem to attract Italian young people, who traditionally leave the parental home at the time of marriage. Prior to this, they rarely have the opportunity to live alone both because students usually attend university in the town in which their family lives and because of a lack of social policies that promote an early departure from the parental family (absence of unemployment benefits and grants to students). To this one must add the difficulty in obtaining housing caused by a lack of subsidized loans or government financing. The growth in new family structures is due, therefore above all to marital instability, and in fact one-person households are made mainly of divorced men and women.

The 1990s showed some evidence of change. There was a slight increase in the percentage of one-person households among the young. Living alone, though, involved mainly people between the ages of thirty-five and fifty-four, while the percentage of lone elders (55-75 years) decreased because both men and women were living longer.

Gender differences are striking: the great majority of nonwidowed singles are males (29.4%

compared to 24.3% of females) living in central and northern towns, where the percentage of divorces and separation is higher. This is because in Italy, mothers usually receive custody of their children. In the south there is a smaller percentage of singles (16.7%). Marriages are more stable in this region, which also has the highest percentage of families that include an elderly member (Cer 1999). The larger number of elderly people, mainly women, that live alone in the north does not imply an absence of family ties. Usually the single elder is well-placed in the family solidarity network, giving and receiving both material help and solidarity from younger family members. In this light, the intensity and frequency of family relationships is a forced response (Saraceno 1998) to the lack of adequate government family policies.

The need for adequate social family policies is growing. In Italy more than in other European countries, two great demographic changes are underway: a marked fertility decrease (1.2 children per woman) and a progressive aging of the population. The decrease in young people and the increase of the elderly pose serious questions on the future of health and retirement policies. In 2050 there will be two elderly citizens per young person (Cer 1999). This forecast represents a threat to the persistence of family solidarity networks: the dwindling younger generations will have difficulties meeting the needs of an increasing number of elderly family members. Presumably the increase in single elderly citizens will be a cause of increased government expenditure on health and retirement benefits, and the growth in numbers of the nonactive (those retired, or too young or old to work) versus the active population will pose a problem for the pension system.

See also:Germany

Bibliography

Barbagli, M. (2000). Sotto lo stesso tetto (Under the same roof). Bologna: Il Mulino.

Barbagli, M., and Saraceno, C., eds. (1997). Lo stato delle famiglie in Italia (The characteristics of Italian families). Bologna: Il Mulino.

C. E. R (1999). La solidarietà intergenerazionale nell'ambito familiare (Intergenerarional solidarity within the family). Rome: Quaderni Cer.

Laslett, P. (1983). "Family and Household as Work Group and Kin Group." In Family Forms in Historic Europe, ed. R. Wall, J. Robin, P. Laslett. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Saraceno, C. (1998). Mutamenti della famiglia e politiche sociali in Italia (Family's change and social policies in Italy). Bologna: Il Mulino.

ISTAT (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica). (1998). "Family, Social Subjects and Childhood Conditions." In Indagine multiscopo, Roma. ISTAT (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica). (2000). Rapporto annuale (Annual report, 1999). Roma.

other resource

Sabbadini, L. L. (1999). "Modelli di formazione e organizzazione della famiglia" (Formation and organization patterns of Italian families). Conference Le famiglie interrogano le politiche sociali. Bologna, 29-31 March. Available from http://www.Istat.it.

luisa leonini

Italy Italy has been marked by a fundamental regional tension between the north and the south ever since unification in 1861. Northern Italy experienced industrialization from the 1890s onwards, which led it to be one of the wealthiest areas in Europe a century later. With its diverse industrial production, commercial activity, and financial transactions, its cities proved fertile ground for the socialist and Communist parties, though they also became strongholds of the early Fascist movement. By contrast, southern Italy has, until recently, been dominated by a sharecropping system that kept the majority of the population as landless labourers employed by a tiny number of large landowners. Consequently, the south has harboured anarcho-syndicalism and, given the continued importance of the Roman Catholic Church, political Catholicism after 1919. To assert central control over these entrenched social and economic hierarchies, the Italian government encouraged the spread of the Mafia, which had become the source of authority in the whole of Sicily by 1900, and which has since spread northwards. To the resentment of the north, central government sought to alleviate the lack of industry and commerce in the south through enlarging the administrative apparatus, making it costly and cumbersome, but providing employment particularly for southerners.

Another central element in Italian politics until the conclusion of the Lateran Treaties in 1929, and one which has surfaced periodically since, has been the relationship between the secular Italian state and the Roman Catholic Church. After the unification of Italy, in which the Pope lost all the territory which he governed, the Vatican forbade all Roman Catholics to participate in the new liberal, secular state. The Vatican's stance became increasingly challenged by the rise of anticlerical socialist candidates and in 1918 the Church abandoned its resistance to political participation by Roman Catholics, which led to the foundation of the Popular Party in 1919.

At the beginning of the twentieth century Italy was dominated by Giolitti, who tried to modernize the state and respond to the social problems of urbanization and industrialization by social and electoral reform on the one hand and nationalism (conquest of Libya in 1911–12) on the other. Against the inclinations of Giolitti, the Socialist Party, and a sizeable minority of public opinion, Italy entered World War I in 1915 on the side of the Allies with the irredentist aims of acquiring the Trentino and South Tirol (Alto Adige), as well as the Istrian Peninsula. In the Treaty of St Germain it achieved most of these aims, with the significant exception of the Istrian port of Fiume. After the war, the continued growth of the Socialist Party, the foundation of a Communist Party, the emergence of an anti-socialist Christian Popular Party, and the rise of a Fascist movement created great domestic instability which hindered the effective solution of postwar problems such as the need for economic change and demobilization. The fragmentation and mutual hostility of the parties furthermore prevented the formation of an anti-Fascist popular front and thus enabled Mussolini to come to power in his March on Rome in 1922.

Mussolini's rule of Fascist Italy can be divided into four periods.

1. In 1922–5 he ruled in cooperation with the old elites, in a government that included many non-Fascists. Many steps had already been taken, however, to secure the predominance of the Fascist movement in the state (2) It was only in the wake of the Matteotti Crisis of 1925, that Mussolini gave in to radical Fascist demands of men such as Farinacci to establish a totalitarian state in which the movement would control all areas of public life. In this second phase power was concentrated in Mussolini's hands, as all other parties were abolished, the judiciary infiltrated, and popular organizations such as the Balilla and the Dopolavoro were created at the expense of independent trade unions, clubs, and societies. 3. The decisive phase of Mussolini's regime began in 1935–6, when Mussolini, who had hitherto taken a relatively moderate and independent international stance, defied the international community through the Abyssinian War and embarked on a fateful rapprochement with Nazi Germany. Increasingly influenced by the apparent successes of Hitler, Mussolini came to emulate Nazism, most significantly through imitating the Nuremberg Laws by introducing his own (albeit much milder) anti-Semitic laws in 1938. Dazzled by Hitler's military successes in the first months of World War II, Mussolini joined on his side in 1940, though a series of military disasters (de facto defeat in Greece and North Africa 1940–1) showed that the Italian army was badly prepared and that Italy's economy was wholly dependent on imported raw materials. 4. The fourth phase of Mussolini's rule was inaugurated by a meeting of the Fascist Grand Council on 24–5 July 1943, which deposed Mussolini and called upon General Badoglio to form a new government. Following Badoglio's armistice on 3 September 1943 most of Italy passed into German occupation, while German parachuters liberated Mussolini from imprisonment and sent him to the north, where he headed a Fascist puppet state, the Republic of Salò. During the time of the occupation, the Italian population suffered greatly as a result of fierce fighting between the Germans and the Allies, widespread partisan resistance (up to 250,000 Italians were active in the resistance, organized mostly by the CLN), and German terror. Furthermore, out of a Jewish population of 40,000–50,000 in all of Italy, around 8,000 Jews were deported to German concentration camps.

Meanwhile, the foundations of postwar Italy were laid during the period of post-Fascist government 1943–5, largely through the establishment of a stable Christian Democratic Party (Democrazia Christiana, DC), the restraint of the Communist Party under Togliatti's leadership, and cooperation between the different parties, which gained Allied respect and confidence. The key to postwar Italy lay subsequently with the DC, which took part in every government until the party's dissolution in 1993, and whose leader and Prime Minister, De Gasperi (1945–53), established a regime which pursued relatively liberal economic policies while emphasizing social welfare. In foreign policy, Italy became firmly established in the Western sphere following the receipt of Marshall Aid, the pursuit of European integration, and participation in NATO.

The postwar development of Italy has been highly ambiguous. On the one hand, it became a modern, prosperous state which managed to overcome challenges such as that of widespread terrorism (especially by the Red Brigades) during the 1970s. At the same time, it appeared that regions within the country had become more integrated, for example through the abolition of sharecropping in the south, or the development of a popular Christian Democratic Party with relatively strong support throughout the country. On the other hand, many of these achievements were very fragile and bought at considerable cost. Italy's economy was stifled by Europe's highest strike rate 1970–90, with 1,042 working days lost per 1,000 workers each year. Furthermore, the need to develop social cohesion and the bridging of the north/south divide through social welfare payments have made Italy one of the world's most indebted economies. The victory over the Red Brigades hid the fact that the Mafia continued to spread unabated until the 1980s, and ultimately discredited the whole political system through a multitude of corruption scandals (Tangentopoli). Finally, the disparity within the factions of the Christian Democratic Party, as well as the other smaller parties, which resulted from and contributed to the lack of strong leadership, prevented many badly needed administrative and institutional reforms.

These deficiencies resulted in a fundamental crisis and a collapse of the political establishment in 1992–3. An alliance of newly formed right-wing movements, including the neo-Fascist National Alliance, led by Berlusconi, gained a majority in the 1994 national elections, with the Christian Democrat successor parties dwindling to a total of 10 per cent of the parliamentary seats, while the Socialist Party achieved barely 2 per cent of the vote. At the same time, doubts remained about the true ability of the system to reform itself. Despite his promises, Berlusconi failed to achieve drastic reform. Furthermore, the changes in the political system yielded neither far-reaching reforms of the state machinery nor greater stability in parliamentary government. With 26 parties represented in Parliament instead of eleven (1992), parliamentary representation was even more fragmented. The 1996 elections were won by the centre-left Olive Tree coalition under Romano Prodi. The stability of his government was achieved at the cost of an inability to introduce a crucial but divisive reform of the pension system. Prodi resigned in 1998, and was succeeded by Massimo D'Alema, who in turn handed over to Guiliano Amato in 2000. The coalition's disunity contrasted sharply with the slick, organized campaign by Berlusconi, who duly won the 2001 general elections. As Prime Minister, Berlusconi had three central policy concerns: (1) a more sceptical attitude towards the European Union with greater emphasis on Italy's rights against its partners; (2) a renewed attempt at an overhaul of the pension and social security system; (3) judicial reform which would effectively create an amnesty for defendants against prosecution in most cases involving corruption, and which significantly reduced police protection for prosecuting lawyers.

Italy A country bounded on the north by France, Switzerland, Austria, and Slovenia, the mainland forming a peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea, and including the islands of Sardinia, Sicily, Ischia, and Capri.

Physical

Among the southern foothills of the Alps in the north of the mainland are the Italian Lakes. Below them the River Po runs west-east across the fertile Lombardy Plain to the Adriatic Sea. The Apennines are the backbone of the peninsula itself. To their west are the hills and plains of Tuscany; further south the Tiber flows across the Pontine Marshes to the Tyrrhenian Sea. Further south still the coastal plain is enriched by the debris of Vesuvius and the climate becomes warmer. To the south is Calabria, where the mountains fall steeply to the sea and in summer the land bakes brown. Eastward, stretches a wide and arid limestone plain.

Economy

With a developed industrial economy, Italy's main exports incude electrical machinery (especially office equipment), chemicals, clothing, motor vehicles, textiles, and footwear. The public sector is significant, and industry is concentrated in north and central Italy with the south remaining predominantly agricultural and relatively poor. There are few large mineral deposits, excepting sulphur, mercury, and some oil in Sicily; crude oil accounts for some 15% of imports. The tourist industry is significant. There are over 3 million agricultural holdings, with only a small degree of mechanization compared with other European countries. The chief agricultural products are sugar beet, grains, tomatoes, citrus, and olives.

History

Italy had come under ETRUSCAN, Greek, and Celtic influence before it was united in c.262 BC under Roman rule. In the 5th century it was overrun by the barbarian GOTHS and Lombard tribes. In 775 CHARLEMAGNE conquered the north and it became part of the Carolingian empire, while the south was disputed between the Byzantine empire and the Arab conquerors of Sicily. By the 12th century city-states had emerged in northern and central Italy and the south united under first Norman and then, in 1176, Spanish control. The 14th century was a time of great commercial activity, followed by the RENAISSANCE period. The country, now divided between five major rival states, came under first Spanish (1559–1700) and then, after the Treaty of UTRECHT in 1713, Austrian domination. In 1796–97 Italy, having been used to maintain the balance of power in Europe, was invaded by NAPOLEON and hopes of independence and unification re-emerged. However, in 1815, the country reverted to a grouping consisting of Lombardy and Venetia, ruled by the HABSBURGS from Vienna; the kingdom of Piedmont Sardinia, which then consisted of most of Savoy, Piedmont, and the island of Sardinia; the Papal States, ruled by the popes in Rome; the duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena, also ruled by the Habsburgs; and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, now ruled by restored Bourbons from Naples. France ruled part of Savoy and Corsica, but had lost Genoa to Piedmont. Revolutionary societies, such as the CARBONARI and YOUNG ITALY, were formed. The new forces of the RISORGIMENTO created hopes of independence from Austrian and French rule. Under such leaders as CAVOUR, MAZZINI, and GARIBALDI, unification of Italy was finally achieved, and in 1861 VICTOR EMANUEL II was crowned king of Italy. In an effort to join the ‘scramble for Africa’ the Italian Premier and Minister of Foreign Affairs, Francesco Crispi, claimed (1889) the colony of ERITREA, but the abortive bid for ETHIOPIA led to a decisive defeat (1896) at the battle of ADOWA. During the Turko-Italian War (1911–12), Italy conquered north Tripoli and by 1914 had occupied much of Libya, declaring it an integral part of the country in 1939. In World War I Italy supported the Allies, regaining Trieste and part of the Tyrol. The fascist dictator MUSSOLINI, determined to establish an Italian empire, successfully invaded (1935) Ethiopia, combining it with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland to form Italian East Africa. In World War II Mussolini at first allied himself with Hitler, but by 1943 the country had lost its North African empire and in the same year declared war on Germany. In 1946 the king abdicated in favour of a republic. The immediate postwar period brought remarkable and sustained economic growth but also political instability, characterized by frequent changes of government. The Italian Communist Party successfully adjusted to democracy, but during the 1970s there were Red Brigade terrorist kidnappings and outrages. Governments of the republic have mostly been formed by elaborate coalitions, dominated by the Christian Democrats, but Italian politics became increasingly incompetent, with accusations of corruption. As a result, there were calls in 1991 by President Francesco Cossiga (1985–92) for constitutional reform. Continued attempts to eliminate the MAFIA largely failed. In 1992 President Cossiga resigned and was succeeded by Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, while the government's economic reform policies led to large-scale anti-government protests. Allegations of corruption against politicians and government ministers in 1993 further seriously undermined the authority of the government. The country's electoral process was changed from a proportional representation system to a first-past-the-post system, after overwhelming approval by the populace in nationwide referendums. Former ministers, meanwhile, were the subject of investigations into corrupt activities. The general election of 1994 brought to power, under the new electoral system, a right-wing coalition government led by Forza Italia, a party recently formed by media magnate, Silvio Berlusconi, who became Prime Minister. Following conflicts of interest between Berlusconi's political and commercial interests, he was forced to resign when the Northern League party withdrew from the coalition. Lamberto Dini replaced Berlusconi as Prime Minister in 1995 and, despite surviving a vote of no confidence, announced his intention to step down at the end of the year. A general election held in 1996 was won by a left-wing coalition headed by Romano Prodi. In 1998 a new coalition was formed under the leftwing Massimo D'Alema. The early 1990s saw Mafia violence escalate, provoking public outrage at the authorities’ inability to curb it. The government responded by increasing police and judiciary powers and key arrests were made. By 1994 official reports indicated a significant reduction in Mafia-related crimes.

Italy

Climate

Italy has a Mediterranean climate, except for Sicily, which is subtropical. Alpine winters are long and the frequent snow is ideal for winter sports.

History and Politics

By tradition Romulus and Remus founded ancient Rome in 753 bc. The Etruscans were overthrown by the Romans, who established a republic (509 bc). Rome gained a Mediterranean empire from the Punic Wars. Pompey was defeated by Julius Caesar, whose assassination led to the formation (27 bc) of the Roman Empire under Augustus. Diocletian divided the Empire into Eastern (Byzantine Empire) and Western sections. The papacy ensured the continuation of Rome's influence. Pepin III (the Short) expelled the Lombards, and enabled the creation of the Papal States. His son Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the West (800).

In 962, Otto IV conquered Italy and established the Holy Roman Empire. Central and n Italy were controlled by powerful city-states, while the s established a feudal system under the Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties. The 13th-century battle between imperial and papal power divided the cities and nobles into the Guelph and Ghibelline factions. The Renaissance profoundly affected western civilization. Italian art and architecture was an informing force across Europe.

In the 16th century, Spain gained Sicily, Naples and Milan. The French Revolutionary Wars failed to bring reunification. Nationalist groups, such as the Risorgimento, emerged. Mazzini's republicans were defeated by monarchists led by Garibaldi and the Kingdom of Italy was unified under Victor Emmanuel II (1861). The papacy refused to concede the loss of Rome, and Vatican City was set up as a sovereign state (1929). The late 19th century was marked by industrialization and empire-building. Victor Emmanuel III's reign (1900–46) saw Italy enter World War I on the Allied side (1915). Italian discontent at the post-war settlement culminated in D'Annunzio's seizure of Trieste, and the emergence of fascism. In 1922, Benito Mussolini assumed dictatorial powers. Aggressive foreign policy included the seizure of Ethiopia and Albania. In 1936, Mussolini entered an alliance with Hitler. During World War II, Italy fought on the Axis side, but after losing its North African empire, Mussolini was dismissed and Italy surrendered (1943). Germany invaded and Italy declared war. Rome fell to the Allies in 1944.

The Christian Democrat Party emerged as the dominant post-war political force, with Alcide De Gasperi as prime minister (1945–53). In 1948 Italy became a republic and was a founder member of NATO (1949) and the European Economic Community (1958). Italy has been riven by political instability (50 governments since 1947), endemic corruption (often linked to the Mafia), social unrest and the wealth gap between n and s. In 1993, popular discontent with the political structure led to the adoption of a ‘first-past-the-post’ system and the emergence of the Northern League and anti-corruption parties. The left-wing Olive Tree alliance won elections in 1996, and Romano Prodi became prime minister. In 1998, the Communist Refoundation (RC) withdrew its support for Prodi and Massimo D'Alema, leader of the Party of the Democratic Left (PDS), became prime minister. In 1999, Italy joined the euro. In 2000, D'Alema resigned and Giuliano Amato succeeded him. Silvio Berlusconi won elections in 2001. His Forza Italia party formed a coalition with the National Alliance and the Northern League.

Economy

Italy's main industrial region is the nw triangle of Milan, Turin, and Genoa (2000 GDP per capita, US$22,100). It is the world's eighth-largest car and steel producer. Machinery and transport equipment account for 37% of exports. Agricultural production is important. Italy is the world's largest wine producer. Tourism is a vital economic sector (1998, 35 million visitors).

Political map

Physical map

Websites

http://www.arcaini.com/ITALY/ItalyHistory/ItalyHistory.html

Italy (Italia) The Italian Republic (Repubblica Italiana) since 1946 when the monarchy was abolished. Previously the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946), from nine years before the complete unification of the country in 1870 when the Papal States were finally annexed. Between the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and 1870 Italy largely comprised a collection of major and minor independent states. From time to time some of these were under papal or foreign rule or both. Traditionally ‘Italy’ is thought to come from the Vitali tribe whose name may have some connection with the Latin vitulus ‘calf’ or witaloi ‘sons of the bull’. Another theory is that the name is derived from diovi‐telia ‘land of the day’ or ‘land of the light’.

Italy

Culture Name

Italian

Alternative Names

Republic of Italy, Italia, Repubblica Italiana

Orientation

Identification. The Romans used the name Italia to refer to the Italian peninsula. Additionally, Italy has been invaded and settled by many different peoples. Etruscans in Tuscany preceded the Romans and Umbria, while Greeks settled the south. Jews entered the country during the period of the Roman republic, and Germanic tribes came after the fall of Rome. Mediterranean peoples (Greeks, North Africans, and Phoenicians) entered the south. The Byzantine Empire ruled the southern part of the peninsula for five hundred years, into the ninth century. Sicily had many invaders, including Saracens, Normans, and Aragonese. In 1720, Austrians ruled Sicily and at about the same time controlled northern Italy. There is a continuing ethnic mixing.

Location and Geography. Italy is in south central Europe. It consists of a peninsula shaped like a high–heeled boot and several islands, encompassing 116,300 square miles (301,200 square kilometers). The most important of the islands are Sicily in the south and Sardinia in the northwest. The Mediterranean Sea is to the south, and the Alps to the north. A chain of mountains, the Apennines, juts down the center of the peninsula. The fertile Po valley is in the north. It accounts for 21 percent of the total area; 40 percent of Italy's area, in contrast, is hilly and 39 percent is mountainous. The climate is generally a temperate Mediterranean one with variations caused by the mountainous and hilly areas.

Italy's hilly terrain has led to the creation of numerous independent states. Moreover, agriculture in most of the country has been of a subsistence type and has led to deforestation. Since World War II, many Italians have turned away from rural occupations to engage in the industrial economy.

Rome was a natural choice for the national capital in 1871 when the modern state was united after the annexation of the Papal States. Rome recalls Italy's former grandeur and unity under Roman rule and its position as the center of the Catholic Church.

Demography. Italy's population was approximately 57 million in 1998. The population growth rate is .08 percent with a death rate of 10.18 per 1,000 and a birthrate of 9.13 per 1,000. Life expectancy at birth is 78.38 years. Population growth declined quickly after World War II with the industrialization of the country.

The majority of the people are ethnically Italian, but there are other ethnic groups in the population, including French–Italians and Slovene–Italians in the north and Albanian–Italian and Greek–Italians in the south. This ethnic presence is reflected in the languages spoken: German is predominant in the Trentino–Alto Adige region, French is spoken in the Valle d'Aosta region, and Slovene is spoken in the Trieste–Gorizia area.

Linguistic Affiliation. The official language is Italian. Various "dialects" are spoken, but Italian is taught in school and used in government. Sicilian is a language with Greek, Arabic, Latin, Italian, Norman French, and other influences and generally is not understood by Italian speakers. There are pockets of German, Slovene, French, and other speakers.

Symbolism. Italian patriotism is largely a matter of convenience. Old loyalties to hometown have persisted and the nation is still mainly a "geographic expression" (i.e., there is more identity with one's home region than to the country as a whole) to many Italians. The national anthem, Fratelli d'Ialia , generally is seen as something to be played at sporting events with teams from other countries. The red, green, and white flag has meaning for most citizens but does not stir a great deal of fervor. The strongest ties are to one's family. Therefore, politicians make appeals for loyalty to the nation based on loyalty to the family, stressing ties to the patria ("fatherland").

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. It was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that Italy as we know it today came to be. Until that time, various city-states occupied the peninsula, each operating as a separate kingdom or republic.

Forces for Italian unification began to come together with the rise of Victor Emmanuel to the throne of Sardinia in 1859. That year, after the French helped defeat the Austrians, who had come to rule regions through the Habsburg Empire, Victor Emmanuel's prime minister, Count de Cavour of Sardinia, persuaded the rest of Italy except the Papal States to join a united Italy under the leadership of Victor Emmanuel in 1859. In 1870 Cavour managed to be on the right side when Prussia defeated France and Napoleon III, the Pope's protector, in the Franco-Prussian War. On 17 March 1861, Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia was crowned as king of Italy. Rome became the capital of the new nation.

Italy's history is long and great. The Etruscans were the first major power in the Italian peninsula and Italy was first united politically under the Romans in 90 b.c.e. After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the fifth century c.e., Italy became merely a "geographic expression" for many centuries. Chaos followed the fall of the Roman Empire. Charlemagne restored order and centralized government to northern and central Italy in the eight and ninth centuries. Charlemagne brought Frankish culture to Italy, and under the Franks, the Church of Rome gained much political influence. The popes were given a great deal of autonomy and were left with control over the legal and administrative system of Rome, including defense.

The Carolingian line became increasingly weak and civil wars broke out, weakening law and order. Arabs invaded the mainland from their strongholds in Sicily and North Africa. In the south, the Lombards claimed sovereignty, where they established a separate government, until they were replaced by the Normans in the eleventh century.

City governments, however, had profited from Carolignian rule and remained vibrant centers of culture. Local families strengthened their hold on the rural areas and replaced Carolingian rulers. Italy had become difficult to rule from a central location. It had become a collection of city–states.

Through the ensuing years, numerous rulers from beyond the Alps, with or without the consent of the papacy, failed to impose their authority. Throughout the fourteen and fifteenth centuries of campanilismo (local patriotism), only a minority of people would have heard the word "Italia." Loyalties were predominantly provincial. However, there were elements that made a strong contrast to the world beyond the Alps: a common legal culture, high levels of lay education and urban literacy, a close relationship between town and country, and a nobility who frequently engaged in trade.

Three features in particular from this period solidified the notion of a unified culture. The first was the maturing of the economic development that had originated in the earlier centuries. Northern and central Italian trade, manufacture, and financial capitalism, together with increasing urbanization, were to continue with extraordinary vigor and to have remarkable influence throughout much of the Mediterranean world and Europe as a whole—a development that served as the necessary preliminary for the expansion of Europe beyond its ancient bounds at the end of the fifteenth century. Second came the extension of de facto independent city–states, which, whether as republics or as powers ruled by one person or family, created a powerful impression upon contemporaries and posterity. Finally, and allied to both these movements, it was from this society that was born the civilization of the "Italian Renaissance" that in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was to be exported to the rest of Europe.

Italian rivalries of status, class, family, and hometown prevented unity throughout its history. The period from the fifteenth through the mid-eighteenth centuries was no exception. Nations grew and their ambitions, as well as those of the Italian city–states, continued to plague Italy. France and Spain in particular intervened in Italian affairs. Moreover, the chaos caused by these invasions led the Italian states to seek to further their own particular goals.

Italy became part of the Spanish Habsburg inheritance in 1527 when the Spanish king Charles I (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) sent his troops in to take over Rome. Spain established complete control over all the Italian states except Venice.

Italy was ready for the new ideas of the French Enlightenment after the economic depression, plagues, wars, famines, and invasions of the seventeenth century. Italian intellectuals resented the supranational character of the papacy, the immunities of clerics from the state's legal and fiscal apparatus, the church's intolerance and intransigence in theological and institutional matters, and its wealth and property, and demanded reforms. Some changes in administration, taxation, and the economy were made by Habsburg rulers Maria Theresa and Joseph, but these reforms did not go far enough. The French Revolution and Napoleon's army demonstrated that a united Italy was possible and that arms might be the only way to achieve it.

Under the leadership of Victor Emmanuel, Count de Cavour, and Giuseppe Garibaldi, the various city-states moved toward unity. The writings of Allessandro Manzoni in the common tongue aided the forging of an Italian identity. His I Promessi Sposi provided a romantic image of Italy struggling against outside forces. Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy organization and his fiery writings during and after the revolutions of 1848 did much to stir Italian nationalism and hatred of outside rule.

National Identity. The issue of regionalism has plagued Italy to the present day. Originally, the issue was one of the more developed north against the poor south. Italian regions had their own separate histories over a fourteen–hundred–year period. Many different "dialects" were spoken, and customs varied from area to area. In the period since the Risorgimento, the Italian unification movement, there has been a great deal of unity achieved. There is still a difference between the north, the central region, and the south. However, literacy has made a common language the norm. Television, radio, and newspapers have aided education by fostering a sense of national culture.

Ethnic Relations. Many countries and peoples have occupied Italy over the centuries. Italians resented each of these conquerors. However, they intermarried with them and accepted a number of their customs. Many customs, for example, in Sicily are Spanish in origin.

Italians have assimilated a number of people within their culture. Albanians, French, Austrians, Greeks, Arabs, and now Africans have generally found a welcome in peaceful social interaction. This mixture is reflected in the wide variety of physical characteristics of the people—skin and hair colorings, size, and even temperaments. Italians easily incorporate new foods and customs into the national mix. In all, there are about one million resident foreigners.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

The northern area is highly industrialized and urbanized. Milan, Turin, and Genoa form the "industrial triangle." After World War II, there was a great migration to urban areas and into industrial occupations.

In spite of the previous agricultural and rural nature of Italy's Mezzogiorno (south), architecture there as well as in more industrialized areas of Italy has followed urban models. The architecture throughout Italy has strong Roman influences. In Sicily, Greek and Arabic ones join these influences. Throughout, a strong humanistic tone prevails but it is a humanism touched with deep religious feeling. There is a "family" feeling about the divine that often baffles non–Italians.

Italians tend to cluster in groups, and their architecture encourages this clustering. The piazzas of each town or village are famous for the parading of people through them at night with friends and relatives. Public space is meant to be used by the people, and their enjoyment is taken for granted.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. Food is a means for establishing and maintaining ties among family and friends. No one who enters an Italian home should fail to receive an offering of food and drink. Typically, breakfast consists of a hard roll, butter, strong coffee, and fruit or juice. Traditionally, a large lunch made up the noon meal. Pasta was generally part of the meal in all regions, along with soup, bread, and perhaps meat or fish. Dinner consisted of leftovers. In more recent times, the family may use the later meal as a family meal. The custom of the siesta is changing, and a heavy lunch may no longer be practical.

There are regional differences in what is eaten and how food is prepared. In general, more veal is found in the north, where meals tend to be lighter. Southern cooking has the reputation of being heavier and more substantial than northern cooking.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. There are special foods for various occasions. There is a special Saint Joseph's bread, Easter bread with hard–boiled eggs, Saint Lucy's "eyes" for her feast day, and the Feast of the Seven Fishes for New Year's Eve. Wine is served with meals routinely.

Basic Economy. Only about 4 percent of the gross national product comes from agriculture. Wheat, vegetables, fruit, olives, and grapes are grown in sufficient quantities to feed the population. Meat and dairy products, however, are imported.

Lombardy is, perhaps, the richest area of Italy. It is the location of the fertile Po river valley as well as Milan, the chief commercial, industrial, and financial center. It is also the major industrial area of Italy. Textiles, clothing, iron and steel, machinery, motor vehicles, chemicals, furniture, and wine are its major products. It stands in marked contrast to the southern area of the country that has only recently begun to emerge from its agricultural economy.

Italy began its major shift from agriculture to a major industrial economy after World War II. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, it is the fifth-largest economy in the world. Italy has only recently abandoned its interventionist economic policies that created periods of recession. Under pressure from the European Union it has begun to face its federal deficit, crime, and corruption. The state has begun a major retreat from participating in economic activities. Unemployment, however, has remained around 12 percent and economic growth has risen barely above the 1 percent level as the new millennium began.

Land Tenure and Property. Italy's economy is basically one of private enterprise. The government, however, owns a large share of major commercial and financial institutions. For example, the government has major shares in the petroleum, transportation, and telecommunication systems. In the 1990s Italy began to more away from government ownership of business.

Commercial Activities. Most of Italy's commercial centers are in the developed northern region. Milan is the most important economic center of Italy. It is located in the midst of rich farmland and great industrial development. It has extensive road and rail connections, aiding its industrial power. Milan is predominant in the production of automobiles, airplanes, motorcycles, major electric appliances, railroad materials, and other metalworking. It is also important for its textiles and fashion industry. Chemical production, medicinal products, dyes, soaps, and acids are also important. Additionally, Milan is noted for its graphic arts and publishing, food, wood, paper, and rubber products. It has kept pace with the world of electronics and cybernetic products.

Genoa remains Italy's major shipbuilding center. However, it also produces petroleum, textiles, iron and steel, locomotives, paper, sugar, cement, chemicals, fertilizers, and electrical, railway, and marine equipment. It is also a center for finance and commerce. Genoa is Italy's major port for both passengers and freight.

Florence, located about 145 miles (230 kilometers) northwest of Rome, is renowned for its magnificent past. Tourists flock to Florence to see its unparalleled art treasures. Turin, in contrast, is noted for automobile manufacturing and its modern pace of life. It is located just east of the Alps. In addition to Fiats and Lancias, Turin manufactures airplanes, ball-bearings, rubber, paper, leather-work, metallurgical, chemical, and plastic products, and chocolates and wines.

Major Industries. Italy is important in textile production, clothing and fashion, chemicals, cars, iron and steel, food production, wine, shipbuilding, and other industrial activities.

Trade. Italy exports metals, textiles and clothing, production machinery, motor vehicles, transportation equipment, and chemicals. In 1996, Italy exported almost 2 billion gallons of wine. It exports about $250 billion in material and imports about $190 billion. Imports include industrial machinery, chemicals, petroleum, metals, food and agricultural products, and transportation equipment.

Division of Labor. There is a great hierarchy of prestige according to one's occupation. Those in professional jobs have greater prestige than those in manual labor. The importance of tailoring one's lifestyle to the appropriate job is significant. Thus, anyone who works with a pencil and paper, or today a computer, is above others who get their hands dirty.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. There is a vast difference in wealth between the north and the south. There are also the usual social classes that are found in industrial society. Italy has a high unemployment rate, and differences between rich and poor are noticeable. New immigrants stand out since they come from poorer countries. The government has had a vast social welfare network that has been cut in recent years to fit the requirements of the European Union. These budget cuts have fallen on the poorer strata of society.

Symbols of Social Stratification. Speech is a social boundary marker in Italy. The more education and "breeding" a person has, the closer that person's speech comes to the national language and differs from a dialect. Style of dress, choice of food and recreation, and other boundary markers also prevail. Clothes from Armani, Versace, and other fashion designers are beyond the reach of the poor. There is a difference also in what food one eats, certain food being more prestigious, such as veal or steak, than others. Although pasta and bread are still staples for all classes, it is what else and in what quantity meat is available that marks social classes.

Leisure and the manner in which it is spent are also class boundary markers. The more leisure and the great the amount of travel mark off groups from each other. The more private the beaches, the longer the siesta, the more opulent the family villa, the greater the prestige. Soccer is for everyone, but more expensive entertainment is restricted by cost.

Political Life

Government. Italy is a republic with twenty regions under the central government. In 1861, the Italian states were unified under a monarch. The republic was formed on 2 June 1946 and on 1 January 1948, the republic's constitution was proclaimed. There are three branches of government: executive, judicial, and legislative. The legal system is a combination of civil and ecclesiastical law. The system treats appeals as new trials. There is a Constitutional Court that has the power of judicial review. A chief of state (the president) and a head of government (the prime minister) head the executive branch. There have been numerous changes of government since the end of World War II. There are two houses in the parliament: the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. Both houses have elected and appointed members chosen through a complicated system of proportional representation and appointed. Voters must be 25 years old to vote for senators but only 18 in all other elections.

Leadership and Political Officials. Italy has been plagued with too many political parties and, in some sense, every Italian is his or her own political party. Recent reforms have not ended the problem. New parties have grown from combinations or alliances of a number of parties. The major parties are Olive Tree, Freedom Pole, Northern League, Communism Refoundation, Italian Social Movement, Pannella–Sgarbi's List, Italian Socialist, Autonomous List, and Southern Tyrol's List. The Olive Tree is the party of the democrat left. The Freedom Pole is the party of the right to center. Other parties occupy various positions on the political spectrum. There are certain rules of respect toward those in power. Presents are usually given, and support is promised in return. People approach those in power through intermediaries.

Social Problems and Control. Italians resent intrusions into private and family life. They have had centuries of practice in evading what they consider unjust laws. The major crime problem comes from the Mafia. Special courts and task forces have made some headway against the Mafia. Scandals linking politicians and judges to the Mafia have led to greater action in seeking its extermination. Street crime, such as robbery, is prevalent in the larger cities, and murder is a serious problem, with about one thousand five hundred per year, and an additional two thousand attempted murders per annum. The national police are found throughout the country. The judicial system operates on an inquisitorial system. There is no presumption of innocence, and judges routinely question defendants. The Catholic Church, family, and friends serve as strong informal social controls.

Military Activity. The country's president is the commander of the armed forces. He also chairs the Supreme Council of Defense. Male military service is compulsory. Italy is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The first significant deployment of troops outside Italy took place in 1997, when troops were sent to Albania to help control the chaos that resulted with the collapse of the economy. As a member of NATO, the country allowed its air bases to be used in attack on Yugoslavia.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

Until the 1990s Italy had a cradle–to–grave social welfare system. Italy began to cut its involvement in these programs in response to pressure from its European partners to cut its budget deficits. These changes affected unemployment insurance, retirement pensions, child support, and other major programs. However, Italy's system is still impressive when compared with that of the United States.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

The Catholic Church is deeply involved in various charitable activities in Italy. In addition to the Church's activities on behalf of the homeless, poor, orphans, prisoners, and others, there are a number of other NGOs operating in Italy. The Italian Red Cross and Caritas, for example, are involved in various projects to resettle refugees in Italy. The Association for Minority People works on behalf of minorities worldwide, including in Italy. COSPE is another agency that works with minorities and refugees, teaching languages to minority ethnic groups in Italy, and with programs in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Eastern Europe.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Traditionally, men went out to work and women took care of the home. After World War II, that arrangement changed rapidly. While old notions of gender segregation and male dominance prevail in some rural areas, Italian women have been famous for their independence and many anthropological and historical works point out that their assumed past subordination was often overstated. Currently, women participate in every aspect of political, economic, and social life. Women are equal under the law and attend universities and work in the labor force in numbers commensurate with their share of the population.

A sign of female independence is Italy's negative population growth. It is true, however, that women continue to perform many of the same domestic tasks they did in the past while assuming new responsibilities.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. In Italian culture, men were given preferential status and treatment. Women were assigned the position of the "soul" of the family, while men were the "head." Men were to support and defend the family while women raised the children and kept themselves chaste so as not to disgrace the family. How much of the ideal was ever found in the real world is problematic. Women in general always had more power than they were traditionally supposed to have. Currently, Italian women are often considered the most liberated in Europe.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. In the past, marriages were arranged and women brought a dowry to the marriage. However, there were ways to help one's parents arrange marriage with the right person. The poorer classes, in fact, had more freedom to do so than did the wealthier ones. Dowries could be waived and often were. Currently, marriage is as free as anywhere else in the world. Except for those who enter the clergy, almost all Italians marry. But there is a custom in many families for a child to remain unmarried to care for aged parents. Divorce was forbidden until recently.

Domestic Unit. The family is the basic household unit. It may vary in size through having other relatives live with the nuclear family or through taking in boarders. Often two or more nuclear families may live together. It is common for newly married couples to live for a time with the bride's parents. Traditionally the husband was the ruler of the family, in theory, while the wife took care of the day–to–day operations. The reality may have been quite different. Tasks have traditionally been assigned according to age and sex. There is evidence that there is some change in this system as more and more often both parents work outside the home.

Inheritance. By law, all members of the family inherit equally. Special personal items may be given to loved ones before death to assure their being received by the designated heir.

Kin Groups. Italians are famous for their family lives. They are often tied to one another by relationships on both sides of the family. They can and do expand or contract their extended kin groups by emphasizing or de-emphasizing various kinship ties. Usually, children of the same mother feel a necessity to cooperate against the outside world. Other ties may be egocentric. Generally, a male feels closest for many reasons to his mother's sisters and their kin. These kin traditionally protected him from the father's side, traditionally the side of "justice" as opposed to "mercy" and unmitigated love.

Socialization

Infant Care. There is a fear that others will be jealous of a healthy and bright baby. Care is taken not to be foolish and boast too much about one's child. There are many charms and practices to ward off dangers, such as the evil eye. Children are coddled and held to keep them happy and content. They eat at will, are allowed to sleep with their parents, and are taken on family outings. Although times are changing it is still common to have families go to nightclubs and restaurants together. Parents are glad to see signs of activity in children and tease youngsters almost mercilessly to teach them to stand up for themselves. Older children routinely care for younger ones.

Child Rearing and Education. Children are indulged when young. As they grow older, they are expected to obey their parents and contribute to the work of the household. They are trained to be loyal to the family and defend it against others. The Catholic Church is still important in Italian lives through providing a structure for rites of passage. A good child is one who obeys, does not disgrace the family, and loves his or her parents. Children are seen to resemble other family members, often dead ones. Although inheritance of personality traits is given a great deal of credence, there is still an intense effort made to shape the child's personality. Directions are given, surveillance is constant, and physical punishment is common.

Higher Education. Current Italian society emphasizes formal education, including higher education. However, Italy currently ranks last in expenditure per pupil in higher education in the European Union. There are a number of notable universities, many with long lineages: the universities of Bologna and Salerno, among others, go back to medieval times.

Etiquette

Italians generally are effusive in their public behavior. There is a great deal of public embracing and kissing upon greeting people. It is also polite to sit close to people and to interact by lightly touching people on the arms. Italian gazes are intense. It is felt that someone who cannot look you in the eyes is trying to hide something. Elders expect and get respect. They enter a room first. Men stand for women and youngsters for adults. Children tend to be used to run errands and help any adult, certainly any adult in the family. Gazing intently at strangers is common, and Italians expect to be looked at in public. Traditionally, younger women deferred to men in public and did not contradict them. Older women, however, joined in the general give and take of conversation without fear. Italians have little respect for lines and generally push their way to the front. There is great care given to preserving one's bella figura, dignity. Violating another's sense of self–importance is a dangerous activity.

Religion

Religious Beliefs. Ninety percent of the population is Roman Catholic. The other 2 percent is mainly comprised of Jews, along with some Muslims and Orthodox and Eastern Rite Catholics. The general supernatural beliefs are those of the Catholic Church as mixed with some older beliefs stretching back to antiquity. In Sicily, for example, Arabic and Greek influences have mixed with popular Spanish beliefs and been incorporated into Catholicism. Thus, there are beliefs in the evil eye, charms, spells, messages through dreams, and various other types of omens. Witches have powers and there are anti–witches. Many of these beliefs, of course, have yielded to the rationalism of the modern age. Others, however, exist below the surface.

Religious Practitioners. Rome, or more precisely Vatican City, is the center of the Roman Catholic religion. Thus, the Pope, cardinals, bishops, monsignors, priests, members of various male and female religious orders, and others are omnipresent. The seven sacraments form a framework for religious life. Churches are plentiful and also attract the tourist dollar. There are more folk–like practitioners who carry on "magic" or "superstitious" practices—various healers who may have the gift of hands, witches, purveyors of charms and spells, and many others.

Rituals and Holy Places. Italy is filled with over 2000 years' worth of holy places. Rome and the Vatican City alone have thousands of shrines, relics, and churches. There are relics of Saint Peter and other popes. Various relics of many saints, places holy to Saint Francis of Assisi, shrines, places where the Virgin Mary is reputed to have appeared, and sites of numerous miracles are found across the country. Similarly, religious ceremonies are frequent. There are the usual holy days of the Roman Catholic Church—Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, the Immaculate Conception and others. In addition, there are local saints and appearances by the Pope. The sanctification of new saints, various blessings, personal, family, and regional feast days and daily and weekly masses add to the mix. There are also various novenas, rosary rituals, sodalities, men's and women's clubs, and other religious or quasi–religious activities.

Death and the Afterlife. Italians generally believe in a life after death in which the good are rewarded and the evil punished. There is a belief in a place where sins are purged, purgatory. Heaven and hell are realities for most Italians. The deceased are to be remembered and are often spoken to quietly. Funerals today take place in funeral parlors. Respect for the dead is expected. Failure to attend a wake for a family member or friend is cause for a breach of relationship unless there is a patently valid reason.

Medicine and Health Care

Italy was a pioneer in modern health care with its medieval centers for medical study. Although modern Italy has a number of modern doctors and health specialists, it has had a history of healers and potion–makers. There was a prevalent belief, for example, in people having "healing hands." These people, it was felt, could heal soreness and broken bones by touch and manipulation. Others could cause disease through incantations or spells. Various faith healers practiced their arts.

Secular Celebrations

Most secular celebrations also are tied to religious holidays, like Christmas or New Year's (the Circumcision of Jesus). These celebrations tend to be family affairs. The Anniversary of the Republic is celebrated on 2 June. There is a show of patriotism through air shows and fireworks. Generally, it, too, is a day off and a family holiday. Independence Day is March 17 and provides another opportunity for family activity.

The Arts and Humanities

Support for the Arts. Italian art has a long history. Part of that history is the support it has received from public and private benefactors. That tradition continues into the present day with numerous benefactors who support the arts and humanities. These include the Agnelli Foundation, La FIMA (Foundazione Italiana per la Musica Antica), and numerous others.

Literature. Italian literature has its roots in Roman and Greek literature. Until about the thirteenth century Italian literature was written in Latin. There were various poems, legends, saint's lives, chronicles and similar literature. French and Provencal was also used. This literature concerned Charlemagne and King Arthur.

In the thirteenth century Sicilians composed the earliest poetry written in Italian at the court of Frederick II. Frederick and his son Manfred administered the Holy Roman Empire from Sicily. This poetry was a courtly poetry, following the Provencal models closely. When the Hohenstaufen dynasty fell in 1254, the capital of Italian poetry moved north. There were poets before Dante, especially Guittone d'Arezzo and Guido Guinizelli, the founder of the dolce stil nuovo —sweet new style. Dante's La Vita Nuova (1292) is in this style, and it influenced Petrach and other Renaissance writers. At about the same time as the dolce stil nuovo appeared, Saint Francis of Assisi began another type of poetry, a devotional style filled with love for all of God's creatures. Dante's greatest work was La Divine Comida.

Petrarch was the next great literary figure in Italy. He worked to restore classical Latin as the language of scholarship and literature. Petrarch believed that Italy was the heir of Rome, and he worked to foster Italian nationalism and unity. In spite of his classical scholarship, his work in Italian is Petrarch's greatest contribution to literature. His sonnets to Laura bring a fiery passion to Italian literature. Boccaccio's Decameron (1353) drew on both Dante and Petrarch as influences and in turn influenced numerous writers. It not only uses the vernacular but also uses true–to–life stories.

The fifteenth century was the period of the High Renaissance and included "universal men" such as Michelangelo, Leon Battista Alberti, and Leonardo da Vinci, among others. These men generally profited from patrons of the arts such as Lorenzo de'Medici and the Popes, such as Alexander VI. The first major Italian drama was Orfeo (c. 1480) written by Angelo Poliziano. There were still works done in the medieval geste style, which were based on the medieval romances.

In the sixteenth century, Italian rose to great heights with the writing of Pietro Bembo, Nicolo Machiavelli, and Ariosto. Machiavelli is best known for The Prince (1640), the first realistic work of political science and a call for Italian unity. Ariosto's poem, Orlando furioso (1516) is an epic dealing with Charlemagne, an old theme but with a new sophistication. There were numerous fine works written during century. The early exuberance was stifled, however, by the mood of the Counter–Reformation. Nonetheless, Torquato Tasso's masterpiece, Geusalemme liberata (1575), managed to break through the fog of repression. However, it received such petty criticism that Tasso wrote a poor new version of the poem.

The seventeenth and eighteenth century saw a decline in the standard of living in Italy. Trade had shifted to the Atlantic and Italy was under the political domination of Spain, France, and Austria. It was also the period of the baroque. The one great work of the period is Giambattista Marino's Adone (1623). The majority of other work in the century is depressingly gloomy, as befits the general tenor of Italian life of the period.

The next century saw a movement toward simplicity, the Arcadia movement. It was a period of naivete in style and simplicity in narrative. Greek models were used. The period was also influenced by the French Enlightenment.

The nineteenth century was the century of the Risorgimento. Giacomo Leopardi wrote magnificent lyric poems. Leopardi shows great feeling in his works as well as a deep nationalism. Alessandro Manzoni's I promessi sposi (1825–1827) is a great work of nationalistic fiction. Manzoni called for a return to the pure Tuscan dialect. However, nationalism also inspired a realist movement that extolled the beauty of regional dialects and life. The Sicilian Giovanni Verga was a leader of the movement and its greatest novelist.

The eaarly twentieth century has witnessed a number of different styles. Gabriele D'Annunzio, who began writing in the previous century, had great influence in the twentieth century. Benedetto Croce and others carried on the work of modern though in Italy. Luigi Pirandello, a 1934 Nobel Prize winner, was an innovator in style and thought. Fascism threatened to destroy Italian literature, and many of its great writers went abroad. Ignazio Silone, for example, produced Fonatamara and Bread and Wine overseas.

After World War II Italian literature blossomed again. All the major movements found in the West had their counterparts in Italy. A simple listing of major figures is sufficient to suggest the importance of modern Italian literature. In poetry, there are Giuseppe Ungaretti, Eugenio Montale, and Salvatore Quasimodo. In fiction, there are Carlo Levi, Elio Vittorini, Vasco Pratolini, Mario Doldati, Cesare Pavese, Vitaliano Brancati, Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, Alberto Moravia, Giorgio Bassani, Dino Buzzati, Elsa Morante, Natalia Levi Ginzburg, Primo Levi, and Umberto Ecco.

Graphic Arts. The history of Italian graphic arts is at least as long as that of literature. Italian artists such as Michelangelo, Leonardo, Fra Angelico, Raphael, and numerous others are known throughout the world. There is not one type of art in which Italy is not famous.

Italy has a cultural heritage that is felt everywhere in the country. Remains of Greek and Etruscan material culture are found throughout the south and middle of the peninsula. Roman antiquities are found everywhere. Pompeii and Herculaneum are famous for their well–preserved archeological remains. The city of Rome is itself a living museum. Throughout the country there are churches, palaces, and museums that preserve the past. There are, for example, over 35 million art pieces in its museums. Moreover, Italy has 700 cultural institutes, over 300 theaters, and about 6,000 libraries, which hold over 100 million books.

Italy's museums are world famous and contain, perhaps, the most important collections of artifacts from ancient civilizations. Taranto's museum, for example, offers material enabling scholars to probe deeply into the history of Magna Gracie. The archaeological collections in the Roman National Museum in Rome and in the National Archaeological Museum in Naples are probably among the world's best. Similarly, the Etruscan collection in the National Archaeological Museum of Umbria in Perugia, the classical sculptures in the Capitalize Museum (Museo Capitolino) in Rome, and the Egyptian collection in the Egyptian Museum in Turin are, perhaps, the best such collections in the world.

The classical age is not the only age represented in Italy's museums. The Italian Renaissance is well represented in a number of museums: the Uffizi Gallery (Galleria degli Uffizi), Bargello Museum (Museo Nazionale del Bargello), and Pitti Palace Gallery (Galleria di Palazzo Pitti, or Galleria Palatina) are all located in Florence.

The Uffizi contains masterpieces by Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, Piero della Francesca, Giovanni Bellini, and Titian. The Bargello has specialized in Florentine sculpture, with works by Michelangelo, Benvenuto Cellini, Donatello, and the Della Robbia family. The Pitti Palace has a fine collection of paintings by Raphael, as well as about five hundred important works of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which were collected by the Medici and Lorraine families.

Performance Arts. Italian music has been one of the major glories of European art. It includes the Gregorian chant, the troubadour song, the madrigal, and the work of Giovanni Palestrina and Claudio Giovanni Monteverdi. Later composers include Antonio Vivaldi, Alessandro and Domenico Scarlatti, Gioacchino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti, Giuseppe Verdi, Giacomo Puccini, and Vincenzo Bellini. The most famous of Italy's opera houses is La Scala in Milan. There are other famous venues for opera, including San Carlo in Naples, La Fenice Theatre in Venice, and the Roman arena in Verona. Additionally, there are fifteen publically-owned theaters and numerous privately-run ones in Italy. These theaters promote Italian and European plays as well as ballets.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

All forms of the physical and social sciences are practiced in Italy. There is no area in which Italian scholars are not prominent. Government and private funding is extensive. Schools of engineering, social work and other applied work are prominent.

Bibliography

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Magliocco, Sabina. The Two Madonnas: The Politics of Festival in a Sardinian Community, 1993.

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—Frank A. Salamone

Italy By NT times the name Italy denoted the area of modern Italy, and Rome, its capital, controlled an empire with good roads radiating in every direction. These encouraged both merchants and immigrants (including many Jews). According to Acts 18: 2 Aquila and Priscilla came from Italy to Corinth after an edict extraditing Jews. In Heb. 13: 24 ‘those from Italy’ send greetings; but it is uncertain whether these are Italians resident in another country who send their good wishes to friends at home, or whether the greetings are sent from Italy to readers elsewhere.

228. Italy

cinquecentism

the revival in arts and letters in the sixteenth century in Italy. —cinquecentist , n., adj.

duecentism

the art and literature of thirteenth-century Italy. — duecentist , n., adj.

Italomania

an obsession with Italy and things Italian.

quattrocentism

the art of fifteenth-century Italy. — quattrocentist , n., adj.

Quirinal

the civil government of Italy, as contrasted with the papal government of the Vatican. —Quirinal , adj.

Italy

The people of Italy are called Italians. For centuries, the majority of Italy's people came from similar ethnic backgrounds. Minority groups include the German-speaking people living in the north and the Slavs of the Trieste area.

ITALY

This entry includes four subentries:
Northern Italy
Southern Italy
The Italian Meal
Tradition in Italian Cuisine

Italy •biyearly, really, yearly •Beardsley • lawyerly • immediately •hourly • cowardly • surely • marbly •pebbly •neighbourly (US neighborly) •dribbly, scribbly •Kimberley •bobbly, wobbly •Stromboli •bubbly, lubberly, rubbly, stubbly •husbandly • hyperbole •creaturely, teacherly •Wycherley • elderly •fiddly, twiddly •orderly • puddly •Offaly, waffly •snuffly •straggly, waggly •spangly • laggardly • beggarly •jiggly, squiggly, wiggly, wriggly •niggardly • sluggardly • leisurely •gingerly • soldierly • curmudgeonly •rascally • treacly • tickly • broccoli •knuckly • melancholy • sailorly •scholarly • gentlemanly • seamanly •anomaly • yeomanly • womanly •mannerly • panoply • Connolly •Gallipoli, ripply, tripoli •dimply •monopoly, oligopoly •rumply • purply • matronly •squirrelly • scoundrelly • Thessaly •thistly • tinselly • muscly •Natalie, philately, rattly •dastardly •headmasterly, masterly •schoolmasterly • westerly • painterly •easterly • Italy • winterly •sisterly, systole •writerly • doctorly • quarterly •fatherly • grandfatherly • weatherly •northerly •brotherly, motherly, southerly •grandmotherly • gravelly • Beverley •weaselly • frizzly • wizardly • miserly •Rosalie

ITALY I trust and love you