Eritrea

Eritrea , officially State of Eritrea, republic (2005 est. pop. 4,562,000), c.48,000 sq mi (124,320 sq km), NE Africa. It is bordered on the northeast by the Red Sea, on the southeast by Djibouti, on the south by Ethiopia, and on the northwest by Sudan. Eritrea also includes the many islands of the Dahlak Archipelago , which is located in the Red Sea. Asmara is the capital and largest city. Other cities include Aseb and Massawa , Eritrea's chief ports.

Land and People

The southern part of the country is made up of a low, largely desert coastal strip c.30 mi (50 km) wide; in N Eritrea there is a narrower, level coastal zone adjoining a ruggedly mountainous inland plateau (3,000-8,000 ft/914-2,438 m high). Most of the country supports only a sparse population of pastoral nomads. The central plateau, however, has many fertile valleys where settled agriculture is pursued. The inhabitants of Eritrea belong to several ethnic groups, primarily the Tigrinya, Tigre and Kunama, Afar, and Saho, each of whom has a distinct language. Arabic is also spoken. The population is about equally divided between Christians and Muslims; the Jehovah's Witnesses and other religious groups that the government has not granted recognition to have been persecuted.

Economy

Eritrea's largely agricultural economy was devastated by its 30-year-long indepedence war with Ethiopia and hurt again by the strain of the 1998-2000 border war. Some 80% of the population is involved in farming and herding, although this sector provides less than 10% of the country's GDP. Eritrea's agricultural products include sorghum, lentils, vegetables, corn, cotton, tobacco, and sisal. Cattle, sheep, goats, and camels are raised, and hides are produced. There is a fishing industry and some pearl fisheries remain in the Dahlak Archipelago. The country's natural resources include gold, potash, zinc, copper, and salt, but they have not yet been exploited. Offshore oil exploration was begun in the mid-1990s. Eritrea has little industry beyond the production of food and beverages, clothing and textiles, and building materials. Many Eritreans work outside the country, and their remittances substantially augment the GDP. Imports (machinery, petroleum products, food, and manufactured goods) greatly exceed the value of exports (livestock, sorghum, and textiles). The country's main trading partners are Italy, the United States, France, and Germany.

Government

Eritrea is governed under the transitional constitution of 1993. A new constitution was adopted in 1997 but it has not been fully implemented. The executive branch is headed by the president, who is both head of state and head of government; the president is elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term and is eligible for a second term. There is a unicameral 150-seat National Assembly whose members are to be popularly elected, but legislative (and presidential) elections scheduled for 2001 were not held. Administratively, the country is divided into six regions.

History

Eritrea formed part of the ancient Ethiopian kingdom of Aksum until the 7th cent. Thereafter Ethiopian emperors maintained an intermittent presence in the area until the mid-16th cent., when the Ottoman Empire gained control of much of the coastal region. Beginning in the mid-19th cent. Ethiopia struggled against Egypt and Italy for control of Eritrea. In the 1880s, Italy occupied the coastal areas around Aseb and Massawa, and by 1890 had extended its territory enough to proclaim the colony of Eritrea (named after the Roman term for the Red Sea, Mare erythraeum ). The colony was later the main base for Italy's conquest (1935-36) of Ethiopia .

In World War II, Eritrea was captured (1941) by the British. Ethiopia had long demanded control of Eritrea on the ground of ethnic affinity, but Britain occupied Eritrea after the war and, beginning in 1949, administered it as a UN trust territory. In 1950 the United Nations decided that Eritrea was to be made independent as a federated part of Ethiopia, and in late 1952 this decision became effective. In late 1962 the Eritrean assembly voted to end the federal status and to unify Eritrea with Ethiopia. After 1962, Eritreans who opposed union carried on sporadic guerrilla warfare against Ethiopia and the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) was founded. In the 1970s a rival insurgent group, the Eritrean Popular Liberation Forces (EPLF), was formed and battled the ELF for supremacy.

After Emperor Haile Selassie 's overthrow in a military coup in 1974, the two insurgent groups united to fight against the Ethiopian government's forces. Fighting increased and by 1976 the Eritreans had virtually forced the government forces out of the province. However, the Ethiopian government, with massive amounts of aid and troops from the USSR and Cuba, was able to defeat the Eritreans in 1978. After their defeat the insurgents were forced to return to sporadic guerrilla warfare. During the 1980s the rebels continued their attacks on Ethiopian troops and eventually Eritreans controlled most of the countryside.

In 1991 the insurgents succeeded in capturing Asmara and the ports, giving them control of the province. That same year the United Nations scheduled a referendum on Eritrean independence. In 1993, after 30 years of warfare and the death of an estimated 200,000, Eritreans overwhelmingly voted for independence, and Isaias Afwerki, formerly the principal leader of the EPLF, became the new nation's first president. His party, renamed the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ), became the only viable political organization. The new government enacted legislation to promote trade and investment and provide for the privatization of many state firms.

In the mid-1990s, Eritrean and Yemeni forces clashed over control of the Hanish and other island groups in the Red Sea; the dispute was resolved in 1998, largely in Yemen's favor. A border war between Ethiopia and Eritrea broke out in 1998 when Eritrean forces occupied disputed territory. Fighting was largely inconclusive, with many thousands killed on both sides, until May, 2000, when Ethiopian forces launched a major offensive, securing the disputed territory and driving further into Eritrea. A cease-fire agreement signed in June called for a truce, the establishment of a 15.5 mi (9.6 km) UN-patrolled buffer zone (in Eritrean territory), and the demarcation of the border by UN cartographers. The war hampered Eritrea's efforts to rebuild its economy and made the previously self-reliant young nation dependent on foreign aid to feed its citizens. An estimated 70,000 to 120,000 Eritrean and Ethiopian soldiers and civilians died in the conflict.

Peacekeeping forces arrived in significant numbers by Dec., 2000, and there was steady, if sometimes fitful, progress towards the goals of the cease-fire agreement in 2001. Late in the 2001 the government arrested a number of opposition leaders and journalists and closed private newspapers; elections scheduled for that December were indefinitely postponed. In Apr., 2002, the Hague Tribunal issued a complex ruling on the disputed border that favored Eritrea in some locations and Ethiopia in others. Ethiopian resistance subsequently delayed finalization of the border, and Eritrea refused to enter into discussions with Ethiopia.

Four years of drought led to a food crisis in Eritrea by 2002, requiring substantial international assistance, and conditions have not improved significantly since then. The political and human rights situation in the country also deteriorated; in 2004 Amnesty International accused Eritrea of persecuting religious minorities, using torture, and detaining thousands for criticizing the government.

Tensions with Ethiopia escalated in 2005 as both nations bolstered their forces along the disputed border. Frustrated with lack of progress on the border issue, Eritrea restricted UN peacekeepers movements in October. In November the United Nations called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to reduce their forces along the border and for Eritrea to end restrictions on UN forces, and expressed concern over Ethiopia's failure to finalize the border; UN sanctions were threatened for noncompliance. Eritrea rejected the ultimatum and in Dec., 2005, forced those UN forces from the United States, Canada, Europe, and Russia to withdraw. The same month, a Permanent Court of Arbitration claims commission ruled that Eritrea had violated international law in attacking Ethiopia, and that Ethiopia was entitled to compensation.

In Mar., 2006, Eritrea, apparently as a result of its continuing frustration with the border situation and the international community's response, expelled a number of foreign aid organizations despite the country's need for food aid. In response to Eritrea's restrictions on UN forces, the Security Council voted (May, 2006) to reduce UN forces on the border by a third. Relations between the UN peacekeepers and Eritrea continued to be extremely strained.

In Nov., 2006, the boundary commission responsible for demarcating the disputed border with Ethiopia said it would demarcate the border on maps, and that the Eritrea and Ethiopia would have a year to demarcate it on the ground. The 2007 deadline passed with issue unresolved. Meanwhile, in Dec., 2006, Ethiopia accused Eritrea of having soldiers in Somalia in support of Islamists there, saying that Eritrean dead had been found after the Islamists were routed. Eritrea denied the charges, but it was widely believed to have supplied the Islamists with arms. Eritrea subsequently sponsored an anti-Ethiopian, anti-Somali coalition that included Ethiopian rebels, Somali Islamists, and former members of the Somali government. In early 2008, after a prolonged cutoff of fuel supplies by Eritrea, UN forces were withdrawn from the country. In July, 2008, the Security Council voted to end the UN peacekeeping mission, blaming both Eritrea and Ethiopia for the failure of the mission, and all peacekeepers were withdrawn from the two nations by October. Also in July, fighting erupted briefly between Eritrea and Djibouti near the Bab el Mandeb strait; Djibouti had accused Eritrea of occupying Djiboutian territory there earlier in the year.

Bibliography

See N. Tekeste, Italian Colonialism in Eritrea: 1882-1941 (1987); L. and D. Cliffe, ed., The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace (1988).

Eritrea was an Italian East African colony from which Italian forces invaded Abyssinia in October 1935, after which it became part of Italian East Africa. During the East African campaign British and Commonwealth troops overran it and the British remained there until 1952 when it was handed over to Abyssinia (Ethiopia).

Eritrea An east African country on the Red Sea. By 1889 Italy had occupied the region and declared it a colony. Under Italian administration, medical and agricultural improvements were made. However, Italian rule became extremely harsh after the establishment of Mussolini's Fascist dictatorship, when Eritrea became a prime exercise ground for ‘theories’ of racial discrimination within Fascism. It also served as a base for the Italian campaigns against Ethiopia, 1895–6 and 1935–6. It came under British military administration in 1941, and was transferred to the UN in 1952. The UN decided to make it a federal region of the Ethiopian Empire. Against UN intentions, the Ethiopian leadership under Haile Selassie and then under the Communist military decided to integrate the territory firmly into the Ethiopian state, and to deny it any recognition of distinctiveness. This sparked off a violent guerrilla war against the Ethiopian armed forces, which the latter were unable to continue after the collapse of Soviet military aid in 1989. In 1991, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) combined with the rebel forces of the Tigré to advance into Ethiopia and take its capital, Addis Ababa. It installed a new regime under the Tigréan leader Meles Zenawi (b. 1955), who granted the EPLF's wish for independence after a referendum had shown almost 100 per cent of Eritreans in favour.

The EPLF's leader, Isaias Afwerki (b. 1945), became the country's first President upon independence on 24 May 1993. He transformed the EPLF into a political party in February 1994, named the People's Front for Democracy and Justice. Afwerki and Zenawi continued to work together, reaching agreements of cooperation in 1994, and establishing a free-trade area between the two countries in 1995. Relations with Ethiopia began to worsen, however, first at an economic level. This spilled over into the military arena, and in 1998 a war broke out between them as Eritrea accused Ethiopia of infringements of its border. The war cost the lives of about 100,000 people, and the displacement of 20 per cent of the Eritrean population. Already one of the world's poorest countries, Eritrea was brought to ruin by the war, as the state could not fulfil fundamental needs such as education and basic medical care. A fragile peace was brokered by the UN in December 2000, whereby a commission would settle the border issue in the future.