Lebanon

LEBANON

Republic of Lebanon

Major City:
Beirut

Other Cities:
Tripoli, Tyre, Sidon

INTRODUCTION

The Republic of LEBANON is a country that is struggling to revive following years of warfare. From 1975-1990, the country was nearly torn apart by fighting between Christian and Muslim militias. Also, intervention and occupation by Syrian and Israeli troops in Lebanon exacerbates political tensions within the country. Lebanon faces many years of reconstruction and political unrest. There is hope that eventually all foreign troops will be withdrawn and Lebanese—Christian and Muslim alike—will learn to peacefully coexist.

MAJOR CITY

Beirut

Beirut, with a population of 1,878,000 (2002 est.), is Lebanon's capital city. Throughout its history, Beirut's position along the Mediterranean Sea has made it an important port and the largest population center. The city experiences short, rainy winters and hot, humid summers.

Traditionally, Beirut has been a vibrant, lively city. The city served for many years as one of the most important commercial and financial cities in the Middle East. Many international businesses established their Middle Eastern headquarters in Beirut. Several flourishing industries, among them food processing and textiles, were concentrated in the city. Beirut's nightlife and beautiful beaches earned the city the nickname "Paris of the Middle East." Tourists from the West and Middle East flocked to the city. All of this changed with the onset of civil war in 1975. Beirut was divided into two sections. Christians occupied East Beirut while West Beirut was predominantly Muslim. Severe fighting between Christian and Muslim militias, terrorist bombings by both parties, and heavy shelling during the 1980s reduced much of the city to rubble.

With an end to the civil war in October 1990, Beirut has begun the long process of recovery. In December 1990, Beirut was reunited after 15 years of division. Also, by May 1992, many Christian and Muslim militias in Beirut had disarmed and were disbanded. Many Lebanese who fled when war broke out are slowly returning to Beirut. The removal of rubble and the demolition of destroyed buildings continues throughout the city. The reconstruction of Beirut began in 1992.

Prior to the outbreak of civil war, Beirut was the educational center of Lebanon. The city is home to Lebanon's major universities, including American University in Beirut and Beirut Arab University. Both schools were able to remain open despite the civil war.

Beirut is one of Lebanon's transportation centers. International flights enter Lebanon through Beirut International Airport. The airport was closed intermittently during the 1980s, but has since reopened. Highways connect Beirut with the northern city of Tripoli, the southern cities of Sidon and Tyre, and with the Syrian border. Before 1975, Lebanon's port was an important transit point for goods bound for Damascus, Syria and Amman, Jordan. Lebanon's port was a major battleground during the civil war and suffered tremendous damage. Some repairs have been made, although the port is not operating at full capacity.

OTHER CITIES

Located 40 miles (65 kilometers) north-northeast of Beirut, TRIPOLI is Lebanon's second largest city and a major port. The city was founded around 700 B.C. by the Phoenicians and was occupied at various periods in history by the Seleucids, Romans, Muslims, Ottoman Turks, Egyptians, British, and French. Tripoli was controlled by Syrian troops during the 1980s and was the site of severe fighting in 1983 between Palestinian and Syrian forces. The Palestinians, who had established their headquarters in Tripoli in 1982, were forced to flee. The city is home to industries which produce textiles and soap. Several remnants of Tripoli's ancient past are still visible today, including the Tower of the Lions, the Teynal Mosque, and the Great Mosque. Tripoli has a population of approximately 209,000. The majority of Tripoli's residents are Sunni Muslim, although there is a substantial Christian population.

The city of TYRE is located on the coast of southern Lebanon. Tyre was founded by the Phoenicians around 2,000 B.C. and quickly became an important maritime port and trading center. Throughout the 8th and 7th centuries B.C., Tyre repelled attacks by the Assyrians and Babylonians. In 332 B.C., the city was captured by Alexander the Great after a seven-month siege. Many residents of Tyre were killed by Alexander's troops or sold into slavery. The city was eventually controlled by the Seleucids in 200 B.C. and by the Romans in 68 B.C. Tyre, during the years of Roman occupation, became known for a purple dye made from snails and for beautiful silk garments. In 638 A.D., Tyre came under the control of the Muslims. In the early 12th century, the city became a major battleground during the Crusades, which were a series of military campaigns by Christians of western Europe to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims. Tyre was captured by Christian forces in 1124. Under the Christians, Tyre became a major city in the Crusader/Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1291, Muslim armies captured and destroyed Tyre. Today, Tyre remains one of Lebanon's major ports. The city has been heavily damaged by the civil war and by Israeli invasions in 1978 and 1982. Although the majority of its inhabitants are Shia Muslim, Tyre's population includes many Christians of various sects. The current population is approximately 114,000.

SIDON , on Lebanon's southern Mediterranean coast, is one of the country's largest ports. The city is one of the oldest in the Middle East, dating back to the third century B.C. Sidon was founded by the Phoenicians and ruled at various times by the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Seleucids, Egyptians, Romans, and Ottoman Turks. In February 1975, the city became one of the flash-points for the Lebanese Civil War when the Lebanese Communist Party and other leftists organized violent demonstrations on behalf of fishermen who were threatened economically by a state-monopoly fishing company. The Lebanese Army was called in to restore order and armed clashes erupted. Many persons were killed. Residents of Sidon, which has a Sunni Muslim majority and a large Christian community, differed strongly as to who was responsible for the violence. Most Muslims blamed the army, while the majority of Christians felt that the demonstrators were at fault. Today, Sidon is a market, trade, and fishing center. The city is approximately 25 miles south of Beirut and is linked to the capital via highway and railroad. Sidon's population is predominantly Sunni Muslim, although there is a large Christian minority. In 2002, the city had approximately 146,00 residents.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

The Republic of Lebanon occupies a 135 mile strip of land along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. It comprises an area of 4,015 square miles, slightly smaller than Connecticut. Lebanon is bordered on the north and east by Syria, on the south by Israel and the west by the Mediterranean Sea. The Mediterranean coast of Lebanon is narrow and sloping. Lebanon is a mountainous country, with two parallel mountain ranges. The Lebanon Mountains extend north and south along the western coast of Lebanon. The Anti-Lebanon Mountains hug the eastern border with Syria. Between these two mountain ranges lies the fertile soil of the Biqa' Valley.

Although Lebanon has abundant rivers and streams, none of them are navigable. Her main river, the Litani River, is unique because it is the only river in the Middle East that does not cross a national boundary.

Lebanon has a Mediterranean climate characterized by a long, hot, and dry summer and cool, rainy winter. Fall is a transitional season with a gradual lowering of temperature and little rain; spring occurs when the winter rains cause the vegetation to revive. Topographical variation creates local modifications of the basic climatic pattern. Along the coast, summers are hot and humid, with little or no rain. Heavy dews form, which are beneficial to agriculture. The daily range of temperature is not wide, although temperatures may reach above 100°F (38°C) in the daytime and below 61°F (16°C) at night. A west wind provides relief during the afternoon and evening; at night the wind direction is reversed, blowing from the land out to sea.

Winter is the rainy season, with major precipitation falling after December. Rainfall is generous but is concentrated during only a few days of the rainy season, falling in heavy cloud bursts. The amount of rainfall varies greatly from one year to another. Occasionally, there are frosts during the winter, and about once every fifteen years a light powdering of snow falls as far south as Beirut. A hot wind blowing from the Egyptian desert called the khamsin may provide a warming trend during the fall but more often occurs during the spring. Bitterly cold winds may come from Europe. Along the coast the proximity to the sea provides a moderating influence on the climate, making the range of temperatures narrower than it is inland, but the temperatures are cooler in the northern parts of the coast, where there is also more rain.

Although the country is well watered and there are many rivers and streams, there are no navigable rivers, nor is any one river the sole source of irrigation water. Drainage patterns are determined by geological features and climate. Most rivers in Lebanon have their origins in springs, which are often quite large. The rivers are fast moving, straight, and generally cascade down narrow mountain canyons to the sea. Lebanon's main river, the Litan River, is unique because it is the only river in the Middle East that does not cross a national boundary.

Population

The estimated population of Lebanon in 2001 was 3,628,000. No official census was taken between 1932 and 1995, when the official population figure was put at 3,111,828 (excluding Palestinians). Many Lebanese fled the country during the civil war. Of those that remain, approximately 95 percent are Arabs. Small minorities of Armenians and Palestinians reside in Lebanon. The official languages are Arabic and French. English is widely used by Lebanese government officials and in commercial circles.

It is estimated that 70 percent of Lebanon's population are Muslim while 30 percent are Christian. Both the Sunni and Shiite Muslim sects are represented, although Shiite Muslims are predominant (there are five legally recognized Islamic groups). The Druze sect, a group deriving from Shiite Islam but differing greatly from it, constitute a significant minority. Maronite Christians comprise the largest Christian sect. Other Christian sects include Greek Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Armenian Catholic, Roman Catholic and Protestant.

In 2001, estimated life expectancy was 69 years for males and 74 years for females.

History

Lebanon's history dates back to the pre-Christian era. The Phoenicians settled in the country from approximately 2700-450 B.C. In later centuries, Lebanon's mountain ranges served as a safe haven for Christians fleeing persecution and the Crusaders established several strongholds there. For several centuries, Lebanon was controlled by the Turks and incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. After World War I, the Ottoman Empire disintegrated. The modern state of Lebanon was created from the remnants of five Ottoman Empire districts. The country was administered by the French from 1920-43. Lebanon was granted full independence in 1943 and by 1946, all French troops had been withdrawn.

Since achieving independence, Lebanon's history has been marked with political turmoil and bloodshed. In July 1958, the Syrians inspired a revolt against the government. At the request of Lebanon's president, Camille Chamoun, U.S. Marines were sent to Lebanon to help restore order. The political situation stabilized and all American forces were withdrawn in October 1958.

In the 1960's, Lebanon was used by Palestinians as a guerilla base to launch attacks against Israel. As the activities of the guerrillas increased, Lebanon became a target for Israeli grievances against the Palestinians. In May 1968, Lebanese and Israeli troops engaged in several border skirmishes. Lebanon's own efforts to control Palestinian commandoes caused armed clashes in 1969. Between 1970 and 1975, Palestinians increased their attacks on Israel. Israel retaliated by heavily bombing Palestinian camps and bases inside Lebanon.

In addition to the Palestinian problem, tensions between Lebanese Christians and Muslims reached a boiling point. Under the 1943 National Covenant, all public positions were divided between the two religious groups. Because the Christians were in the majority, they received a dominant share of political power and social benefits. However, by the 1970's, Muslims were in the majority. They demanded that political power be redistributed more equitably between Christians and Muslims. In April 1975, a bus load of Palestinians were ambushed and killed in the Christian sector of Lebanon's capital, Beirut. In retaliation, Palestinians and leftist Muslim groups joined forces against Christian Phalange and Maronite militias. By 1976, a vicious civil war had erupted and engulfed most of Lebanon.

Arab delegates met in Cairo in an attempt to end the conflict. At the invitation of the Lebanese government, various Arab countries agreed to send peacekeeping troops to Lebanon as part of an Arab Deterrent Force (ADF). The ADF, with a majority of Syrian troops, were dispatched to Lebanon. By late 1976, the ADF had quelled most of the violence and instituted a ceasefire.

In March 1978, Israeli troops invaded southern Lebanon in pursuit of Palestinian guerrillas. Israeli troops were eventually withdrawn in June 1978, but deployed pro-Israeli Lebanese militia groups along Lebanon's border with Israel. Fighting broke out between Syrian peacekeeping troops and various Christian militias in April 1981, effectively shattering the 1976 cease-fire. By late April 1982, violence had broken out not only between Syrians and Christians, but also between two Muslim factions. In June 1982, after an assassination attempt against the Israeli ambassador in London, Israel invaded Lebanon. Israeli forces quickly streamed north, eventually encircling West Beirut and laying siege to Palestinian guerrillas and Syrian troops trapped in the city. After two and one-half months of heavy bombardment, Palestinians and Syrian troops were allowed to leave Beirut under an American-brokered evacuation agreement. Troops from France, Italy and the United States were airlifted to Beirut to supervise the evacuation. Foreign troops soon became targets for terrorist activities. On October 23, 1983, 241 U.S. servicemen and 58 French troops were killed in their barracks in separate suicide bombing attacks. U.S. and other foreign troops were eventually withdrawn in 1984. Although Israel withdrew the bulk of her troops from Lebanon by 1985, she established a "security zone" in southern Lebanon. This "security zone" is manned by an Israeli-backed Christian militia.

In September 1988, President Amin Gemayel's term in office ended. He named General Michel Aoun, a Christian, as prime minister until another president could be elected. The Syrians and their Muslim allies refused to recognize Aoun's authority. Aoun launched a "war of liberation" in 1989 to oust the Syrians and their allies from Beirut. Vicious fighting between Syrian and Christian forces nearly destroyed the city. In February 1990, skirmishes broke out between troops loyal to Aoun and various Christian militias. Syrian forces eventually drove Aoun from power in October 1990. Aoun asked for and was granted refuge in the French embassy. He was eventually exiled from the country.

In late 1990, the government, backed by the Lebanese Army, began to reassert control over Beirut. With the help of Syrian troops, the Lebanese Army dismantled barricades in the city and disarmed Christian and Muslim militias. On December 24, 1990, a new Government of National Reconciliation took office. In February 1991, Lebanese troops moved into southern Lebanon in an effort to disarm Palestinian militias.

To date, Israel refuses to relinquish control of its "security zone" in southern Lebanon. Also, Syrian troops occupy most of northern and eastern Lebanon. Negotiations are continuing for the removal of all foreign troops and a return of Lebanese sovereignty.

Government

Despite the political upheaval during the civil warfare, Lebanon's governmental system continued to function. Lebanon is an independent republic. The Lebanese constitution was created with the help of the French in 1926 and has undergone several amendments. The constitution provides for creation of an executive branch, a National Assembly, and an independent judiciary body. The Lebanese constitution is also heavily influenced by the National Covenant of 1943. This covenant stipulates that a representative from each of Lebanon's dominant religious groups must fill one of the country's three top governmental positions. Therefore, the president is to be a Maronite Christian, the prime minister a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of the National Assembly is a Shiite Muslim.

The president, currently Imil Jamil Lahhud, wields substantial power. He has the authority to enact laws passed by the National Assembly, negotiate and ratify treaties, and propose new laws to the Assembly. The president is elected for a six-year term and is not eligible for immediate re-election. The president is assisted by a self-appointed prime minister and a Council of Ministers. Together, these men constitute the executive branch of government. The prime minister, currently Rafiq al-Hariri, and the Council of Ministers are accountable to the National Assembly.

The National Assembly is a governmental body elected by the Lebanese people. The National Assembly now has 128 members and is responsible for levying taxes, passing a national budget, and evaluating the prime minister and council of ministers through a formal questioning on governmental policy issues. Because of the political turmoil in Lebanon, the National Assembly had only met periodically since 1975. In 1992, Lebanon held its first elections for the National Assembly since 1972. The validity of the elections was marred because many Christians refused to vote. Christians boycotted the election to protest the continued presence of 40,000 Syrian troops in Lebanon. A continued Syrian presence in Lebanon, according to Christians, would lead to an erosion of Christian rights and political domination by Muslims. Results of the 1992 elections indicated that pro-Syrian deputies gained a wide majority.

The judiciary system of Lebanon is based on a mixture of the Napoleonic Code, canon law, Ottoman law, and civil law. There are three levels within the Lebanese court system. They are the Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeal, and the Court of Cassation. No juries are used during criminal trials.

The flag of Lebanon consists of three horizontal bands. The top and bottom bands are red with a broader white band in between. In the middle of the white band is the Lebanese national emblem, a green and brown cedar tree.

Arts, Science, Education

The Lebanese, along with the Palestinians, had one of the highest literacy rates in the Arab world. The rate was estimated at nearly 86 percent in 1997, but like most other spheres of Lebanese life, communal and regional disparities existed. In general, Christians had a literacy rate higher than that of Muslims. Druzes followed with a literacy rate just above that of Sunnis. Shias had the lowest literacy rate among the religious communities.

The war adversely affected educational standards. Many private and public school buildings were occupied by displaced families, and the state was unable to conduct official examinations on several occasions because of intense fighting. Furthermore, the departure of most foreign teachers and professors, especially after 1984, contributed to the decline in the standards of academic institutions. Admissions of unqualified students became a standard practice as a result of pressures brought by various militias on academic institutions.

Primary schools are administered by the government and provide education free of charge. Primary education usually begins at age six and is compulsory for five years. Four years of intermediate school and three years of secondary school usually follow primary education. The National School of Arts and Crafts provides four-year vocational courses in mechanics, architecture, electronics and industrial drawing.

Commerce and Industry

Lebanese industry expanded rapidly in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This growth was characterized by a proliferation of small industries and was fueled by easy credit, a strong local currency, abundant and cheap supplies of skilled and unskilled labor, subsidized electric power, and trade protection at home and expanding markets abroad, particularly in the Persian Gulf countries. Years of strife changed all this. Civil war and disorder continually hampered production, and the financial climate was rarely conducive to investment. Many of Lebanon's primary commercial and industrial capacities were heavily damaged or destroyed. There is some light industry, mostly for the productions of textiles, cement, and consumer goods.

Lebanon has been able to produce agricultural products even though only 30 percent of the land is arable. Crops such as wheat, corn, citrus fruits, barley, vegetables, potatoes, olives and tobacco are grown. These serve as some of Lebanon's primary exports to Saudi Arabia, Syria, Jordan and Kuwait. Gold and precious metals, textiles, iron and steel goods and motor vehicles are Lebanon's main imports. In 1998, Lebanon's imports mainly came from Germany, Russia, Finland and Sweden.

Before the civil war, Lebanon was considered the financial and commercial center of the Middle East. Despite the violence, Lebanon's banking system has been surprisingly resilient. This is due in large part to the financial subsidies supplied by Lebanese who have fled the country.

Lebanon's unit of currency is the pound.

Transportation

Lebanon's transportation network has been severely damaged by years of civil war. Most of Lebanon's railways are either destroyed or in desperate need of repair. There were approximately 4,500 miles (7,300 kilometers) of road in 1999, 85 percent of which were paved. Most of Lebanon's roads, however, are in poor condition.

Lebanon used to have a patchwork railroad system. In 1991, Lebanon's 253-mile (407-kilometer) railway system was not operating, and prospects for the rail system's recovery were poor.

Air travel to Lebanon is extremely difficult. Beirut International Airport is serviced by few international carriers and has been frequently shut down for indefinite periods of time. Lebanon has two international airlines, Trans-Mediterranean Airways and Middle East Airlines/Air Liban.

Lebanon's main ports are Beirut, Tripoli, and Sidon. However, northern ports are in control of Syrian forces while southern ports are controlled by the Israelis.

Communications

In 1997, there were approximately 2.85 million radios and 1.18 million television sets in use. Lebanon's main radio station is government-controlled Radio Lebanon. Transmissions throughout Lebanon are in Arabic. Foreign broadcasts can be heard on shortwave frequencies in Armenian, Arabic, Portuguese, Spanish, French and English. Tele-Liban broadcasts television programs in Arabic, French and English on three channels.

Most of Lebanon's daily newspapers are published in Arabic. However, there are some in French. The last English-language daily, the Daily Star, ceased publication in August 1985. Weekly periodicals are in Arabic and French.

The country's telecommunications system suffered severely from the violence that occurred after 1975. There were an estimated 700,000 telephones in Lebanon in 1999. Local telephone service is highly unreliable. International telephone communications are possible between Beirut and the United States.

Health

Before 1975, Lebanon boasted advanced health services and medical institutions that made Beirut a health care center for the entire Middle East region. The civil war, however, caused enormous problems. Emergency medicine and the treatment of traumatic injuries overwhelmed the health care sector during the civil war. The problems in health care continued into the 1980s.

Control over the quality of hospital and medical services was minimal, and many public and private hospital beds were unoccupied. Doctors, nurses and middle-level technical personnel were scarce. Health personnel were concentrated in Beirut, with minimum care available in many out-lying areas. Nowhere in Lebanon was there a health center that delivered a full range of primary health care services.

Because of the lack of adequate data, only cautious inferences, based on partial data and observations and interviews by the World Health Organization (WHO) mission in Lebanon, can be made concerning the incidence of disease. Respiratory infections and diarrheal diseases headed the list of causes of death, and infectious diseases were endemic. Malnutrition was reported to be restricted to groups living in particularly difficult situations, such as the Palestinians.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

The Department of State continues to believe that the situation in Lebanon is so dangerous for Americans that no U.S. citizen can be considered safe from terrorist attacks. The U.S. Embassy in Beirut is not fully staffed and personnel remain there under exceptionally tight security. Due to the limited staff and heightened security, the Embassy cannot perform normal consular functions.

Anti-American demonstrations throughout the Middle East have increased the risks associated with travel to Lebanon. Militants have become increasingly active along the country's southern border and active landmines are still found throughout the south and other areas where civil war fighting was intense. Extreme caution should be exercised by all travelers.

The Department of State has learned that several international carriers are now making intermediate stops in Beirut. U.S. citizens are advised not to board such flights because of the danger of traveling to Lebanon. Such stops are not always announced. Travelers should therefore inquire, before making travel arrangements in the region, whether a flight will make a stop in Beirut. Travelers are reminded that U.S. passports are not valid for travel to, in, or through Lebanon, which includes landing at the Beirut airport.

The mailing address for the U.S. Embassy in Beirut is Antelias, P.O. Box 70-840, PSC 815, Box 2.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1 …New Year's Day

Mar/Apr.…Good Friday^**

Mar/Apr.…Easter^**

May 1…Lebanese Labor Day

Aug. 15…Assumption Day

Nov. 22…Lebanese Independence Day

Dec. 25 …Christmas

…Ramadan^*

…Id al-Fitr^*

…Id al-Adha^*

…Al Hejra Mawlid al-Nabi^*

^*variable, based on the Islamic calendar

^**variable Christian holidays

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:

Avi-Ran, Reuven. The Syrian Involvement in Lebanon Since 1975. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991.

Department of Geography Staff, ed. Lebanon in Pictures. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner Publications, 1988.

Fisk, Robert. Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon. New York: Simon & Schuster Trade, 1991.

Korbani, Agnes G. U.S. Intervention in Lebanon, 1958 and 1982: Presidential Decision Making. New York: Praeger, 1991.

Mackey, Sandra. Lebanon: Death of a Nation. New York: Anchor Books, 1991.

Makdisi, Jean S. Beirut Fragments: A War Memoir. New York: Persea Books, 1990.

Murr, George G. The Lebanese Village: An Old Culture in a New Era. Troy, MI: International Book Center, 1987.

Newman, Barbara P. The Covenant: Love and Death in Beirut. New York: Crown Publishers, 1989.

Oz, Amos. The Slopes of Lebanon. New York: Random House, 1992.

Picard, Elizabeth. Lebanon: A Divided Land. Translated by Philip Franklin. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1993.

Salibi, Kamal S. Modern History of Lebanon. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990.

Stewart, Gail B. Lebanon. New York: Macmillan Children's Book Group, 1990.

Tames, Richard. Take a Trip to Lebanon. New York: Franklin Watts, 1989.

Tanter, Raymond. Who's at the Helm? Lessons of Lebanon. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990.

Thubron, Colin. Hills of Adonis: A Journey in Lebanon. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1990.