Belize

BELIZE

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT
TOPOGRAPHY
CLIMATE
FLORA AND FAUNA
ENVIRONMENT
POPULATION
MIGRATION
ETHNIC GROUPS
LANGUAGES
RELIGIONS
TRANSPORTATION
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
POLITICAL PARTIES
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
JUDICIAL SYSTEM
ARMED FORCES
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
ECONOMY
INCOME
LABOR
AGRICULTURE
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
FISHING
FORESTRY
MINING
ENERGY AND POWER
INDUSTRY
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DOMESTIC TRADE
FOREIGN TRADE
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
BANKING AND SECURITIES
INSURANCE
PUBLIC FINANCE
TAXATION
CUSTOMS AND DUTIES
FOREIGN INVESTMENT
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
HEALTH
HOUSING
EDUCATION
LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS
MEDIA
ORGANIZATIONS
TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION
FAMOUS BELIZEANS
DEPENDENCIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY

CAPITAL: Belmopan

FLAG: The national flag consists of the Belize coat of arms on a white disk centered in a blue rectangular field with a narrow red stripe at the top and the bottom.

ANTHEM: Land of the Free.

MONETARY UNIT: The Belize dollar (b$), formerly tied to the UK pound sterling and now pegged to the US dollar, is a paper currency of 100 cents. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 cents and 1 dollar, and notes of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 dollars. b$1= us$0.50000 (or us$1= b$2) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: Imperial weights and measures are used. The exception is the measuring of petroleum products, for which the US gallon is standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Baron Bliss Day, 9 March; Labor Day, 1 May; Commonwealth Day, 24 May; National Day, 10 September; Independence Day, 21 September; Columbus Day, 12 October; Garifuna Day, 19 November; Christmas, 25 December; Boxing Day, 26 December. Movable holidays are Good Friday and Easter Monday.

TIME: 6 am = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Belize (formerly British Honduras), on the Caribbean coast of Central America, has an area of 22,966 sq km (8,867 sq mi), extending 280 km (174 mi) n–s and 109 km (68 mi) w–e. Comparatively, the area occupied by Belize is slightly smaller than the state of Massachusetts. Bounded on the n by Mexico, on the e by the Caribbean Sea, and on the s and w by Guatemala, Belize has a total boundary length of 516 km (320 mi).

The capital city of Belize, Belmopan, is located in the center of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

The country north of Belmopan is mostly level land interrupted only by the Manatee Hills. To the south the land rises sharply toward a mountainous interior from a flat and swampy coastline heavily indented by many lagoons. The Maya and the Cockscomb mountains (which reach a high point of 1,122 m/3,681 ft at Victoria Peak, in the Cockscombs) form the backbone of the country, which is drained by 17 rivers. The coastal waters are sheltered by a line of reefs, beyond which there are numerous islands and cays, notably Ambergris Cay, the Turneffe Islands, Columbus Reef, and Glover Reef.

CLIMATE

The climate is subtropical and humid, tempered by predominant northeast trade winds that keep temperatures between 16–32°c (61–90°f) in the coastal region; inland temperatures are slightly higher. The seasons are marked more by differences of humidity than of temperature. Annual rainfall averages vary from 127 cm (50 in) in the north to more than 380 cm (150 in) in the south. There is a dry season from February to May and another dry spell in August. Hurricanes occur from July to October.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Most of the forest cover consists of mixed hardwoods—mainly mahogany, cedar, and sapodilla (the source of chicle). In the flat regions there are extensive tracts of pine. The coastal land and the cays are covered with mangrove. Indigenous fauna include armadillo, opossum, deer, and monkeys; common reptiles include iguana and snakes.

ENVIRONMENT

Due to its low population density, Belize has suffered less than its neighbors from such problems as soil erosion and pollution. However, substantial deforestation has occurred and water quality remains a problem because of the seepage of sewage along with industrial and agricultural chemicals into the water supply. It is estimated that 18% of the country's rural population does not have access to pure water. Pollutants also threaten Belize's coral reefs. Removal of coral, picking orchids in forest reserves, spear fishing, and overnight camping in any public area (including forest reserves) are prohibited.

Approximately 21% of Belize's total land area is protected. Natural hazards to Belize's environment include hurricanes and coastal flooding. Belize's national capital was moved 129 km (80 mi) inland from Belize City to Belinopau because of hurricanes. The Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 5 types of mammals, 3 species of birds, 4 types of reptiles, 6 species of amphibian, 18 species of fish, and 30 species of plants. Endangered species in Belize included the tundra peregrine falcon, hawksbill, green sea and leatherback turtles, American crocodile, and Morelet's crocodile.

POPULATION

The population of Belize in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 292,000, which placed it at number 170 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 4% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 36% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 101 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 2.3%, a rate the government viewed as too high. The government is especially concerned about the growing adolescent fertility rates. The projected population for the year 2025 was 396,000. The population density was 13 per sq km (33 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 49% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 2.32%. That year, the largest city was Belize City, with an estimated population of 52,600; the capital, Belmopan, had an estimated population of 9,000.

The first case of HIV infection was diagnosed in 1986; by 2005 approximately 2.4% of the population was believed to be infected. A national plan to combat HIV/AIDS was implemented in 1999.

The largest ethnic group in Belize is the Mestizo, which comprises 44% of the population. Other ethnic groups include Creole (30%), Mayan (10%), and Garifuna (6%).

MIGRATION

The population of Belize increased significantly in 1993, when 40,000 Central American refugees and other immigrants, mostly from Guatemala and El Salvador, arrived in the country. This offset the heavy Creole emigration to North America. As of 1995, Belize still had 6,000 refugees from El Salvador and 2,000 refugees from Guatemala. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) negotiations with the government produced two significant developments in 1999. First, as of February 1999 refugees are able to apply for naturalization after five years of residence in the country. Second, in May 1999 the government enacted an amnesty program, offering permanent resident status for illegal immigrants and unregistered refugees. By 30 June 1999, some 10,000 families had registered. The total number of migrants in Belize in 2000 was 17,000.

In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated as zero. Worker remittances in 2002 amounted to us$13.8 million.

ETHNIC GROUPS

According to the latest estimates, 46.4% of the population are mestizo (mixed White and Mayan); about 27.7% are Creole (of African descent); another 10% are Mayan; 6.4% are Garifuna (Carib); and 9.5% are comprised of various other groups, including those of Arab, European, Chinese, East Indian, North American, and Syrian-Lebanese ancestry.

LANGUAGES

The official language is English. At least 80% of the people can speak standard English and/or a Creole patois. Spanish is spoken by approximately 60% of the population; for one-third to one-half it is the first language. Although English is the language of instruction, other languages spoken include Garifuna (Carib), Mayan and other Amerindian languages, and, in the Mennonite colony, Low German.

RELIGIONS

About 58% of inhabitants are Roman Catholic. Only 7% of the populace are Anglicans; another 6% are Pentecostals. Other faiths and denominations generally have fewer than 11,000 members each. These include Methodists (4.2%), Seventh-Day Adventists (4.1%), and Mennonites (4%). There are approximately 6,000 Nazarenes and smaller numbers of Hindus, Baha'is, Baptists, Buddhists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, Muslims, Rastafarians, and Salvation Army members. About 6% of the population claim to be nonbelievers or to have no religious affiliation.

There is no state religion, however, the preamble of the constitution recognizes the religious history of the country by asserting that the nation "shall be founded upon principles which acknowledge the supremacy of God." Freedom of religion is generally respected in practice. Spirituality is a required topic in public schools as part of the social studies curriculum and all schools, both public and private, are required to provide 220 minutes per week of religious education or chapel services for students in kindergarten through sixth grade. However, students are not forced to participate in such instruction and the faith of the individual student, or their parents, is generally respected. Traditional Christian holidays are celebrated as public holidays.

TRANSPORTATION

In 2002, Belize had 2,880 km (1,789 mi) of roads, of which 490 km (304 mi) were paved. In 2003, there were 25,880 registered motor vehicles, 11,500 of which were passenger cars and 14,380 were commercial vehicles. The country had no railways. There are 825 km (513 mi) of waterways consisting of seasonally navigable river networks used by shallow-draft craft. Belize City is the main port. In the late 1970s, deepwater facilities were constructed through financing from the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB). Other ports and harbors include Big Creek, Corozol, and Punta Gorda. In 2005 Belize's merchant marine was comprised of 295 ships, totaling 1,015,270 GRT. Several shipping lines provide regular services to North America, the Caribbean, and Europe. In 2004, there were an estimated 44 airports, of which only 5 had paved runways as of 2005. International airports at Belize City (P.S.W. Goldson) and Punta Gorda handle services to the United States and Central America. Maya Airways provides domestic service, and there are various international air carriers.

HISTORY

Numerous ruins indicate that the area now called Belize was once heavily populated by Maya Indians, whose civilization collapsed around ad 900. Columbus sailed along the coast in 1502, but did not land. The first permanent settlement was established in 1638 by shipwrecked English seamen. Later immigrants included African slaves and British sailors and soldiers.

In its early colonial history the area was a virtual backwater, used only for logging and as a pirate base. A power struggle between England and Spain ensued over possession of the area, with the British prevailing by the 19th century. In 1862 the British organized the area as the colony of British Honduras. For the next century, forestry continued as the main enterprise until eventually supplanted by sugar.

On 1 January 1964, a constitution was promulgated, providing for self-government, although the United Kingdom maintained the defense force. That force remained in place partly because of a border dispute with Guatemala, going back to an 1859 treaty. The Guatemalan government pressed territorial claims over the southern quarter of the area. A settlement guaranteeing the country's independence by 1970 seemed to resolve the dispute, but rioting in British Honduras in May 1968 led to the repudiation of the agreement by both the United Kingdom and Guatemala.

The country dropped the appearance, if not the reality, of colonial dependence in 1973, adopting Belize as the official country name. The border dispute continued unabated until 1977, when Guatemala and the United Kingdom began new negotiations on Belize. The United Kingdom, Guatemala, and Belize reached agreement on a solution in March 1981, but disagreement soon followed. Finally, the United Kingdom decided to take matters into its own hands and granted Belize independence as of 21 September 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation, severed diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom, and declared the date of independence a national day of mourning. In December 1986, the United Kingdom and Guatemala resumed diplomatic ties, but the 1,800-member British garrison remained in Belize. Since independence, control of the government has alternated between the People's United Party (PUP) led by George C. Price, which had dominated Belize's politics since the 1950s, and the United Democratic Party (UDP), led by Manuel Esquivel. The UDP won the elections of 1984 and 1993; in between, the PUP governed from 1989 to 1993. The PUP won the parliamentary elections of 1998 and 2003. Said Musa was prime minister under these PUP wins.

In 1991 Belize was admitted to the Organization of American States (OAS). The same year, Guatemala's new president, Jorge Serrano, reached an agreement with then-prime minister George Price that led to full Guatemalan recognition of Belize's independence the following year and the signing of a nonaggression pact between the two nations in 1993. The United Kingdom withdrew its troops from Belize in 1994.

Belize's tourism industry became a mainstay of the economy in the 1980s and 1990s, growing from 64,000 tourists in 1980 to 247,000 in 1992. By 1995, tourism surpassed all other sectors, including the sugar industry, as a source of foreign exchange, and it continued to grow through the remainder of the decade. Challenges facing Belize in the late 1990s included high unemployment, a growing involvement in South American cocaine trafficking, and increased urban crime, which worsened in 1998 and 1999, prompting new gun control measures.

Negotiations continued with Guatemala over territorial disputes not settled by the 1991 agreement, mainly Guatemalan claims to land in the southern part of the country. Tensions between the two countries continued into the early months of 2000, when Belize's ambassador was expelled from Guatemala, and talks scheduled for February were suspended. But a hurricane in 2001 hurt Belize and Guatemala and helped reduce tensions between both countries. After three years of rapid economic growth, Belize's economy my expanded by just 3% in 2001 and 2002. Under the auspices of the OAS, both countries agreed to each having their own facilitator look into the territorial dispute. In August 2003, before facilitators' proposals were submitted to referenda in either country, the Government of Guatemala rejected the facilitators' proposals. The Guatemalan claim remained unresolved.

In January 2004, Britain's Privy Council by a split 3-2 decision dismissed an appeal to overturn the Belize government's approval of the proposed Chalillo hydroelectric dam. The then proposed dam on the Macal River at Chalillo would have created a lake extending 20 km (12 mi) up the Macal and 10 km (6 mi) up its tributary the Raspaculo, flooding 10 sq km (2,471 acres). The Canadian company Fortis, Inc. of Newfoundland under agreement with the Belizean government would build a 49.5 m (160 ft) high dam to provide hydroelectric power for Belize. The flooded locale would include areas designated for preservation as national environmental resources–habitat to the highest density of big cats, jaguar, puma and ocelot, in Central America, rare Morelet's crocodiles, tapirs and scarlet macaws, as well as to cultural remains. Dissent against the project was worldwide. Fires used to remove forest cover to protect the construction area were large enough to be picked up by satellite. By October 2005, the dam was tested prior to its complete start.

In January 2005, public and private sector workers went on strike over budget measures, including tax increases, and for salary increases. By April antigovernment protests in the capital resulted in rioting. Opposition political groups and trade unions called for general elections (next scheduled for March 2008) citing Musa's mismanagement of the country. Acts of sabotage deprived the population of basic services including water, electricity and communications. In his "State of the Nation" address, 19 September 2005, Musa noted that despite the fear and uncertainty of the previous months, the economy had not collapsed. He intended to pursue his tax reform measures and highlighted the effect of rising oil prices on higher domestic costs of production consumer prices and as a drain on foreign reserves.

In October 2005, Belize reported its first case of dengue hemorrhagic fever in the country. It occurred in the Cayo District.

GOVERNMENT

The independence constitution of 21 September 1981 (based on that of 1 January 1964) vests governmental authority in a governor-general appointed by the UK monarch, a cabinet headed by a prime minister, and a bicameral National Assembly. The governor-general on the advice of the prime minister appoints the cabinet ministers. The National Assembly consists of a 29-member House of Representatives elected by universal adult suffrage to serve five-year terms, and a Senate of eight members appointed by the governor-general (5 on the advice of the prime minister, 2 on the advice of the opposition, and 1 on the recommendation of the Belize Advisory Council). Parliamentary elections must be held at intervals of no longer than five years. The voting age is 18.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The two major parties in Belize are the current majority People's United Party (PUP) and the United Democratic Party (UDP). George C. Price dominated Belize's politics after becoming the country's premier in 1964. The PUP had dominated the electoral scene for more than 30 years and was the party in power when Belize became independent. At independence in 1981, Price became prime minister and ruled for three years The UDP coalition, under Manuel Esquivel's leadership, took 21 House seats in 1984 and ruled until 1989, when the PUP again gained control and Price once again became prime minister. He called an early election in June 1993, which his party unexpectedly lost, placing the UDP in a dominant position, UDP 15 seats, PUP 13 seats.

Although it won a sweeping victory in the 1997 municipal elections, the opposition UDP held only three elected seats at the national level as of 1999. The PUP had increased its position in the subsequent August 1998 elections (PUP 26 seats and UDP 3 seats), after which Said Musa succeeded Manuel Esquivel as party leader and prime minister. The elections of 2003 were the fifth National Assembly elections since independence in 1981 and the first time that a political party had been in government for two successive terms. In the March 2003 elections, the PUP won 22 seats and the UDP 7 seats. Said Musa remained as prime minister. After the death of a minister in October 2003 the PUP lost one seat in the by-election, but still retained a majority. Dean Barrow led the opposition. There was one political pressure group, the Society for the Promotion of Education and Research or SPEAR headed by Adele Catzim.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Belize is divided into six administrative districts: Corozal, Orange Walk, Belize City, El Cayo, Stann Creek, and Toledo. Except for Belize City, which has an elected city council of nine members, each is administered by a seven-member elected town board. Local government at the village level is through village councils.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The crown appoints the independent judiciary. The law of Belize is the common law of England, augmented by local legislation. The judiciary consists of the Magistrate's Courts, the Supreme Court, and the Court of Appeal. The Supreme Court is presided over by a Chief Justice. Appeals are to the court of appeal, established in 1968, and, until 2003, to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom. Six summary jurisdiction courts (criminal) and six district courts (civil) are presided over by magistrates.

On 9 June 2003, Caribbean leaders met in Kingston, Jamaica, to ratify a treaty to establish the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ). The first session of the CCJ was scheduled for November 2003. Eight nations—Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago—had officially approved the CCJ, although 14 nations were planning to use the court for appeals. Haiti had agreed to use the CCJ for resolution of trade disputes.

The judiciary has protected individual rights and fundamental freedoms. Detainees must be brought before a judge within 72 hours of arrest. Bail is liberally afforded. A jury trial is required in capital cases. The 1981 Constitution provides a wide range of fundamental rights and freedoms. Criminal defendants have rights to presumption of innocence, protection against self-incrimination, counsel, appeal, and public trial. The constitution prohibits torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment. The constitution also prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence. The government generally respects these provisions.

ARMED FORCES

The armed forces totaled an estimated 1,050 active personnel in 2005, supported by 700 reserves. The Army was structured into 3 infantry battalions, a maritime wing with 14 patrol craft, an air wing with 2 transports, but no combat aircraft, and 1 support group. The defense budget totaled $16 million in 2005.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Belize was admitted to the UN on 25 September 1981, four days after independence. Belize participates in a number of UN specialized agencies, such as ILO, ICAO, IFAD, IFC, UNESCO, UNIDO, the World Bank, and WHO. Belize joined the WTO in January 1995. Belize is also a member of the ACP Group, the Commonwealth of Nations, CARICOM, the Caribbean Development Bank, the Latin American Economic System, G-77, the Association of Caribbean States (ACS), and the OAS. The country is part of the Nonaligned Movement and the Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin American and the Caribbean (OPANAL). Belize has an unresolved boundary dispute with Guatemala. In environmental cooperation, Belize is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification. Belize is also a signatory to the Central American-US Joint Declaration (CONCAUSA).

ECONOMY

The economy is dependent on agriculture and fishing. Sugar, bananas, and citrus fruits are the main cash crops. Until a recent depletion, the country's main export had been forest products, especially mahogany. Belize continues to import most of its consumer goods, including much of its food and all of its petroleum requirements. The tourism industry, fishing industry, and the garment manufacturing industry grew in importance during the late 1990s.

Belize started the decade of the 1990s positively. However, after five years of economic growth averaging 4.3%, the economy decelerated to 1.5% in 1996. This was largely due to a slowdown in tourism, a decline in fisheries production, and cutbacks in public spending and construction. The agricultural sector grew rapidly in that year, with banana and sugar production up by significant amounts, while production of oranges was nearly flat. Fishing was also hurt by corrective measures to overcome the taura virus, which affected farmed shrimp production and lowered lobster catches. In 1997, the government implemented austerity measures and capital projects that continued the economic depression in the short-run. The agricultural industry experienced a decline of production in 1998, but the fishing, tourism, and garment manufacturing industries gained ground. In 1997 and 1998, GDP growth hovered around 3%, but by 2004, the economy was growing at a rate of 4.5%, due to strong growth in the agriculture, fishing, and tourism industries. Inflation remained subdued at around 3% in 2004 and 2005. In 2005, the GDP growth rate was estimated at 3.8%.

Belize's future economic growth is linked to the improvement of technology and physical infrastructure. The Agency for International Development (USAID), the World Bank, the United Kingdom, the EU, the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Canada, and Taiwan have provided assistance to Belize for the reconstruction and pavement of major highways, and the construction of houses. Electricity has become dependable, and the telecommunications system is reliable.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Belize's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $1.8 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $6,800. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 3.8%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 3%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 22.5% of GDP, industry 23%, and services 54.5%.

According to the World Bank, in 2002 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $14 million or about $51 per capita and accounted for approximately 1.5% of GDP.

In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 27% of household consumption was spent on food, 5% on fuel, 3% on health care, and 13% on education. It was estimated that in 1999 about 33% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

The Belize labor force in 2001 (the latest year for which data was available) was estimated at 90,000. Of that number in that same year, approximately 27% of the labor force was employed in agriculture, 18% in industry, and 55% in services. In 2003, the unemployment rate was estimated at 12.9%. The Belize labor market is marked by a shortage of skilled labor and technical personnel.

Labor legislation covers minimum wages, work hours, employment of young persons, and workers' safety and compensation. The National Trades Union Congress of Belize is the major union federation, and the United General Workers' Union is the leading trade union. In 2005, there were eight independent unions, comprising about 11% of the labor force, which represented a cross-section of white-collar, blue-collar, and professional workers, including most civil service employees. There are procedural requirements that a union must meet, but the government freely recognizes the right to join unions and to strike. Unions representing "essential" service workers must give an intent to strike notice two days prior to a strike.

The labor act prohibits all employment for children under the age of 12, and children between the ages of 12 and 14 are not permitted to work during school hours. The minimum age for hazardous industry employment is 17. A minimum wage of $1.12 per hour covers all workers and is effectively enforced. This wage does not provide a decent standard of living. The legal workweek, as of 2005, was set at 45 hours or six days, with overtime pay required if work is beyond those limits. Workplace safety and health regulations are also effectively enforced by the Ministry of Labor and Public Health, particularly in Belize City.

AGRICULTURE

Only 4% (89,000 hectares/220,000 acres) of total land area is used for the production of seasonal and permanent crops. Most Mayans still practice the traditional slash-and-burn method of farming, under which at any one time some 80% of the land is left idle. More efficient agricultural colonies have been established by Mennonite immigrants. Sugar, citrus, and bananas are the leading agricultural exports. In 2004, Belize's major exports amounted to b$410.1 million, with sugar accounting for 20%; orange concentrate, 13.5%; bananas, 13%; and grapefruit, 5.8%. Sugarcane production, centered in the northern lowland around Corozal and the town of Orange Walk, totaled 1,149,000 tons in 2004. Citrus production is concentrated in the Stann Creek valley; the 2004 output included 213,000 tons of oranges and 56,000 tons of grapefruit. The US-based Hershey Foods Corp. has invested b$4 million in cacao cultivation in El Cayo; production in 2004 totaled 40 tons.

Because agriculture is not sufficiently diversified, the country relies heavily on food imports. By establishing a marketing board to encourage production of rice, beans, and corn, the government hopes eventually to become self-sufficient in these crops. Rice paddy production, which averaged 9,000 tons annually during 1979–81, fell to a reported 4,000 tons in 1990 but rose to 10,600 tons by 2004. Corn production, which had been hovering at 18,000 tons per year, rose to a reported 30,500 tons in 2004. Dry bean production was 4,000 tons. Export earnings from sugar in 2004 exceeded us$35.5 million. Belize's sugar industry is heavily dependent on preferential price markets; over 50% of its exports are sent to preferential price markets (principally the European Union). Citrus output (exported in concentrate form), expanded by 170% as new acreage planted in the late 1980s came into production and weather conditions were very favorable. In 1985, a consortium that included Coca-Cola paid b$12 million for 383,000 hectares (946,400 acres) northwest of Belmopan for a citrus farming project. Banana production was aided by privatization and restructuring in the production and marketing areas, which has acted as a catalyst to improve technology (success in combating sigatoka disease) and infrastructure. Banana production, however, fell from 68,000 tons in 1994 to 45,000 tons in 1995 before rising back to 79,400 tons in 2004. Papaya production totaled 27,700 tons in 2004; mangoes totaled 563 tons. Peanuts, pineapples, and winter vegetables are also grown for export.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Mennonite farms account for much of Belize's dairy and poultry output. In 2004, the nation had an estimated 21,200 hogs, 5,300 horses, 4,600 mules, 6,300 sheep, and 1,600,000 chickens. Cattle suited for breeding or crossbreeding with local cattle are Red Poll, Jamaica Black, Hereford, and Brahman (zebu); there were 57,800 head of cattle in 2004. Some 14,000 tons of poultry meat and 3,600 tons of milk were produced in 2004.

FISHING

Fishing resources and development are good. In 2003, the total catch was 15,353 tons. Lobster, squid, and conch are the leading products; us$16.2 million in export earnings were derived from fishing in 2003. In the mid-1990s, shrimp production increased by 75% as a result of three new shrimp farms opening in 1992. Aquaculture accounted for 66% of the total catch in 2003. Fishery exports accounted for 12% of agricultural exports and almost 8% of total merchandise exports in 2003.

FORESTRY

Although Belize is still rich in forest resources, the accessible stands of commercial timber have been depleted. Reforestation and natural regeneration in the pine forest (mainly in Cayo, Stann Creek, and Toledo Districts) and artificial regeneration of fast-growing tropical hardwood species are creating a resurgence in forestry. About 92% of Belize's land area is covered with forests and woodlands. Timber cutting is usually done during the short dry season. Total roundwood production in 2003 was 188,000 cu m (6.64 million cu ft). The principal varieties of trees cut are mahogany, pine, cedar, and rosewood. Exports of forest produce (including chicle) in 1965 amounted to one-third of total exports; in 2003, however, the export value was us$4.0 million.

MINING

Clays, limestone, marble, and sand and gravel for construction were the mainstays of Belize's minerals industry; none was reportedly exported in 2003. The Belize, Sibun, and Monkey rivers, as well as North and South Stann creeks, were the sites of clay, limestone, and sand and gravel operations. Clay production amounted to 500,000 tons in 2003; dolomite, 5,000 metric tons; limestone, 400,000 tons; sand and gravel, 130,000 cubic meters; marl, 1,140 cubic meters; and gold, 1,000 grams, by stream panning.

ENERGY AND POWER

Electric power supplied by ten diesel-powered generators is inadequate. As of 2002 Belize imported about half its electricity from Mexico. Of the remainder, 30% came from the Mollejon dam and 20% from thermal sources. A central authority, the Belize Electricity Board, supplies and operates the national power system. In 2002, total capacity stood at 0.052 million kW, including power from the Board's generators and additional wattage supplied by private industries and individuals. Production in 2002 was 0.117 billion kWh, of which 0.039 billion kWh came from thermal sources (fossil fuels) and 0.078 billion kWh from hydropower. Construction of a 7 MW, us$50 million hydroelectric power station on the Macal River, upstream from the Mollejon dam, was under way as of 2002 despite a suit by environmental groups pending before Belize's supreme court. The dam would be privately owned until 2034, after which the plant would be transferred to the government. In 2002, the consumption of electricity in Belize totaled 0.109 billion kWh.

INDUSTRY

The manufacturing sector is small but has been expanding. Major industrial activities include textiles and garments, and sugar, citrus, and banana processing. The Development Finance Corporation promotes private capital investment in industry.

Aside from the processing of sugar, citrus, and bananas, the manufacturing sector in Belize continues to be quite small. Garment production stabilized and grew in the late 1990s after significant declines in 1994 and 1995 that resulted from heavy competition from Mexico and the United States. Other manufacturing products—batteries, beer, and beverages—represent a minimal share and are protected by import substitution policies. Belize has witnessed increased export earnings from marine products in the late 1990s and into the 2000s. Construction projects have included a multimillion dollar housing project designed to build 10,000 units, a us$14.7 million project to rehabilitate the country's southern highway, and us$9.5 million in upgrading health centers and hospitals.

Tourism is the number one source of foreign exchange earnings. Offshore business in Belize is a fledgling industry with high growth potential. Attractive incentives to foreign investment have been promoted by the government in order to attract capital.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

University College of Belize and Wesley College, both in Belize City, offer some scientific and technical training, but Belizean students must go abroad for advanced study. The National Library Service operates a Technical/Reference Library in Belize City.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Except for warehouses and shops in Belize City, open markets still predominate in Belize. The domestic market is limited by high labor and energy costs. Small industries include cigarettes, beer, dairy products, and agricultural processing. Many residents shop in Mexico and Guatemala where prices for goods and services are lower. Within the country, most consumer goods are imported from the United States and Mexico. Since 1987, the government has maintained price controls on some basic items, such as bread, flour, rice, and fuel. A 9% sales tax applies to most goods (basic food items are exempt). A 14% sales tax applies to petroleum products, alcohol, and tobacco.

Normal business hours in Belize cities are 8 am to noon and 1 to 5 pm, Monday through Friday. Banks are open from 8 am to 1 pm, Monday through Thursday, and from 8 am 4:30 pm on Fridays.

FOREIGN TRADE

Belize's major partners are NAFTA, the United Kingdom, CARICOM and the European Union (EU). In 2004, the United States imported 37.2% of Belize's total exports, and supplied 30.1% of all Belizean imports.

The Belize export market depends mostly upon agriculture, in particular on the sugars, and fruit and nut trade. There are a few clothing exporters that deal in men's outerwear and undergarments. Other substantial exports include shellfish, wood, and vegetables.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

The visible trade deficit is counterbalanced by overseas aid, British military expenditures, foreign remittances from expatriates, and receipts from tourism. Since the end of 1998, the trade deficit has widened, due to an increase in manufactured good purchases for the industrial and construction sectors. In 2005, the value of Belize's exports was estimated at us$349.9 million, and imports were valued at us$622.4 million. The current-account balance was estimated at -us$200.1 million in 2005. That year, Belize had us$90.45 million in reserves of foreign exchange and gold. As of June 2004, the external debt burden was us$1.362 billion.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The bank of issue is the Central Bank of Belize. Two foreign banks, Barclay's Bank and the Bank of Nova Scotia, and two local banks, the Atlantic Bank and Belize Bank, conduct commercial banking. The Banking Ordinance was amended in 1996 to authorize offshore banking; in March 2000 over 14,000 offshore financial institutions were operating in Belize. Anti-laundering legislation was put into effect in 1998, and a small farmers' and business bank was created with bilateral aid from Taiwan.

In the fourth quarter of 1996, the Central Bank of Belize was obliged to defend the exchange rate by selling foreign exchange to commercial banks. The quantities involved were not announced, but international reserves fell from us$71 million at the end of September 1996, to us$65 million at the end of December 1996. However, year-end reserves were still significantly higher than the end-of-June figure of us$39 million. Contributing to this rise was the receipt in August of a Taiwanese government loan of us$26 million, as well as the proceeds of a bond issue for the new Central Bank building and increased sugar export receipts.

In 1998, the new government led by Said Musa lowered the liquidity and cash reserve requirements of commercial banks, and increased government spending on capital projects, in order to increase funds. Foreign assets had declined even further, from us$65 million in 1997 to us$51 million in 1998. A us$50 million loan from the Taiwanese government was granted for infrastructure development in 1998. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to us$189.8 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small-time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was us$505.5 million. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 12%.

There is no securities exchange in Belize.

INSURANCE

There are several insurance companies doing business in Belize.

PUBLIC FINANCE

About half of Belize's recurrent expenditures are financed by customs duties; nearly all capital spending is funded by foreign loans

Current Account			-162.7
Balance on goods		-189.9
Imports	-500.3
Exports	310.4
Balance on services		53.4
Balance on income		-72.1
Current transfers		45.9
Capital Account			7.5
Financial Account			143.7
Direct investment abroad		…
Direct investment in Belize		25.0
Portfolio investment assets		…
Portfolio investment liabilities		110.0
Financial derivatives		0.8
Other investment assets		-1.4
Other investment liabilities		9.4
Net Errors and Omissions			3.8
Reserves and Related Items			7.7
(…) data not available or not significant.

and grants. Since an IMF standby stabilization program was implemented in 1985, fiscal responsibility has improved. The government typically budgets over 50% of projected spending to capital development, and raises 60% of current revenues from trade taxes. Government spending accounts typically for almost one-third of GDP.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Belize's central government took in revenues of approximately us$262 million and had expenditures of us$329 million. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -us$67 million. Total external debt was us$1.362 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 1997, the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues were b$322 million and expenditures were b$362 million. The value of revenues in US dollars was us$161 million and expenditures us$181 million, based on an official exchange rate for 1997 of us$1 = b$2.0000 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 20.9%; defense, 5.4%; public order and safety, 7.1%; economic affairs, 28.1%; housing and community amenities, 2.6%; health, 8.2%; recreation, culture, and religion, 1.3%; education, 20.5%; and social protection, 5.9%.

TAXATION

Income tax is levied on companies and individuals. Corporate taxes are set at a fixed rate of 35% of the chargeable income. Personal income tax is levied on those earning more than us$10,000 per year, at a flat rate of 25%. A company granted a development concession has a tax holiday of up to 25 years. The Sales Tax Act of 1999 implemented a 12% tax on alcohol, tobacco, and fuel, and a 8% tax on all other items.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Customs duties are generally ad valorem. Belize uses the CARICOM common external tariff (CET), which ranges from 5–45%. There is also a stamp tax (normally 12%) on certain goods. Import duties on industrial products average 20% and there is a duty of 15–25% on luxury items. Certain products require import licenses to protect domestic industry, including sugar and citrus fruits, but these will be removed.

The 1990 Export Processing Zone (EPZ) Act and the Commercial Free Zone (CFZ) Act of 1995 foster the import-export industry with tax incentives. Belize is a CARICOM member state, has free trade agreements with Venezuela and Colombia, and was working on a free trade agreement with Mexico in 1999.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

As of 2006, proposals for foreign investments and applications for incentives are processed by BELTRAIDE—Belize Trade and Investment Development Service—formerly the Trade and Investment Promotion Service (TIPS). BELTRAIDE was designed as a one-stop shop for investors. In 2006, it was identifying as priority areas for investment agroindustries and food processing, tourism, aquaculture and horticulture, light manufacturing and assembly plants, deep-sea fishing, and forestry-related industries. An Aliens Land-Holding Ordinance governs real estate investment through licensing procedures.

Several incentive packages are available, outlined in the Fiscal Incentives Act of 1990, the International Business and Public Companies (IBC) Act, the Export Processing Zone (EPZ) Act of 1990, and the Commercial Free Zone (CFZ) Act of 1995. No sectors are closed to foreign investment, but special permits and licenses for activities mostly reserved for Belize citizens—merchandising, sugar cane cultivation, internal transportation, bee-keeping, accounting, beauty salons, etc.—may not be granted to foreigners. Fiscal incentives include tax holidays up to 25 years, tax and duty exemptions, reduced rents, and guaranteed repatriation of initial investment and profits.

IBCs are offered a host of tax exemptions and other incentives. EPZs offer duty exemptions on imports of capital equipment, spare parts, office furniture, and intermediate goods; tax exemptions; tax holidays of 20 years with options to extend; and no-cost work permits for professional and technical staff and up to 20% of the workforce. CFZ businesses are offered comparable incentives tailored to commercial enterprises. Three locations are designated EPZs-CFZs: the San Andres EPZ, eight miles from the Mexican border; an area adjacent to the Philip Goldson International Airport; and Price Barracks near Belize City.

Foreign direct investment was only us$7 million in 1987. In 1997, FDI was us$11.9 million, but rose to us$19 million 1998, and peaked at us$56 million in 1999. In 2000, FDI inflow was us$27.6 million and in 2001, us$34.2 million. In 2004, FDI amounted to us$254.8 million. In 1999, amendments to existing legislation and new legislation—the Gaming Control Act, the Retired Persons (Incentive) Act, the Limited Liability Partnership Act, the Mutual Funds Act, the International Insurance Act, the Belize Business Bureau Act, and the International Financial Services—provided the legal framework for expanded offshore services, e-commerce and real estate development. The government also began the sale of Belize citizenship to those willing to pay from $35,000 up to $50,000 for the honor, especially to those from the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Canada. More CFZs are being created in Belize City, Benque Viejo del Carmen, and Punta Gorda. E-zones, equipped with the latest information technology, were fused with the EPZs. All concessions must be negotiated through BELTRAIDE.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The government has opted to concentrate on developing agriculture, livestock, forestry, fishing, and tourism as foreign exchange earners. The main sources of bilateral aid are the United States and the United Kingdom; of multilateral aid, the United Nations (UN), Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), Organization of American States (OAS), and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). Belize joined the OAS and IDB in 1992 in a move to increase its access to developing financing and external technical cooperation.

Belize undertook several fiscal adjustment measures in 1996, including the retrenchment of the public sector work force and the introduction of a major value-added tax (VAT) of 15%. These two measures caused an increase in annual inflation from 3.2% in 1995 to 4.7% in 1996 and an increase of 1.3% in the rate of unemployment, to 13.8% of the labor force. In 2005, the inflation rate was estimated at 3%. The unemployment rate stood at 12.9% in 2003.

The National Development Strategy 1996–2000 drafted by the Ministry of Economic Development stressed fiscal restraint, and identified activities to stimulate private sector development, including physical infrastructure improvement and financial sector reforms. Belize continues to strive toward meeting these goals.

A rural electrification project was underway in 2001–02, and the government pledged $20 million to restore essential services such as health and education facilities and transportation networks to communities harmed by Hurricane Keith. The government is investing in projects to alleviate poverty. The government has been engaged in implementing an IDB-funded project to improve the competitiveness of the country's agricultural products in foreign markets. The country aims to promote the growth of commercial agriculture through Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) although most of its trade is conducted with the United States and Europe, not with other Caribbean nations. Tourism averaged 20% of gross domestic product (GDP) from 1997–2005, but the industry was adversely affected by the September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States and the subsequent decline in tourism to the region.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Social security systems provide benefits to all employed persons aged 14–64. Both employers and employees make contributions towards old age pensions, disability, survivor, and health benefits. Retirement is set at age 60 for both men and women. There is a social assistance program for women aged 65 and older. Sickness and maternity benefits are available, as well as work injury. Full medical care is provided at government hospitals and clinics, and if necessary, treatment abroad is available.

Women have access to education and are active in all areas of national life, but face domestic violence and certain types of discrimination in the business sector. In 2004 domestic violence reports against women increased. The Women's Bureau of the Ministry of Labor and Social Services develops programs to improve the status of women. Despite these efforts, few women hold top managerial positions, and women generally earn less than their male counterparts. Child abuse is not a societal problem, however there are reports of families selling daughters to older men.

The rights of minority groups in Belize are generally well protected, although there have been continued reports of poor treatment of immigrant agricultural workers. Human rights are generally respected, although as of 2004 there have been reports of excessive police force and other violations. Prison conditions are improving.

HEALTH

Belize is relatively free of endemic diseases; during 1996–2000, communicable diseases were on the decline. Cardiovascular disease, mental illness, external trauma, and HIV/AIDS are significant public health problems. In 1995, 9,413 malaria cases were diagnosed. Belize was reported as a cholera-infected country in 1996, with 25 reported cases during that year. There are eight public hospitals. The Cayo and Belize districts have two hospitals each and all the remaining districts have one. There are 40 health centers and 35 rural satellites. As of 2004, there were an estimated 105 physicians and 126 nurses per 100,000 people.

Life expectancy was 68 years in 2005 and the infant mortality rate for that year was 25 per 1,000 live births. The total fertility rate was 4.0 per woman. There were 30 births per 1,000 people in 1999. The total mortality rate was estimated at 4.6 deaths per 1,000 people as of 2002. About 90% of one-year-old children had been vaccinated against measles by the mid-1990s. Approximately 82% of the Belize population had access to safe water and 57% had access to adequate sanitation. However, only 69% of rural households in the south of the country had safe water. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 2.40 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 3,600 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. The government has implemented a strategic program to deal with the AIDS epidemic.

HOUSING

Housing is inadequate, overcrowding is prevalent, and the situation has been aggravated by hurricane devastation (such as Hurricane Mitch 1998 and Hurricane Keith 2000). The government has put aside small sums for low-cost housing programs.

According to the 2001 census, about 83% of the population lived in undivided private homes and about 62% of all housing units were owner-occupied. About 44% of all households contained five or more members. About 32.8% of the housing stock was built in the period 1980–94; about 22% was built in 1979 or before. Only about 26% of all households had piped water leading directly into their homes. Another 17% had access to piped water to their yards. About 43.9% of the population still used outdoor pit latrines; but about 50% were linked to septic tanks or the public sewer system.

EDUCATION

Primary education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 14. Primary schooling covers an eight-year course of study. Secondary education covers four years and consists of either a general course of study or classes at a vocational or trade school. Most schools are church-affiliated but still supported by the government. About 28% of children between the ages of three and four attend some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 100% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 69% of age-eligible students. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 21:1 in 2003. The ratio for secondary school was about 23:1.

The University of Belize was founded in 2000 by the merger of the University College of Belize (est. 1986), Belmopan Junior College, Belize School of Nursing, Belize School of Education, and Belize College of Agriculture. The University of the West Indies maintains a School for Continuing Education (SCE) in Belize. There are also several colleges providing specialized training such as the Belize Technical College, the Belize Teachers' College, and the Belize Vocational Training Center. In 2003, it was estimated that about 2% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 76.9%, with 76.7% for males and 77.1% for females.

The Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports is the primary administrative body. As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 5.2% of GDP, or 18% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The National Library Service maintains a central library in the Bliss Institute, a children's library, and a branch library in Belize City. The National Library Service was established in 1966 to oversee the nation's public library system. In 2003, the public library network included 12 branch (operating on a full-time basis) and 17 sub libraries (open only about 20 hours per month). The University of Belize Library System includes four department branch libraries and one resource center, including the Management and Social Science Library (MASS Library) and the Engineering Resource Center.

The Museum of Belize, opened in 2002, houses historical and cultural exhibits in a former prison. The remains of the ancient Maya civilization—the best known are at Xunantunich—are being excavated by the government. The Department of Archaeology in Belmopan houses artifacts thus far uncovered.

MEDIA

Belize is connected by radiotelegraph and telephone with Jamaica, Guatemala, Mexico, and the United States. This service, along with cable and telex services, is operated by Cable and Wireless Ltd. An automatic telephone network, covering the entire country, is operated by the Belize Telecommunications, which was fully privatized in early 1992. In 2003, Belize had 33,300 mainline telephones and 60,400 mobile phones in use.

The Belize National Radio Network, a government station in Belize City, transmits in English and Spanish. The first privately owned commercial radio station began broadcasting in 1990. In 2004, there were 10 privately owned commercial radio stations and 1 British military station. There were also two privately-owned television stations and several cable stations. The Belize Broadcasting Authority regulates all broadcasting and retains the right to preview certain broadcasts. In 1997, there were 133,000 radios and 41,000 television sets in use nationwide. In 2002, there were 30,000 Internet users in the country.

There are no daily newspapers. The largest weeklies in 2002 were Amandala (Black Power, circulation 45,000) and The Reporter (6,500), both published in Belize City. Belize Today, a monthly publication out of Belmopan, has a circulation of 17,000. The Belize Press Association was formed in 1995.

Though Belize's constitution assures the freedom of speech and press, there are provisions for the curtailment of these freedoms, including a law forbidding citizens from questioning financial statements submitted by public officials. The Supreme Court has warned journalists that questioning the integrity of the court or of its members could result in criminal charges. The government makes free use of Belize's largest radio facilities to produce partisan advertisements and party propaganda. The Belize Broadcasting Authority (BBA) asserts its right to delete defamatory or libelous material from political broadcasts.

ORGANIZATIONS

The Belize Chamber of Commerce and Industry has its headquarters in Belize City. There are active workers' unions and professional associations, including the Belize Citrus Growers' Association and the Belize National Teachers' Union.

Youth organizations include the Belize Union of Students and Youth (BUSY), YMCA, YWCA, The Scout Association of Belize, an organization of Girl Guides, and a branch of the Red Cross Youth as part of the national chapter of the Red Cross. There are sports associations in the country for such pastimes as tennis, football (soccer), and track and field.

The United Democratic Party National Organization of Women (UPNOW) encourages involvement in party activities and educates women about political and social issues. The group also serves to defend women against discrimination and violence.

There are active chapters of Habitat for Humanity, the Lions Club, and Kiwanis International.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Belize is attracting growing numbers of tourists to its Mayan ruins, its barrier reef (the longest in the Western Hemisphere), and its beaches, forests, and wildlife. Tourist arrivals totaled 220,574 in 2003; mostly from the Americas. There were 5,050 hotel rooms in Belize with 8,166 beds and an occupancy rate of 41%. Visitors stayed an average of seven nights.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the cost of staying in Belize City at us$183 per day.

FAMOUS BELIZEANS

George C. Price (b.1919), leader of the PUP, became the country's first premier in 1964. Manuel Esquivel (b.1940), leader of the UDP, was prime minister from 1984–89 and from 1993–98. Said Wilbert Musa (b.1944) succeeded Esquival in 1998.

DEPENDENCIES

Belize has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ball, Joseph W. Cahal Pech, the Ancient Maya, and Modern Belize: The Story of an Archaeological Park. San Diego: San Diego State University Press, 1993.

Calvert, Peter. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Latin America. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2004.

Health in the Americas, 2002 edition. Washington, D.C.: Pan American Health Organization, Pan American Sanitary Bureau, Regional Office of the World Health Organization, 2002.

Hennessy, Huw (ed.). Guatemala, Belize, and the Yucatán. Maspeth, N.Y.: Langenscheidt, 2000.

Kelly, Joyce. An Archaeological Guide to Northern Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996.

McClaurin, Irma. Women of Belize: Gender and Change in Central America. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996.

McKillop, Heather Irene. Salt: White Gold of the Ancient Maya. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002.

Simmons, Donald C. Confederate Settlements in British Honduras. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2001.