SYRIA

Syrian Arab Republic

Al-Jumhuriyah al-'Arabiyah as-Suriyah

CAPITAL: Damascus (Dimashq)

FLAG: The national flag is a horizontal tricolor of red, white, and black stripes; in the white center stripe are two green five-pointed stars.

ANTHEM: An-Nashid as-Suri (The Syrian National Anthem) begins "Protectors of the nation, peace be upon you."

MONETARY UNIT: The Syrian pound (s£) is a paper currency of 100 piasters. There are coins of 25 and 50 piasters and 1 Syrian pound and notes of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, and 500 Syrian pounds. s£1 = $0.02062 (or $1 = s£48.5) as of 2004.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard, but local units are widely used.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Revolution Day, 8 March; Egypt's Revolution Day, 23 July; Union of Arab Republics Day, 1 September; National Day, 16 November. Muslim religious holidays include 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', Milad an-Nabi, and Laylat al-Miraj. Christian religious holidays include Easter (Catholic); Easter (Orthodox); and Christmas, 25 December.

TIME: 2 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated in southwest Asia at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, Syria has an area of 185,180 sq km (71,498 sq mi). Comparatively, the area occupied by Syria is slightly larger than the state of North Dakota. Included in this total is the Golan Heights region (1,176 sq km/454 sq mi), which Israel captured in 1967 and annexed on 14 December 1981; the annexation was denounced by Syria and unanimously condemned by the United Nations Security Council. Syria extends 793 km (493 mi) ene–wsw and 431 km (268 mi) sse–nnw. It is bounded on the n by Turkey, on the e and se by Iraq, on the s by Jordan, on the sw by Israel, and on the w by Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea, with a land boundary length of 2,253 km (1,400 mi) and a coastline of 193 km (120 mi).

TOPOGRAPHY

There are five main geographic zones: (1) the narrow coastal plain along the Mediterranean shore; (2) the hill and mountain regions, including the Ansariyah ('Alawite) Mountains in the north-west paralleling the coast, the eastern slopes of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and the Jabal Ad-Duruz in the southeast; (3) the cultivated area east of the Ansariyah and Anti-Lebanon ranges, which is widest in the north, discontinuous between Himş and Damascus; (4) the steppe and desert region, traversed by the Euphrates (Al-Furat) River; and (5) the Jazirah in the northeast, steppe country with low rolling hills.

The Anti-Lebanon Mountains, extending southward along the Lebanese border, serve as a catchment for the rainfall of central Syria. To the north of this range, the Ansariyah Mountains, which reach heights of over 1,500 m (5,000 ft), slope westward to the Mediterranean. The Orontes (Asi) River irrigates areas on the eastern side of the Ansariyah Mountains.

CLIMATE

The climate varies from the Mediterranean type in the west to extremely arid desert conditions in the east. The coastal regions have hot summers and mild winters; in the mountains, summer heat is moderated according to elevation and the winters are much more severe.

The steppe and desert areas have extremely hot, arid summers and greatly varying winter temperatures ranging from 21°c (70°f) to below freezing. Average temperatures for Damascus range from about 21° to 43°c (70–109°f) in August and from about -4° to 16°c (25–61°f) in January. Rainfall averages about 75 cm (30 in) on the coast, around 125 cm (50 in) in some mountain areas, and less than 25 cm (10 in) in the eastern three-fifths of the country. In dry years, rainfall may be reduced by half.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The coastal plain is highly cultivated and the little wild growth found is mainly of the brushwood type, such as tamarisk. On the northern slopes of the Ansariyah range are remnants of pine forests, while oak and scrub oak grow in the less well-watered central portion. Terebinth is indigenous to the low hill country of the steppes and wormwood grows on the plains. Some sections of the Jabal Ad-Duruz are covered with a dense maquis.

The wildlife of Syria includes types common to the eastern Mediterranean region, together with typical desert species. There is a diminishing number of bears in the mountains. Antelope are found wherever grazing is available and human competition not too severe. There are also deer in some sections. Smaller animals include squirrel, wildcat, otter, and hare. In the desert, the viper, lizard, and chameleon are found in relatively large numbers. Native birds include flamingo and pelican, as well as various ducks, snipe, and other game birds.

As of 2002, there were at least 63 species of mammals, 145 species of birds, and over 3,000 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Much of Syria's natural vegetation has been depleted by farming, livestock grazing, and cutting of trees for firewood and construction. The thick forests that once covered western Syria have been drastically reduced; as a result, soil erosion and desertification are extensive. The salinity of the soil is also a problem, causing a loss of more than $300 million worth of agricultural products per year. Other environmental problems include pollution of coastal waters from oil spills and human waste and contamination of inland waterways by industrial waste and sewage.

Environmental awareness has been a growing concern in the Arab world. The United Nations (UN) and Middle Eastern environmental organizations have sponsored Arab Environment Day to bring the focus of the nation's attention on environmental problems. The quantity of native wildlife had been so seriously depleted that in 1979 the government banned hunting for five years.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species includes 3 types of mammals, 11 species of birds, 3 types of reptiles, 9 species of fish, and 3 species of invertebrates. The Mediterranean monk seal, bald ibis, and African softshell turtle are endangered. The Anatolian leopard, cheetah, Syrian wild ass, Israel painted frog, and Persian fallow deer are extinct.

POPULATION

The population of Syria in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 18,389,000, which placed it at number 55 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 37% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 101 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 2.7%. The government has sharpened its focus on population issues, creating a state minister for population affairs in 2003. The projected population for the year 2025 was 27,410,000. The overall population density was 99 per sq km (257 per sq mi), but most of the population is concentrated in in Damascus and the six western provinces. Desert areas in the east are largely uninhabited.

The UN estimated that 50% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005 and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 2.53%. The capital city, Damascus (Dimashq), had a population of 2,228,000 in that year. The population of Aleppo (Halab), a northern trading and agricultural center, was an estimated 2,505,000. Other main cities are Himş (Homs), 915,000; Hamāh (Hama); and Latakia (Al Lādhiqiyah).

MIGRATION

In the past there was sizable emigration of Syrians to Europe, Africa, and the Western Hemisphere, but emigration had virtually ceased by the late 1940s. Since World War I, there has been substantial internal migration from the coastal mountains to the central plains and, in general, from rural areas to the towns. There is considerable migration across the borders with Lebanon and Jordan. About 150,000 Syrians working in Kuwait returned during 1990–91. As of October 1995, there were 300,000 Palestinian refugees in Syria. In 1997, the Syrian government accepted the protection mandate of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for all recognized refugees in the country. The total number of migrants in 2000 was 903,000, including approximately 391,000 refugees. As of 2004, there were 15,604 registered refugees in Syria, primarily from Iraq. In that same year, there were 785 asylum seekers (countries of origin were Iraq, Somalia and Sudan) and 185 returned refugees. However, in 2004, there was also a stateless population of 300,000. In 2004, over 3,000 Syrians sought asylum in eight countries in Western Europe and the United Kingdom. In that same year, there were 16,184 Syrians refugees in Germany. In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated at zero migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the emigration level as too high, but the immigration level as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Ethnic Syrians are primarily of a Semitic stock; however, racial types have generally become intermixed. It is estimated that Arabs make up about 90.3% of the population. Other ethnic groups make up the remaining 9.7%, including Kurds, Armenians, and others.

LANGUAGES

The official language and the language of the majority is Arabic, but dialect variations are distinct from region to region and even from town to town. The written language, classical Arabic, based on the Koran (Quran), is the basis of the standard spoken form. Kurdish and Armenian are the principal minority languages. Aramaic, the language of Jesus, and Circassian are also widely understood. French and English are somewhat understood.

RELIGIONS

Islam is the religion of the vast majority. About 74% of the population are Sunni Muslims. Alawite, Druze, Ismailis, Shia, and Yazidis account for another 16% of the population. The Alawite constitute an important minority in Syria and hold a disproportionate share of political power; although they consider themselves Muslims, they combine their avowed creed with Christian rituals and esoteric cults. Also important are the Druzes (most of whom live in the Jabal Ad-Duruz), whose religion is an offshoot of Shia Islam.

About 10% of the population is Christian, with Greek Orthodox being the largest denomination. Other Christian churches include Armenian Catholic, Armenian Orthodox (Gregorian), Syrian Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, Maronite Christian, Baptist, Mennonite, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, and Nestorian (Chaldean). The small Jewish population is urban, living primarily in Damascus, Al Qamishli, and Aleppo.

Under the 1973 constitution, Islam is no longer declared to be the religion of the state, but the president of Syria must still be a Muslim, and Islamic law is a major source of legislation. Freedom of worship is guaranteed by the constitution but public proselytizing is strongly discouraged by the government. All religious groups must register with the government. Certain Orthodox Christian and Muslim holidays are officially observed.

TRANSPORTATION

The Syrian national railroad system consists of 2,711 km (1,686 mi) of standard and narrow gauge railways, of which 2,460 km (1,530 mi) is standard gauge line. Three sections are: the Syrian section of the old Baghdād Railway; the main line from Damascus to Aleppo, with connections to Tartus, points in Lebanon, and the phosphate mines; and the railway linking Al Lādhiqiyah, Halab, and Al-Qamishli, built with Soviet help and completed in 1981. There are also 251 km (156 mi) of narrow-gauge line, part of which is the pre–World War I Hejaz Railway, linking Damascus to Jordan and Lebanon. Syria is also connected by rail with Turkey (thus with Europe) and Iraq.

The road system, though growing, remains inadequate in view of the demands imposed by increased economic activity. In 2002, Syria had 45,697 km (28,424 mi) of roads, of which only 6,489 km (4,036 mi) were paved, including 1,001 km (623 mi) of expressways. There are road connections between the major towns and with Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey. As of 2003, there were 181,017 passenger cars and 290,300 commercial vehicles.

Tartus and Al Lādhiqiyah are the main ports. Jablah and Baniyas are minor ports. In 2005, the merchant fleet comprised 120 vessels of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 446,981 GRT. Although Syria had 900 km (560 mi) of navigable inland waterways as of 2002, these have had little economic impact. In 2004, Syria had an estimated 92 airports. As of 2005, it had a total of 26 had paved runways, and there were also seven heliports. Damascus is a connecting point for a number of major airlines; the main passenger terminal of its international airport was completed in 1982. Another principal airport is Aleppo International at Aleppo (Halab). Syrian Arab Airlines provides service to Halab, Al-Qamishli, Al Lādhiqiyah, and other airports; it also flies to other Arab countries and to Europe and Africa. In 2003, about 908,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

Archaeological excavations at Ebla, in northern Syria, have revealed that Syria was the center of a great Semitic empire extending from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia around 2500 bc. At that time, Damascus, traditionally the world's oldest continuously occupied city and certainly one of the world's oldest cities, was settled. Later, an advanced civilization was developed along the Syrian and Lebanese coastlands under the Phoenicians (c.1600–c.800 bc), among whom trade, industry, and seafaring flourished. The wealth of the land attracted many conquerors, and Syria was invaded successively by the Hittites, Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, and others. In the 4th century bc, Syria fell to Alexander the Great, first in a long line of European conquerors. After the breakup of his empire, dominion over Syria was disputed by the Seleucid and Ptolemaic successor states, and Persians invaded when the opportunity arose; eventually the Seleucids gained control. In the 1st century bc, all of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Transjordan was conquered by the Romans and organized as the province of Syria; these areas are termed "geographic" Syria. Christianity, particularly after its official recognition in the early 4th century ad by Constantine the Great, spread throughout the region.

In 637, Damascus fell to the Arabs. Most Syrians were converted to Islam, and Arabic gradually became the language of the area. Under the Umayyad caliphs, Damascus became the capital of the Islamic world and a base for Arab conquests. Under the 'Abbasids, the caliphate was centered at Baghdād, and Syria was reduced to provincial status. Thereafter, geographic Syria fell prey to a succession of invaders, including Byzantines and Crusaders from Western Europe. Some parts of Syria came under the sway of Seljuks and Ayyubids, a Kurdish dynasty. The latter was most prominent under its leader Saladin (Salah ad-Din). During the 13th century, Mongols frequently invaded Syria, and for 200 years parts of Syria were controlled by the Mamluks, who ruled it from Egypt through local governors. In 1516, the Ottoman forces of Sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluks, and for the next four centuries, Syria was a province of the Ottoman Empire.

During World War I, Sharif Hussein (Husayn Ibn-'Ali) of Mecca threw in his lot with the Allies and revolted against Ottoman rule. After the war, with British forces in control, the formal entry of Allied troops into Damascus was made by Arab forces under Faisal (Faysal), Hussein's son, on 30 October 1918. Faisal and the Arab nationalists, whose number had been growing since 1912, opposed French aspirations to Syria and claimed independence under the terms of agreements between the British government and Hussein. In March 1920, Faisal was proclaimed king by a congress representing Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine. However, geographic Syria was divided into British and French mandates. In June, the French, who had been allotted a mandate for Syria and Lebanon by the Agreement of San Remo (April 1920), ejected Faisal and installed local administrations of their own choosing. Arab nationalists resented French rule; there was a major revolt from 1925 to 1927, and unrest persisted until the outbreak of World War II. In 1941, Free French and British forces wrested control of Syria from Vichy France. Two years later, under pressure from the United Kingdom and the United States, the French permitted elections and the formation of a nationalist government. The United Kingdom and the United States recognized Syria's independence in 1944, and the last French troops departed on 17 April 1946.

Two parties that had led the struggle for independence, the Nationalist Party and the People's Party, dominated Syrian political life in the immediate postwar period. However, the Palestine War of 1948–49, which resulted in the defeat of the Arab armies and the establishment of Israeli statehood, discredited the Syrian leadership. In December 1948, riots against the government were put down by the army, and several army factions struggled for more than a year to gain control of the Syrian state. Col. Adib Shishakli ruled Syria for most of the period from December 1949 to March 1954, when he was ousted by another army coup.

The years from 1954 to 1958 were marked by the growth of pan-Arab and left-of-center political forces at the expense of the traditional merchant landowner class, which dominated the Nationalist and People's parties. Foremost among these forces was the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, which saw in Gamal Abdel Nasser (Nasir), the president of Egypt, a kindred pan-Arabist. Military officers remained active in political affairs but were split into competing factions. Some elements of the Nationalist and People's parties sought to counter the left by seeking help from Iraq and other countries. In late 1957, influential military officers decided to seek unity with Egypt as a means of suppressing factionalism. Enthusiastically supported by the Ba'ath and other pan-Arabists, they appealed to Cairo. Nasser agreed, and on 1 February 1958, Egypt and Syria proclaimed the union of Syria and Egypt as the United Arab Republic (UAR).

A monolithic single-party structure replaced the lively Syrian political tradition; decisions were made in Cairo; land reforms were introduced. Syrians chafed under Egyptian rule, and in September 1961, after a military coup, Syria seceded from the UAR. A period of political instability followed until, on 8 March 1963, power was seized by a group of leftist army officers calling themselves the National Council of the Revolutionary Command, and a radical socialist government dominated by the Ba'ath Party was formed.

The period that followed was marked by internal struggles between the founders of the Ba'ath Party and a younger generation of party militants, many in the military. That generation came to power in 1966 but split in succeeding years. In the June 1967 war between Israel on one side, and Syria, Egypt, and Jordan on the other, Israel gained control of the Golan Heights. Gen. Hafez al-Assad (Hafiz al-Asad), a former chief of the Air Force and defense minister, became chief of state on 16 November 1970; he assumed the presidency, a reinstituted office, for the first of four seven-year terms beginning in March 1971, and a permanent constitution was ratified by popular referendum on 12 March 1973. On 6 October of that year, Syrian troops launched a full-scale attack against Israeli forces in the Golan Heights, as the Egyptians attacked in the Suez Canal area. After the UN cease-fire of 24 October, Israel remained in control of the Golan Heights, and Syria boycotted peace negotiations in Geneva. However, on 31 May 1974, Syria signed a US-mediated disengagement accord with Israel, restoring part of the Golan Heights to Syria and creating a buffer zone, manned by a UN peacekeeping force. The occupied sector of the Golan Heights was annexed by Israel in 1981; outside powers criticized and did not recognize the annexation.

In recent years, Syria has intervened militarily in neighboring Arab states to secure political ends. In September 1970, Syrian armored forces crossed the border into Jordan to support the Palestinians during the Jordanian civil war, but the Syrians were driven back by troops loyal to Jordan's King Hussein (Husayn) and by the threat of Israeli intervention. In 1976, Syrian troops entered Lebanon, nominally to enforce a cease-fire between Christian and Muslim forces but actually to help the Christian forces prevent a victory by leftist Muslims and Palestinians. Syria strongly opposed the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty of 1979 and was one of the few Arab states to support Iran in its war against Iraq, with which Syria had hoped to merge. Another merger plan, this one with Libya, was announced in September 1980, but the effort was stillborn. In October, Syria signed a 20-year friendship treaty with the USSR; subsequently, Syria received large quantities of Soviet arms, including antiaircraft missiles, which it deployed in the Bekaa (Biqa') Valley in Lebanon. After Israel invaded southern Lebanon in June 1982, the Israelis knocked out the missile batteries, crippled Syria's Soviet-equipped air force, and trapped Syrian as well as Palestinian fighters in Beirut before allowing their evacuation. Having reequipped its army with Soviet weapons, Syria maintained 25,000-35,000 troops in Lebanon until 2005. In the Lebanese civil war, Syria supported the Druze and Muslim militias against the Maronite Lebanese Forces.

Syria made repeated attempts to establish a cease-fire among Lebanon's factions. In 1989, it endorsed the Taif Accord for ending the conflict and, later, when Christian militia General Michel Aoun declared himself president of Lebanon and sought to expel the Syrian forces, assaulted his enclave with artillery and drove him out of the country. In 1991, Syria backed moves to disarm and disband the militias and signed a treaty with Beirut to put relations on a stable and peaceful basis. Under the Taif Accord, Syria was to have withdrawn its forces from Beirut and coastal areas by September 1992. Syria's withdrawal from Beirut took place in June 2001.

The authoritarian Assad regime was condemned by outsiders for assisting terrorist and drug smuggling groups. Both charges were played down after Syria joined the coalition of forces against Iraq in 1990 and agreed to participate in direct peace talks with Israel in 1991. The collapse of the Soviet Union removed Syria's most important source of external support, nullifying Assad's proclaimed strategy of refusing to negotiate with Israel until Syria gained military parity.

Internally, the regime was resented for its denial of democracy and the concentration of power with members of the Assad family's minority religious sect, the Alawis. The most serious internal threat came from Islamic militants in the late 1970s and early 1980s. In 1982, Assad sent the army against their stronghold in Hama, devastating a section of the city and causing tens of thousands of casualties. There has been no serious threat to the regime since then, and the Ba'ath Party has continued to control the country. In the 1990s, Assad took steps to liberalize economic controls and to permit some political freedoms. About 300 political prisoners were released in 1992 and Syrian Jews were again allowed to travel. Still, the country remains on the US State Department's list of countries that support terrorism and US trade is severely restricted. In 1994, Syrian officials met with representatives of Israel's Yitzhak Rabin–led government on the return of the Golan Heights—something Assad had wanted for decades. After Rabin's assassination, however, the talks were discontinued, and the stalemate between Syria and Israel continued. In 1997, US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright announced that she would visit Syria in an effort to get the stalled peace process back on track. Syria was officially guarded about the prospects for success, as it remained deeply suspicious of Israel's right-wing government led by Benjamin Netanyahu. In the same year, the Assad regime entered into negotiations with Iraq to open up its ports to the latter. Syria broke off diplomatic relations with Iraq after backing Iran in the 1980–88 war.

With the election of Labor leader Ehud Barak as prime minister of Israel in May 1999, new hope arose for improved relations with Israel, and a new round of peace talks between Syria and Israel was held in the United States, near Washington, D.C., in January 2000. In May 2000, Israel withdrew from southern Lebanon. By the late 1990s, serious concerns had been raised about the health and mental status of Syria's president, who was reportedly having "mental lapses" and suspected to be suffering from some form of dementia, as well as other infirmities. Nevertheless, Assad was elected to a fifth seven-year term in 1999 in a nearly unanimous vote. After the 1994 death in an automobile accident of Basel, the son whom the Syrian leader had been grooming to succeed him, another of Assad's sons, Bashar, was given increased responsibilities. Assad died on 10 June 2000 of a heart attack; 34-year-old Bashar Assad was unanimously elected secretary-general by the Ba'ath Party one week later. Parliament amended the constitution to lower the minimum age for a president from 40 to 34. In a July referendum, Bashar won overwhelming support to succeed his father, and he officially began a seven-year term as president on 17 July 2000.

In November 2000, President Assad ordered the release of more than 600 political prisoners. However, in September 2001, members of parliament and proreform activists were detained, which dulled hopes that Bashar would usher in a new climate of reform in the aftermath of his father's death. Although more than 100 dissidents were released from prison in November, human rights organizations maintain that hundreds of political prisoners remain in jail in Syria. In April 2001, the outlawed Muslim Brotherhood, whose members were targeted during the 1982 Hama massacre, announced its intention to resume political activity.

Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on 11 September 2001, Bashar Assad publicly emphasized Syria's stance on terrorism, although it did not support the US-led war on terrorism, stating military action was not the appropriate response to terrorism. The United States still lists Syria on its State Department's list of countries supporting terrorism, and in 2004 imposed economic sanctions on Syria over what it called its support for terrorism and failure to stop militants from entering Iraq from Syria.

Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut in June 2001 to redeploy in other parts of Lebanon, in response to greater Lebanese criticism of Syria's presence there. In April 2005, as a result of massive Lebanese street protests following the 14 February 2005 assassination of former Lebanese prime minister Rafik al-Hariri—called the "Cedar Revolution," for bringing down the pro-Syrian Lebanese cabinet—Syria withdrew all of its military forces from Lebanon.

One of the main reasons Israel has not pulled out of the Golan Heights has to do with water. The Golan Heights provides approximately 30% of Israel's water needs. The Dan, the Banyas, and the Hatzbani, tributaries of the upper Jordan River, originate in the Golan Heights. Israel's water needs are also tied to Lebanon. Lebanon has begun to divert 50 million cubic meters a year from the Wazzani and Hatzbani Rivers to supply villages in southern Lebanon with water. The Wazzani feeds into the Hatzbani, which in turn flows into the Jordan River watershed and Lake Kinneret (Lake Tiberias or the Sea of Galilee), a major source of Israel's water supply. In 2002, Sharon identified measures to divert water from Israel as a cause for war. In 1964 Syria tried to dam the waters that fed Lake Kinneret, but Israel destroyed the dams as one of the events leading to the 1967 Six-Day War. Since then, Syria has built 23 dams on the Yarmouk River, a tributary flowing into the Jordan River south of Lake Kinneret, affecting the water supplies of Israel and Jordan.

GOVERNMENT

After independence, Syria made several attempts at establishing a constitution. The constitution of 1950 was revived in amended form in 1962 and then abrogated. A provisional constitution adopted in April 1964 was suspended in 1966 and replaced to some extent by a series of edicts. The fundamental law that emerged considered Syria a socialist republic forming part of the Arab homeland, required that the head of state be a Muslim, recognized Islamic law as a main source of legislation, ordained collective ownership of the means of production, but permitted some private ownership.

The constitution of 12 March 1973, embodying these principles and ratified by popular referendum, vests strong executive power in the president, who is nominated by the Ba'ath Party and elected by popular vote to a seven-year term. The president, who appoints the cabinet (headed by a prime minister), also serves as commander-in-chief of the armed forces and as secretary-general of the Ba'ath Party; three vice presidents were named in March 1984, including President Assad's younger brother Rifaat, who was dismissed from this post in 1998. The two other vice presidents named in 1984 were still in office in 2005. The unicameral People's Assembly (Majlis al-shaab) has 250 members who are elected every four years, but who have no real power. Suffrage is universal, beginning at age 18. Syria has been under a state of emergency since 1963 (except for 1973–74). Although Bashar Assad announced in January 2001 that the emergency law was "frozen" and "not applied," the state of emergency still remained in force.

Bashar Assad began a seven-year term as president in July 2000 following his father's death that June. The next presidential election is scheduled to take place in 2007.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party is Syria's dominant political institution. It has a countrywide organization and controls mass organizations for youth, students, women, and the like. Only the Ba'ath may carry on political activity in the armed forces. It is far larger and more influential than the combined strength of its five partners in the National Progressive Front (NPF). This official political alignment, formed by President Hafez Assad in 1972, groups the Communist Party of Syria (SCP) and small leftist parties—the Syrian Arab Socialist Union (ASU), the Socialist Unionist Movement (ASUM), the Democratic Socialist Union Party (DSUP), and the Arab Socialist Party (ASP)—with the Ba'ath. The Ba'ath Party was founded in 1947 with the goals of Arab liberation, Arab unity, and socialism. Ba'athists attained control of the government in 1963, but the party became divided into two factions, a wing of doctrinaire socialists and a more pragmatic wing. Assad, then minister of defense and a strong nationalist, seized power in a bloodless coup in November 1970 and purged the doctrinaire Ba'athists from the government. The Ba'athists have relied on the minority Alawi sect, of which Assad was a member, and on the rural sector of the population generally. During his years as president, Assad appointed Ba'athist Alawis to influential positions in the government and in the military and security services. When Assad died on 10 June 2000, the Ba'ath Party held a party congress—its first since 1985—and elected Bashar Assad secretary-general. Bashar Assad succeeded his father as president the next month.

Hafez Assad, the sole presidential candidate for over 20 years, won national plebiscites by 99% majorities on 12 March 1971, 8 February 1978, 13 March 1985, 2 December 1991, and 10 February 1999. His son, Bashar, won in July 2000 by a vote of 8.6 million to 22,000. In elections on 1 December 1998, the Ba'ath won 135 seats; the ASU, 8; SCP, 8; ASUM, 7; ASP, 5; DSUP, 4; and independents, 83. In the March 2003 elections, the NPF won 167 seats (with the Ba'ath winning 135 seats once again), and independents held 83 seats. The next elections are scheduled to take place in 2007.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Syria is divided into 14 provinces (muhafazat) ; every province has a governor (muhafiz) and council. Each province is in turn divided into districts (mantiqat), each headed by a qaimmaqam. Each district is further subdivided into subdistricts, each in the charge of a mudir. Governors are appointed by and are directly responsible to the authorities in Damascus.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The Syrian legal system is based partly on French law and partly on Syrian statutes. Investigating magistrates determine whether a case should be sent to trial. Minor infringements are handled by peace courts, and more serious cases go to courts of first instance. There are civil and criminal appeals courts, the highest being the Court of Cassation. Separate state security courts have jurisdiction over activities affecting the security of the government. In addition, Shariah courts apply Islamic law in cases involving personal status. The Druze and non-Muslim communities have their own religious courts.

A Supreme Constitutional Court investigates and rules on petitions submitted by the president or one-fourth of the members of the People's Assembly challenging the constitutionality of laws or legislative decrees. This court has no jurisdiction to hear appeals for cases from the civil or criminal courts.

The constitution provides for an independent judiciary. The regular court system is independent; however, the state security courts are not completely independent from the executive.

There are no jury trials. The regular courts respect constitutional provisions safeguarding due process. The Supreme State Security Court tries political and national security cases. The Economic Security Court tries cases involving financial crimes. Both courts operate under the state-of-emergency rules overriding constitutional defendants' rights.

ARMED FORCES

In 2005, Syria's armed forces had 307,600 active personnel, supported by 354,000 reservists. The Army had 200,000 personnel, and included seven armored divisions, three mechanized infantry divisions, a Republican Guard division, four independent infantry brigades, three surface-to-surface missile brigades, two artillery brigades, one special forces division, and one border guard brigade. The Army had 4,600 main battle tanks, 800 reconnaissance vehicles, 2,200 armored infantry fighting vehicles, over 1,600 armored personnel carriers, and 3,150 artillery pieces, in addition to sophisticated antitank and antiaircraft weapons. The Syrian Navy had 7,600 active personnel, with major naval units that included two frigates, 20 patrol/coastal vessels, and five mine warfare ships. The naval aviation arm operated 25 attack and 25 antisubmarine warfare helicopters. The nation's Air Force had 40,000 personnel, with 632 combat-capable aircraft, including 390 fighters and 126 fighter ground attack aircraft. The service also had 71 attack helicopters. The Air Defense Command had an estimated 60,000 personnel with 25 air defense brigades and two Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) regiments, which included 4,707 surface-to-air missiles. Paramilitary forces included a gendarmerie of 8,000 and a workers' militia with an estimated 100,000 members. In 2005, the military budget totaled $1.72 billion. Syria, in that same year, removed its 18,000 troops in Lebanon. A total of 150 Russian troops were stationed in Syria.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Syria is a founding member of the United Nations (UN), having joined on 24 October 1945, and belongs to ESCWA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, the World Bank, UNSECO, UNIDO, the ILO, and the WHO. Syria served on the UN Security Council from 2002 to 2003. It is a charter member of the Arab League, set up in 1945 to foster cooperation in foreign and domestic affairs. Syria also belongs to the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, the Council of Arab Economic Unity, G-24, G-77, the Islamic Development Bank, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and OAPEC.

Syria is a member of the Nonaligned Movement. Despite a long history of tense relations, Syria established full diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1989. Lebanon and Syria signed a treaty of brotherhood, cooperation, and coordination in 1991. Syria and Israel have a strained relationship based on Syria's support of the Palestinian cause. Syria cooperated with the US-led multinational coalition of forces in the Gulf War (1990–91) and has offered limited cooperation in the war on terrorism.

In environmental cooperation, Syria is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Despite repeated announcements of economic reforms, Syria's economy continues to be dominated by the state, with the government budget acting as the principle tool for managing the economy. In 2002, the government announced that its program for privatization had been replaced by a priority on making state enterprises more efficient.

Statistics on the Syrian economy are subject to government manipulation and revision, and may be inaccurate and inconsistent. Traditionally, Syria is an agricultural economy, and by 2001 estimates, this sector accounted for 40% of the labor force and 27% of gross domestic product (GDP). Subsistence agriculture has given way to modern production and marketing methods, although 80% is still rain-fed and vulnerable to drought. Droughts in 1997 and 1999 were significant factors lowering GDP growth. Wheat and barley constitute two-thirds of the cultivated area but cotton is the main cash crop.

Development of the state-owned oil industry and exploitation of other mineral resources, notably phosphates, have helped to diversify Syrian industry, which was formerly concentrated in light manufacturing and textiles. Although Syria's oil production is small by Middle Eastern standards, in 2001 oil accounted for 70% of Syria's exports and 20% of its GDP. Syria became an oil exporter in 1987, but at present levels of proven reserves it will become an importer again within 10 years.

Economic growth in Syria has depended on oil prices, foreign aid, and good weather. Low oil prices and drought dampened growth in the late 1980s, but in the first half of the 1990s, due to increased oil production, recovery from drought and nearly $5 billion in foreign aid as a "reward" for its participation in the Gulf War combined to help the economy to register average annual growth rates of 5.3% in the late 1990s. Oil production peaked in 1996 at about 600,000 bbl/d, after which it declined due to technical problems and depletion. Modest growth was restored in 2000 and 2001 (about 2.1% and 2.0%, respectively) with the increase in oil prices. For 2002, real GDP growth was an estimated 3.2%.

On 14 July 1998 Iraq and Syria signed a memorandum of understanding reopening the Iraqi Petroleum Co. (IPC) pipeline built in 1934 connecting the Kirkuk oil fields with the Syrian port of Banias on the Mediterranean. Syria had closed the pipeline in 1982 when it broke off diplomatic relations with Iraq and shifted to Iran as an oil supplier. The IPC pipeline had been severely damaged during the Gulf War, and it was not until March 2000 that it was reported serviceable. In mid-November 2000, numerous press reports began circulating claiming that the IPC pipeline was being used to ship Iraqi oil to Syrian refineries on favorable terms, allowing Iraq to obtain oil revenues above the limits set by the United Nation's Oil-for-Food program. Iraq and Syria denied the allegations, but according to the US Department of Energy (DOE), independent analysts determined that Syria's export levels of crude oil in 2001 could not have been attained without importing from Iraq in the range of 150,000 and 200,000 bbl/d. In November 2001, Iraq and Syrian reportedly signed an agreement on building a new $200 million pipeline to replace the aging IPC line. In April 2003, as part of the invasion of Iraq, American troops shut down the IPC pipeline. The cost to Syria of the shutdown was estimated at $500 million to $1 billion a year.

The GDP growth rate was estimated at 1.5% in 2005, down from 1.8% in 2004, and 2.6% in 2003. The inflation rate has been fairly stable, and at 2.6% in 2005, it did not pose any major problems to the economy. The unemployment rate has been fairly stable, hovering around 2.5%. The government has implemented modest economic reforms, but most of the economy continues to be under its control. Declining oil production and population growth pressure on water supplies are long term problems that the country needs to deal with.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Syria's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $63.9 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $3,500. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 1.4%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 2.6%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 25% of GDP, industry 31%, and services 44%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $618 million (about $4 per capita) and accounted for approximately 2.9% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $160 million (about $9 per capita) and accounted for approximately 0.8% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Syria totaled $13.88 billion (about $80 per capita) based on a GDP of $21.5 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 2.3%. It was estimated that in 2004, about 20% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

The Syrian labor force is well educated and well trained in comparison with that of other Arab countries, but its size is small because about half the population is under 15 years of age and because many skilled workers are employed abroad in Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) member nations. Syria's labor force in 2004 was estimated at 5.12 million. As of 2002, it was estimated that agriculture accounted for 30% of the workforce, with 27% in industry and 43% in the services sector. There is a high level of underemployment, with unemployment in 2002 estimated at 20%. Many unskilled persons in agriculture and industry work only seasonally. The government is attempting to meet the demand for trained workers by establishing vocational schools.

The statutory workweek is 36 hours. In 2002, the minimum wage was $57 per month in the public sector and between $49 and $53 per month in the private sector. The law mandates one day of rest per week. These regulations are enforced through the minister of labor and social affairs. Generally, the legal minimum age for employment is 16 years, with some exceptions. The Labor Law of 1959 established the right of workers to form unions and empowered the government to regulate hours of work, vacations, sick leave, health and safety measures, and workers' compensation. However, unions must belong to the government's bureaucratic labor confederation. The confederation acts merely as a conduit to transfer directives from government decision makers to unions and workers. Thus, there is no meaningful right to strike or bargain collectively. The government also is authorized to arbitrate labor disputes.

AGRICULTURE

About 6.1 million hectares (15.1 million acres) are arable, but the area actually cultivated is about 5.4 million hectares (13.6 million acres), or 30% of the total area. Because only 25% of cultivated land is irrigated, agriculture depends on rainfall, which is uncertain, and in lean years Syria becomes a net importer of wheat and barley; this strains the whole economy and hampers development. The government has two approaches to this problem: to increase the use of fertilizers in low rainfall areas and to add substantially to irrigated cultivation. The irrigated area was expected to double through the Euphrates Dam project, which was completed in 1978. Lake Assad, formed by the dam, was planned to eventually provide irrigation for some 640,000 hectares (1,581,000 acres). Costs of land reclamation, technical difficulties due to gypsum in the soil, and low water, in part caused by Turkish damming upstream, have slowed progress. Total irrigated area reached an estimated 1,333,000 hectares (3,294,000 acres) in 2003. The government has allocated an increasing share of its investments to irrigation, but full development of irrigation schemes is expected to take at least another 20 years. However, given the current water management policies, Syria could face a serious water shortage much sooner.

Traditionally, much of Syria's agricultural land was held by landowners in tracts of more than 100 hectares (250 acres); sharecropping was customary. This picture was greatly altered by the government's agrarian reform program, begun in 1958. The law, as modified in 1963, fixed the maximum holding of irrigated land at 15–50 hectares (37–124 acres) per person and nonirrigated land at 80 hectares (198 acres) per person. All expropriated land available for cultivation has been allotted to farmers.

The principal cash crop is cotton, but cotton's share of total export value declined from 33% in 1974 to 2.3% by 2004. Other cash crops are cereals, vegetables, fruit, and tobacco. Since the government suspended convertibility of the Syrian pound, grain and other agricultural products have been smuggled to Lebanon in exchange for goods not available through the state importing agencies. Production (in thousands of tons) for major agricultural commodities in 2004 was as follows: wheat, 4,537; barley, 527; corn, yellow, 180; tomatoes, 920; potatoes, 500; olives, 950; grapes, 300; apples, 215; oranges, 427; cotton lint, 331; seed cotton, 1,023; sugar beets, 1,250; and tobacco, 26.5.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Grazing land occupies 8.3 million hectares (20.5 million acres), or about 45% of Syria's total area. Stock raising contributes significantly to the Syrian economy. Between 1963 and 1981, livestock herds more than doubled in number, and since 1975, the number of model farms, veterinary units, and livestock artificial insemination centers has increased considerably.

Sheep are the most important livestock animals in Syria, grazing on poorly developed wheat and barley fields and on the remains of crops such as wheat and corn. In 2005, there were an estimated 15.3 million sheep. Mutton production was an estimated 207,000 tons in 2005; sheep milk production, 604,000 tons. The price of mutton of the Awassi breed, which is in high demand in Syria, was about 35% higher than beef in the mid-1990s.

There were also 1,018,000 goats, 940,000 head of cattle, 15,000 camels, 2,800 buffaloes, and 30,000,000 chickens in 2005. Animals and animal products account for 40% of total agricultural output by value. Production of cow's milk in 2005 totaled 1,250,000 tons; cheese, 95,400 tons; butter and ghee, 16,300 tons; and eggs, 167,000 tons.

FISHING

There is some fishing off the Mediterranean coast and from rivers and fish farms. The commercial catch was 16,128 tons in 2003, with common carp and tilapia from inland waters accounting for 40%.

FORESTRY

Syria is almost entirely denuded of native forests. Approximately 461,000 hectares (1,139,000 acres) were forestland in 2000, but only about 50,000 cu m (1.77 million cu ft) of roundwood were produced in 2004. Most of the designated forestland consists either of wholly barren land or of rangeland with arboreous shrubs. The substantial forests are mainly on the northern slopes of the Ansariyah range, on the windward side of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and in the Al Lādhiqiyah region.

MINING

Syria's mineral resources are not extensive, but deposits of iron, petroleum, and phosphate have been exploited. Syria is a leading exporter of phosphate rock, while petroleum has become a leading source of foreign currency earnings. In 2003, the production of phosphate rock (gross weight) totaled 2,414,000 tons, down from 2,483,000 million tons in 2002. Other mineral deposits include asphalt, salt, chromite, and marble. Marble and salt were mined in commercial quantities. In 2004, an estimated 340 metric tons of marble blocks were quarried, with salt output in that same year estimated at 146,000 metric tons. Syria also produces hydraulic cement, refractory-grade dolomite, natural gas, natural gas liquids, gravel and crushed rock, gypsum, nitrogen, phosphatic fertilizers, phosphoric acid, construction and industrial sand, steel, dimension stone, sulfur, and volcanic tuff. No metal was mined in 2003. Deposits of silica sand in al-Qaristyn had resources of 150 million tons. The mineral industry is owned and controlled by the government. In 2001, the government announced its intention to open the mineral industry to local and foreign private investors. The rapid expansion of the construction sector in the near future is expected to increase Syria's demand for cement, gypsum, limestone, gravel, sand, and steel.

ENERGY AND POWER

Syria's proven reserves of oil have made it the largest oil producer in the eastern Mediterranean region (includes Israel, Jordan and Lebanon). It also has reserves of natural gas, but no known reserves of coal.

As of 1 January 2005, Syria had proven oil reserves estimated at 2.5 billion barrels. In 2004, oil production and domestic consumption averaged an estimated 460,000 barrels per day and 265,000 barrels per day, respectively. In that same year, Syria's oil exports averaged 195,000 barrels per day. In 1996, Syria's oil output peaked at 590,000 barrels per day, and has been declining as reserves have become depleted, and as older fields reach maturity. Production of oil is expected to steadily decline in upcoming years, and if the trend continues, the country could become a net importer of oil within 10 years, as consumption increases as the population grows. As of 2000, however, it was estimated that only 36% of Syria's potential oil and gas deposits had been drilled.

Syria has two refineries, one at Himş, and the other at Banias. Reported as of August 2005, each refinery has an average production of 107,140 barrels per day and 132,725 barrels per day, respectively.

As of 1 January 2005, Syria's proven reserves of natural gas were estimated at 8.5 trillion cu ft. In 2003, natural gas production and domestic demand were each estimated at 245 billion cu ft. About 50% of the country's natural gas production is nonassociated with the production of oil. Also, Syria's production of natural gas is expected to increase as part of a strategy to replace the use of oil with natural gas to generate electric power, thus freeing up more oil for export.

As of 2003, Syria's installed electric power generating capacity totaled about 7.6 GW, of which 1.5 GW was came from hydroelectric capacity and the rest from natural gas and fuel oil. In 2003, Electric power output was estimated at 27.2 billion kWh, with demand estimated at 25.3 billion kWh.

INDUSTRY

Syria has been renowned since ancient times for such handicrafts as Damascus brocade and Syrian soap. Some of these traditions endured even after 1933, when the first mechanized plant for spinning and weaving was set up in Aleppo. In 1965, the textile industry was nationalized and reorganized into 13 large state corporations. A series of nationalization measures after 1963 resulted in public control of most industry, but efforts have been made to stimulate the expansion of the private sector, as state-owned industries suffer from low productivity. In the 1970s, government policy began emphasizing domestic industrial production (coupled with high tariffs on imported consumer goods) of iron and steel, fertilizers, chemicals, and household appliances. In 1995, manufacturing and mining accounted for 14% of GDP. By 2000, this proportion had reached 23%. In 2002, the government announced that priority would be shifted from efforts to privatize the state-owned enterprises (SOEs) to continued efforts to increase their efficiency.

Important industries include the chemical and engineering industries, the food industry, and oil refining. The largest component of the General Establishment of Chemical Industries (GECI) is the cement industry, which is considered strategic and wholly state owned. The General Organization for Cement and Building Materials consists of seven state-owned but independently operated cement companies. The total capacity in 2001 was about 5 million tons per year, with government plans to increase this to 8 million tons per year. Another subsidiary of GECI is the General Fertilizer Co. (GFC). It has two nitrogenous fertilizer plants and one phosphate-based unit, all located at Himş. Under construction in 2002 was a 500,000 ton/year triple-superphosphate plant near Palmyra being built by Bechtel and Makad International. Also planned is a 450,000 nitrogenous complex near Hasaka to use natural gas from the Omar field in northeast Syria. Syria's fertilizer industry rests on its ample deposits of natural gas and phosphates, and produces ammonia, urea and nitrogenous fertilizers. Syria also has an iron-rolling mill at Himş and factories producing furniture, refrigerators, paper, glass and plastic products, and television sets. Some 70,000 tons of crude steel were produced in 1995. Syria has a total refinery capacity of 239,860 barrels per day from two refineries: a 132,725 barrels per day capacity refinery at Banias and a 107,140 barrels per day capacity refinery at Himş. Plans to upgrade both have been announced.

The industrial production growth rate was 7% in 2002 (higher than the GDP growth rate), establishing the industrial sector as a growth engine. In 2003, industry accounted for 31% of the GDP, and was bested by services with 44%. Out of the 5.1 million working people, 27% were engaged in industrial activities, 43% in services, and 27% in agriculture.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Courses in basic and applied science are offered at Al-Baath University (founded in 1979 at Himş), the University of Aleppo (Halab) (founded in 1960), the University of Damascus (founded in 1903), and Tishreen University (founded in 1971 at Lattakia). In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 23% of college and university enrollments. Major scientific research institutions in Syria include the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), founded in 1977 at Aleppo and the Arab Center for the Study of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD), founded in 1971 at Damascus. The country's advanced petrochemical technologies have been installed by foreign oil companies. In early 1987, an estimated 2,500 Soviet military technicians were stationed in Syria; civilian personnel also provided assistance in various fields. For the period 1990–2001, there were 29 researchers and 24 technicians engaged in research and development per million people. In 2002, high technology exports were valued at $2 million, or 1% of the country's manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Damascus and Aleppo are the principal commercial centers. Virtually all importers, exporters, and wholesalers have offices in one or both cities. The chief retail centers have general and specialized stores as well as large bazaars. Smaller bazaars and open markets are found in many Syrian towns and villages. Advertising agencies use newspapers, magazines, moving picture theaters, signs on buses, and other media.

The Syrian government cracked down on smuggling in May 1993. Most of the previously smuggled commodities can now be imported through official channels. Commodity smuggling from Lebanon, however, is still present and provides an "unofficial market" for imported products at the free market exchange rate reflective of world price levels.

Usual business hours are from 9 am to 1 pm and from 3:30 pm to 7 pm. Friday is the weekly day of rest. Banking hours are Saturday–Thursday, 8 am to 2 pm.

The Damascus International Fair and the Syrian Industrial Marketing Fair are annual events.

FOREIGN TRADE

During the 1980s, Syria focused on increasing its trade with socialist nations. However, when the Soviet Union broke apart in 1991, Syria increased trade with European nations. In 2000, the European Union (EU) countries took 66% of exports and supplied 31% of imports, while countries of the Middle East took 28% of exports and supplied 14% of imports. Syria's main export commodities are crude petroleum (69%) and refined petroleum products (7.0%). Other exports include cotton (4.3%), vegetables (2.9%), garments (2.8%), and fruits and nuts (2.0%).

In 2005, exports reached $6.3 billion (FOB—Free on Board),

while imports grew to $6.0 billion (FOB). In 2004, the bulk of exports went to Italy (22.7%), France (18%), Turkey (12.9%), Iraq (9%), and Saudi Arabia (6.2%). Imports included machinery and transport equipment, food and livestock, metal and metal products, and chemicals, and mainly came from Turkey (9.4%), the Ukraine (8.7%), China (7.8%), Russia (5.4%), Saudi Arabia (5.2%), the United States (4.7%), South Korea (4.6%), and Italy (4.3%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Syria has had serious deficits in its trade balance since 1976, but import restrictions, foreign aid (especially from other Arab governments), and the drawdown of foreign exchange holdings enabled the government to cover the losses. Since the late 1980s, the

government has been encouraging private-sector trade. Privatesector exports consequently skyrocketed from $79 million in 1987 to $517 million in 1990, thus reducing the trade deficit. An upturn in world oil prices at the end of the 1990s and into the early 2000s and an improvement in the country's agricultural exports greatly improved the balance of payments situation.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2001, the purchasing power parity of Syria's exports was $5 billion, while imports totaled $4 billion, resulting in a trade surplus of $1 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2000, Syria had exports of goods totaling $5.15 billion and imports totaling $3.7 billion. The services credit totaled $1.7 billion and debit $1.67 billion.

Exports of goods and services totaled $6.4 billion in 2004, down from $6.6 billion in 2003. Imports grew from $7.0 billion in 2003, to $7.2 billion in 2004. The resource balance was consequently negative, and on a downward path—from -$354 million in 2003, to -$495 million in 2004. An opposite trend was registered for the current account balance, which improved from -$477 million in 2003, to $514 million in 2004. Foreign exchange reserves (including gold) increased to $4.3 billion in 2004, covering more than seven months of imports.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

Syria's financial services sector is underdeveloped. Besides the Central Bank, there are five banks in the country, all of which are state run. The Central Bank, founded in 1956, is the bank of issue for currency, the financial agent of the government, and the cashier for the treasury. The Agricultural Bank makes loans to farmers at low interest; the Industrial Bank (nationalized in 1961), the People's Credit Bank and the Real Estate Bank (both founded in 1966), and the Commercial Bank of Syria (formed in 1967 by a merger of five nationalized commercial banks) make loans in their defined sectors. Unused Syrian pounds cannot be sold back to the Commercial Bank, and the private exchange of foreign currencies and Syrian pounds is a criminal act. These strict currency controls are the largest disincentives to investment and foreign trade. So decrepit is the country's financial services sector that most Syrian businessmen and foreigners use banks in either Lebanon or Cyprus. Foreign diplomats in Damascus, for instance, use accounts in the Chtaura, in Lebanon's Beqaa valley, around one hour by car from Damascus.

Private-sector groups have called for reforms such as private participation in banking, the creation of a stock exchange, and separation of the Central Bank of Syria from the government. Privatization of banks, which had been prohibited for 30 years, arrived in 2001 with new banking reform laws. The country's four banks are all owned by the government and interest rates are fixed by law. In March 2001, President Bashir issued Law 28, authorizing the establishment of private and joint-venture banks, with foreigners permitted up to 49% ownership. To date, none has been established, but in January 2003 the government identified five banks to be licensed in the third quarter.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $37.4 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $62.0 billion. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 5%.

INSURANCE

All insurance in Syria was nationalized in 1963 and is controlled by the government-owned General Insurance Organization of Syria (formerly the Syrian Insurance Co.). Motor vehicle insurance is compulsory. In 1999, $337.2 million in premiums were written in Syria. Twenty-two million was spent on these premiums, making the insurance sector's share of the gross domestic product 0.40%.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Although Syria was able to balance its budget in 1992, large military expenditures and continued subsidization of basic commodities and social services have produced deficits in subsequent years. State intervention in business and price controls put a damper on growth.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Syria's central government took in revenues of approximately $5.6 billion and had expenditures of $6.5 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$836 million. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 45% of GDP. Total external debt was $8.59 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 1999, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues in millions of Syrian pounds were 196,096 and expenditures were 190,300. The value of revenues in millions of US dollars was $17,470 and expenditures $16,953, based on a principal exchange rate for 1999 of 11.225 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 12.9%; defense, 23.6%; economic affairs, 44.0%; housing and community amenities, 1.0%; health, 2.3%; recreation, culture, and religion, 1.5%; education, 9.2%; and social protection, 5.3%.

TAXATION

Relatively low salaries have kept the tax base narrow, and price controls have restricted the taxable profits from industry. By decree in 2001, the president raised the minimum exemption for income taxes to s£1,000 (about $22). There are taxes on individual income (at progressive rates of 5–12.5%).

Business profits are taxed at progressive rates of 10% to 35%. Shareholding companies and industrial limited liability companies are taxed at a flat rate of 25%, if an investment in machinery and plant in excess of s£5 million is made. Capital gains are included in taxable income are taxed at the applicable corporate rate. However, capital gains resulting from the sale of shares by the shareholder are not taxed. Dividends distributed by Syrian companies are not subject to a withholding tax if paid out of profits that have already been taxed. For Syrian and non-Syrian companies and individuals, income from movable capital (interest, royalties, and foreign sources of dividends) are taxed at a flat rate of 7.5%. There is no general sales tax, but consumption taxes are assessed on specific items such as petrol, rice and sugar. Other taxes include excise taxes, property taxes, stamp duties, and social security contributions.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Goods imported into Syria are subject to a customs duty and "unified" tax. Rates are progressive and, as of 2005, ranged from 1–200% depending on the government's view of the necessity for the products. Food and industrial raw materials carry low rates while luxury goods, such as automobiles, have rates of 150–200%. The unified tax is a surcharge on all imported goods and ranges from 6–35%. The tax helps to support the military, schools, and municipalities.

Syria has free-trade agreements with Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Qatar, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. Trade agreements with Libya, Morocco, Oman, and Tunisia are in negotiations. There is a single-column tariff modified by trade and transit agreements with other Arab League states, under which member countries are granted preferential duties on some products and duty-free entry for others. Syria accepts the Arab League boycott of Israel.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Although a government decree prohibits confiscation of foreign investments, there are no safeguards against nationalization of property. In principle, the judicial system upholds the obligations of contracts but in practice decisions are subject to outside pressures. In addition, poor infrastructure, power outages, lack of financial services, and complex foreign exchange regulations have all contributed to Syria's failure to attract significant amounts of foreign investment. Four major pieces of legislation have been passed to encourage foreign investment. Decision 186, issued in 1985, was aimed at encouraging investment in tourism. Decree 10 in 1986 was designed to encourage joint-venture agricultural companies. In June 1991, in the wake of the Gulf War, the government issued Investment Law 10, aimed at promoting investment in all sectors of the economy by providing the same incentives to local and foreign investors. Qualifying investors are granted tax holidays and duty-free privileges for the import of capital goods. The law succeeded in attracting investments particularly in textiles, pharmaceuticals, food processing, and other light industries. The primary investors have been from the Gulf states. In 1999, it was estimated that nearly 1,500 projects valued at $6.5 billion had been approved since the reforms of 1991. In May 2000, Decree 7 amended Law 10 of 1991 to make investment more attractive by extending tax holiday periods, increasing hard currency flexibility, reducing income taxes on shareholding companies, and offering sector and regional incentives. A tax holiday of five years is extended to seven years for enterprises that export over 51% of their output.

The most significant foreign investment in Syria had been in gas and oil. In 1990, 12 foreign oil firms had operations in Syria, but as of mid-2002, only five remained—Shell, Total-Fina-Elf, Mol (Hungary), INA-Naftaplin (Croatia) and Conoco. Other foreign investors include Mitsubishi, Samsung, Mobil, Nestlé, and Prince Walid Bin Talal of Saudi Arabia. Foreign investment is complicated by Syrian requirements of import and export licenses on every item imported and then reexported, no matter the value, and by US sanctions on supplying Syria any "dual" use items such as computers and oil exploration equipment. Despite a recent 20% increase, the average wage in the public sector remains below minimum subsistence levels, and provides a strong motivation for widespread corruption. In 2002, an increasingly strict enforcement of the Arab League's boycott of Israeli goods added more complications to obtaining supplies and more layers of red tape. US government insurance programs for foreign investors, such as OPIC, are not available for investors in Syria, and the country is on the State Department's list of sponsors of terrorism. USAID ended assistance to Syria in 1983, and financing cannot be obtained through government agencies like the Export-Import Bank. There are six duty-free zones in Syria: near the border town of Dar'a (a joint venture with Jordan), north of Damascus at Adra, in Damascus, at the Damascus Airport, and at the ports of Al Lādhiqiyah and Tartus. According to official estimates, there were 350 foreign and joint-venture investment projects in the country as of 2002, with a total value of about $3 billion.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The transformation of Syria's economy began with the Agrarian Reform Law in 1958, which called for the expropriation of large tracts of land. During the union with Egypt, laws were passed for the nationalization of banks, insurance companies, and large industrial firms. After the Ba'ath Party came to power in 1963, the socialist trend reasserted itself with greater force. A series of laws created a new banking system and instituted public ownership of all large industries. By the early 1970s, however, the government had relaxed many restrictions on trade, foreign investment, and private-sector activity in an effort to attract private and foreign, especially Arab, contributions to Syria's economic growth.

Since 1961, a series of five-year plans has concentrated on developing the nation's infrastructure and increasing agricultural and industrial production. Investments reached 60% of the target under the first plan (1961–65); the second plan (1966–70) aimed to expand real GDP by 7.2% annually but achieved a yearly growth rate of only 4.7%. The third plan (1971–75) was disrupted by the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, but thanks to aid from other Arab states and large oil price increases, Syria experienced an economic boom with a high annual growth rate of 13%. The fourth plan (1976–80) was hampered by the high cost of Syria's military intervention in Lebanon and a cutoff of aid from Gulf states; economic growth varied widely, from 2.8% in 1977 to 9.2% in 1980.

Under the fifth plan (1981–85), development projects begun during the previous plan were to be continued or completed. Total investment was estimated at s£101 billion, of which 23% was to be provided by the private sector. Real GDP was to grow by 7.7% annually; actual growth rates ranged from 10.2% in 1981 to 3.6% in 1984, averaging 2.3% for the period.

Syria's sixth development plan (1986–90) emphasized increased productivity rather than new projects, with special emphasis on agriculture and agro-industries. Actual investment in agriculture accounted for 18.7% of total spending. The share of the industry and energy sector was at 19.7%, far below the planned 30.9%. Services received the highest share, with 53% of the total.

The seventh five-year plan (1991–95) proposed total investments of s£259 billion, more than double the amount spent under the previous plan. It aims at spending 81.7% of the total on the public sector and 18.3% on the mixed-sector/private-sector cooperatives. Officials at the Supreme Planning Commission have stated that agriculture and irrigation continue to receive top priority, with self-sufficiency in cereal production a policy objective. Output in agriculture and manufacturing is planned to expand by 5.6% per annum.

During 1949–86, multilateral assistance to Syria totaled $822.7 million, of which 77% came through the IBRD. US loans and grants during the same period amounted to $581.9 million. Financial aid to Syria from Arab oil-producing states has not been made public. Since 1982, Syria has received a million tons of oil annually from Iran, free of charge. Because Syria is in arrears on payments to the World Bank, disbursements were halted in 1988 and projects canceled. Syria has been in violation of the Brooke Amendment since 1985. The improvement in Syria's external payment position in 1989 as well as the resumption of aid flows to Syria in 1990 due to its participation in the coalition against Iraq helped to restore its ability to repay its debt.

The outlook for the economy in the coming years is not very encouraging. GDP is expected to expand by meager rates of under 1.5% per year. This trend is caused by declining oil production, a hostile political environment, and an incapacity of the government to attract much needed foreign investment.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A system of social insurance provides old-age pensions and disability and death benefits. The pension system is funded by 14% contributions from employers and 7% from employees. Retirement is set at age 60 with 180 months of contributions, or age 55 with 240 months. Survivors' pensions are paid to widows only; widowers are covered only if disabled. Employers also contribute 3% of payroll to fund workers' compensation providing temporary and permanent disability benefits, as well as medical and survivor benefits. Funeral grants amount to one month's earnings.

Although the government supports equal pay for equal work and encourages education for women, Islamic precepts govern many areas of women's lives, including marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance. Some secular laws also discriminate against women. Victims of domestic violence do not seek redress due to social stigma, and there are no reliable statistics regarding abuse and rape. Children's rights are generally protected.

The human rights situation is poor and fundamental rights are denied. Arbitrary arrest and incommunicado detention are common. Detainees' relatives are also arrested to force confessions. Torture is common. Public criticism of the Ba'ath Party or of government officials is not permitted. Local human rights organizations are banned, although one international organization was allowed to conduct a limited fact-finding mission.

HEALTH

In 1947, Syria had only 37 hospitals, with a total of 1,834 beds, but by 1985, the number of hospitals had increased to 195, with 11,891 beds. The government also maintains mobile hospital units, modern laboratories, x-ray centers, sanatoriums, and dispensaries. In 2004, there were an estimated 140 physicians, 72 dentists, 52 pharmacists, and 140 nurses per 100,000 people. In 1993, about 99% of the population had access to health care services. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 2.5% of GDP.

Since World War II, malaria has been virtually eliminated with the aid of the World Health Organization, but intestinal and respiratory diseases associated with poor living conditions are still common, particularly in rural areas. Cases of malaria, tuberculosis and leprosy persist. Approximately 80% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 90% had adequate sanitation.

As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at 30.1 and 5.1 per 1,000 people, respectively. About 45% of married women (ages 15 to 49) used contraception. In 2005, the infant mortality rate was 29.53 per 1,000 live births. Maternal mortality was 110 per 100,000 live births. Average life expectancy was 70.03 years in 2005. Immunization rates for children up to one year old were tuberculosis, 100%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 100%; polio, 100%; and measles, 98%. Rates for DPT and measles were 94% and 97%, respectively.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 500 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 200 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

The 1981–85 development plan allocated s£2.6 billion to construction projects, including housing. According to the latest available information for 1980–88, total housing units numbered 1,670,000 with 6.4 people per dwelling. In 2000, there were about 2,824,845 dwellings.

EDUCATION

Elementary schooling is free and compulsory for nine years, which are covered in two stages (five years plus four years) of basic school. Secondary schools offer three-year programs in general (scientific or literary), technical, and vocational studies. The academic year runs from September to June.

In 2001, about 9% of children between the ages of three and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 98% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 43% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 87.5% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 24:1 in 2000; the ratio for secondary school was about 18:1.

Syria has four universities: the University of Damascus (founded in 1923); the University of Aleppo (Halab, 1960); Tishrin University (Al Lādhiqiyah, 1971); and Al-Ba'ath University in Himş (Homs, 1979). In 1995, all higher-level institutions had a total of 4,733 teachers and 215,734 students. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 82.9%, with 91% for men and 74.2% for women.

As of 1999, public expenditures on education were estimated at 2.8% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The Assad National Library, founded in 1984 in Damascus and an adjunct of the Arab Academy, has 262,000 volumes and is well known for rare books and manuscripts. The library of the University of Damascus has 169,000 volumes. The Al Zahiriah public library in Damascus has 100,000 volumes. There are also public libraries in Halab, Damascus, Himş, and Al Ladhiqìyah.

The most important museum is the National Museum in Damascus, founded in 1919. It contains ancient Oriental, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic collections and houses the Directorate-General of Antiquities, established in 1947, which supervises excavations and conserves antiquities under the Antiquities Law. Also in Damascus, there is the Museum of Art and Popular Traditions and the Museum of Arabic Medicine and Science. There are small museums in Halab, Hama, Himş, Palmyra, Tartos, and other cities.

MEDIA

Nearly all communications facilities are owned and operated by the government, including the postal service, telegraph, telephone, radio, and television. In 2003, there were an estimated 123 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; over two million people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 65 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

The government-controlled Syrian Broadcasting Service transmits on medium wave and shortwave, and broadcasts in Arabic and 10 foreign languages. Syrian television has two stations. While there are a few private radio stations, they are not permitted to transmit any news or political information. Altogether, there were nine AM and one FM radio station in 1999, and 44 television stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 276 radios and 182 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 19.4 personal computers for every 1,000 people. In 2002, there were 220,000 Internet users.

Most Syrian newspapers are published by government ministries and popular organizations. Principal dailies in Arabic (with 2002 circulations) include Al-Ba'ath (40,000), published by the Ba'ath Arab Socialist Party, Tishrin (50,000), and Al-Thawrah (40,000), all in Damascus. In 2000, the government authorized publication of the first private paper since 1963. That paper, The People's Voice, is published by the National Progressive Front (Communist Party). The Union Socialist Party has since published its own paper, The Unionist.

Though the constitution provides for free expression of opinion in speech and writing, in practice the government is reported to restrict these rights significantly. Written criticism of the president, the president's family, the Ba'ath Party, the military, and the regime are not permitted.

ORGANIZATIONS

Syria has chambers of commerce, industry, and agriculture, most of which are members of the Federation of Syrian Chambers of Commerce. The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas is based in Aleppo. Other multination groups based in Syria include the Arab Institute for Occupational Health and Safety and the Arab Inter-Parliamentary Union. The cooperative movement is well developed. There are some professional associations.

The most prominent cultural and educational organizations are the Arab Academy and the Arab Club for Information (Arabcin), both in Damascus. There are a number of sports associations promoting amateur competition for athletes of all ages in a variety of pastimes.

The General Women's Federation was established in 1967 as one of several organizations through which the Ba'ath Party has tried to mobilize popular energies and consolidate its control. Analogous groups include the General Union of Peasants, the General Federation of Trade Unions, the General Union of Students, and the Revolutionary Youth Organization.

There is a national chapter of the Red Crescent Society.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Syria has many famous tourist attractions, such as the Krak des Chevaliers, a Crusaders' castle; Ra's Shamrah, site of the ancient city of Ugarit; Ar-Rusafah, with its early Christian monuments and Muslim palace; and the ancient town of Dura Europus (now As-Salihiyah). Palmyra, the capital of Queen Zenobia, is a fairly well-preserved ruin of an Arabo-Hellenic city. The Umayyad Mosque, which incorporates parts of the Byzantine Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, in Damascus, is popular. Syria's mountains and Mediterranean beaches also attract visitors.

A vaccination for meningitis is required for pilgrims traveling to Mecca for the annual Hajj. All travelers are strongly recommended to take precautions against malaria, typhoid, and meningitis. There were 4,388,119 foreign visitors to Syria in 2003, mainly from neighboring Middle Eastern countries. Hotel rooms numbered 16,966, with 38,928 beds that same year.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Damascus at $206.

FAMOUS SYRIANS

Among the famous Syrians of earlier periods are Queen Zenobia of Palmyra (3d century ad), who led a series of military campaigns against the Romans in order to reopen trade routes; the philosopher Al-Farabi (Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Tarkhan abu Nasr al-Farabi, 872–950), considered by the Arab world as second only to Aristotle; the poet Al-Mutanabbi (Abu at-Tayyib Ahmad bin al-Husayn al-Mutanabbi, 915–65); the mystic philosopher Shihab ad-Din as-Suhrawardi (d.1191); and the theologian philosopher Taqi ad-Din Ahmad bin Taymiyah (1263–1328).

Of the Umayyad caliphs, Umar bin 'Abd-al-'Aziz (r.717–720) is still revered as a restorer of true Islam. In a later era, Nureddin (Nur ad-Din, 1118–74), ruler of Aleppo, annexed Damascus and brought Egypt under his control. By unifying Muslim forces against the Crusaders, he made possible the victories of the renowned Saladin (Salah ad-Din, 1138–93), sultan of both Syria and Egypt, whose tomb is in Damascus. Hafez al-Assad (Hafiz al-Asad, 1928–2000) ruled Syria from 1970–2000. His son, Bashar al-Assad (b.1965), was elected president unopposed after his father's death.

DEPENDENCIES

Syria has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ball, Warwick. Syria: A Historical and Architectural Guide. Essex, U.K.: Scorpion Publishers, 1994.

Batatu, Hanna. Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999.

Choueiri, Youssef M. (ed.). State and Society in Syria and Lebanon. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1993.

Commins, David. Historical Dictionary of Syria. 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2004.

Gelvin, James L. Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.

Hourani, Albert Habib. A History of the Arab Peoples. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002.

Kienle, Eberhard (ed.) Contemporary Syria: Liberalization Between Cold War and Cold Peace. London: British Academic Press, 1994.

Klengel, Horst. Syria, 3000 to 300 B.C.: A Handbook of Political History. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1992.

The Middle East. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2005.

Perthes, Volker. The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad. London: I.B. Tauris, 1995.

Quilliam, Neil. Syria. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio Press, 1999.

Seddon, David (ed.). A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2004.

State and Society in Syria and Lebanon. Edited by Youssef M. Choueiri. New York: St. Martin's, 1994.

Tauber, Eliezer. The Formation of Modern Syria and Iraq. Ilford, U.K.: Frank Cass, 1994.

Waldner, David. State Building and Late Development. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999.

Syria

History & Background

Geography & Population: The Syrian Arab Republic, commonly known as Syria, is a Middle Eastern country located at the east end of the Mediterranean Sea. The country was formerly known, with Egypt, as the United Arab Republic. It is known locally as Al Jumhuriyah al Arabiyah as Suriyah ; the shortened form of this name is Suriyah. Syria is bordered on the north by Turkey, on the east by Iraq, on the south by Jordan and Israel, and on the west by Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea. In 2001 the total land area of 184,050 square kilometers included 1,295 square kilometers of Israeli-occupied territory.

Geographically, Syria can be divided into four regions. A narrow fertile coastal plain runs along the Mediterranean border and extends inland to a narrow range of mountains and hills. The coastal climate is moderate with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters; the average annual rainfall is this area is between 30 and 40 inches. The mountainous region runs from north to south, parallel to the Mediterranean Sea. The interior semiarid plains region is found to the east of the mountains. Much of the southeastern part of Syria is desert region that extends to the borders of Jordan and Iraq; most of the desert is a rock and gravel plateau that receives less than four inches of rain annually and is extremely hot.

Until the 1960s and 1970s, Syria was primarily an agricultural country. Because much of the country is semiarid and desert, only 28 percent of the land is arable land, and much of the farmed land must be irrigated. Since 1974, oil has become Syria's most important source of revenue and its greatest export. Pipelines from Iraq and Jordan cross Syria, and there is a pipeline to the coast as well. Forty percent of the labor force works in agricultural areas, 40 percent in service areas, and 20 percent in industrial areas.

The population of Syria is approximately 16.3 million, of which 90.3 percent are Arab; Kurds, Armenians, and nomadic groups make up the remaining 9.7 percent. The annual population growth rate was estimated at 2.58 percent at the turn of the century, with 41 percent of the population 14 years of age or younger, 56 percent between 15 and 64, and 3 percent aged 65 and older. Educational facilities have expanded since the mid-1960s, but illiteracy is still widespread among older Syrians living in rural areas and among women. In 2000, Syria's literacy rate was 70.8 percent. More males were literate (85.7 percent) than females (55.8 percent).

Although 90 percent of all Syrians are Muslims, they belong to different sects. Approximately 74 percent are Sunnites, and another 16 percent are members of Alawite, Druze, and other Muslim sects. The non-Muslim population is largely Christian; the largest group is Greek Orthodox, but there are also Armenian Catholics, Maronites, Armenian Orthodox, and Syrian Orthodox. There are small Jewish communities in Damascus, Al Qamishli, and Aleppo. The country's legal system is based on Islamic law and civil law system, and there are special religious courts.

Arabic is Syria's official language and is spoken by of 85 to 90 percent of its people. Kurdish is the largest linguistic minority (11 percent), but Armenian, Aramaic, and Circassian are also widely understood. The older citizens often speak French, and English is widely understood and spoken among the younger and middle-aged groups. Most Arabic speakers are bilingual, so there are few communication problems resulting from language differences.

Historical Evolution: Three geographical factors have influenced Syria's history: its location on the trade and military routes, its varied topography, and the encroaching desert. Although the modern Syrian state was not established until after World War I, Syria has been inhabited by various powers since ancient times. The Amorites, coming in 2100 B.C. from the Arabian Peninsula, were the first important Semitic people to settle in the region and establish many small states. From the fifteenth to thirteenth century B.C., the area was probably part of the Hittites' empire. The Phoenicians established trading settlements along the coast sometime after 1250 B.C. From the eleventh to the sixth century B.C., Syria was invaded and intermittently controlled by Assyrians. Babylonian conquerors periodically held parts of the land, and even Egypt tried to reestablish positions in Syria. Alexander the Great conquered Syria between 333 and 331 B.C. His empire was conquered a short time later by the kings of Syria, the Seleucids, who founded cities and military colonies. In 63 B.C. the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire. Following the decline and collapse of the empire in the fourth century, Syria became part of the Byzantine Empire and remained so for almost 250 years.

The most important and lasting conquest took place in A.D. 636, when Muslim Arabs took over the region. During the following century, most Syrians converted to Islam, and the culture of the area became distinctly Arab. By the late eleventh century, the Crusades led to the incorporation of part of Syria into the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem. When the Seijuk Turks captured the area at the end of the twelfth century, Jerusalem was overthrown. In the mid-thirteenth century, Mongols under Hulagu Khan invaded Syria, destroying and sacking major cities and massacring tens of thousands of inhabitants.

The Ottoman Turks incorporated the region into their empire in 1516, and it remained in their possession for the next four centuries. Rulers established military and civilian schools; missionary and foreign schools were also established during these years, but most of the population attended the Islamic schools. In the late eighteenth century, the European powers began to have an increasing interest in Syrian affairs: the British were friends of the Druze, the Russians protected the Orthodox Christians, and the French became allies of the Roman Catholics. Growing Arab nationalism and opposition to Turkish control led to a British-supported rebellion prior to World War I.

The efforts to form an independent state were thwarted, however, when in 1922 the League of Nations made Syria part of the territory controlled by France and drew the geographical boundaries that have defined Syria into the twenty-first century. In an effort to maintain control, the French limited changes in the educational system as they tried to impose their own culture and language. The public education system was administered and controlled by French officials, who patterned the schools and the subjects taught after those in their homeland. As a result, the curricula did not consider the local traditions and customs. Many individuals chose not to attend these schools. Those who could afford private, foreign, or missionary schools often sent their children to these rather than the French public schools.

Following many years of political disturbances and uprisings, in September 1941 the French proclaimed the creation of an independent Syrian republic. In 1945 Syria became a charter member of the United Nations, and on April 17, 1946, Syria was proclaimed an independent country. The new state established an educational system that would provide needed manpower and include instruction that maintained local traditions and customs.

Much of Syria's post World War II history has been turbulent. Between 1949 and 1963 there were several military coups and frequent changes in government. In 1958 Syria and Egypt merged to form the United Arab Republic, but the agreement dissolved in 1961. In 1963 the Ba'ath Socialist Party came to power by military coup and the country began to stabilize. Another coup took place in 1970, and Hafez al-Assad, then Defense Minister, became president; he remained president until his death in 2000 when his son, Dr. Bashar al-Assad, became president. During the 1990s, Syria began working to improve diplomatic ties with the West and with the Arab world.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

In 1967, Syria signed the Arab Cultural Unity Agreement with Jordan and Egypt establishing a uniform three-level education system and determining curricular examination procedures and teacher-training requirements for each of the levels. Since then all Syrian schools, colleges, and universities have been under close government supervision, overseen by the Ministry of Education.

The Syrian Arab Republic's constitution was adopted on March 13, 1973. The Ba'ath Party's emphasis on building a national identity is evident in the third part of the constitution: Educational and Cultural Principles. According to Article 21 of that section, Syria's educational and cultural system "aims at creating a socialist nationalist Arab generation which is scientifically minded and attached to its history and land, proud of its heritage, and filled with the spirit of struggle to achieve its nation's objectives of unity, freedom, and socialism, and to serve humanity and its progress." A portion of Article 23 underscores this commitment and responsibility: "The nationalist socialist education is the basis for building the unified socialist Arab society. It seeks to strengthen moral values, to achieve the higher ideals of the Arab nation, to develop the society, and to serve the causes of humanity. The state undertakes to encourage and to protect this education."

The right to an education is guaranteed in Article 37, which states that elementary education is compulsory and free. This article also notes that the state "undertakes to extend compulsory education to other levels and to supervise and guide education in a manner consistent with the requirements of society and of production." Women, in Article 45, are guaranteed "all opportunities enabling them to fully and effectively participate in the political, social, cultural, and economic life. The state removes the restrictions that prevent women's development and participation in building the socialist Arab society."

Educational System—Overview

Schooling is divided into six years of primary education (ages 6 to 12), followed by three years of intermediate education (ages 12 to 15), and three years of general secondary or technical secondary education (ages 15 to 18). The role of education is to transmit the traditional culture as well as teach the approved view of subject area knowledge. The Syrian Ministry of Education approves all curricula and all textbooks and support materials. The textbooks are written by state-approved authors and printed by the General Institute for Schoolbook Printing. Instruction is in Arabic.

Following the establishment of the three-level system in 1967, student enrollments increased dramatically. Between 1970 and 1976, primary school enrollments increased 43 percent, lower secondary enrollments increased 52 percent, and higher secondary enrollments increased 65 percent. During these years, enrollments in postsecondary institutions increased more than 66 percent. These increases are largely because of the government's goal to eliminate illiteracy by 1991; primary and preparatory schools were built in many areas, and mobile schools traveled into remote desert areas.

In 1981, an estimated 42 percent of the population over age 12 could not read or write. By 1984, approximately 57,000 Syrians had attended literacy classes sponsored by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor. Although the goal of having a literate population was not achieved, by 1997 the number of citizens who were literate had increased to almost 71 percent.

Between 1970 and 1998, the number of female students enrolled at each level of schooling increased dramatically. The number enrolled in primary school increased from approximately 297,000 to over 1,267,000, and the number of females enrolled at the upper secondary level tripled, increasing from 14,000 to over 52,000. Many 12- to 15-year-old girls marry and are often unable to pursue an education beyond the compulsory level. Between 1970 and 1998, the number of female university students increased from 17,000 to 72,000, and the number receiving vocational education and training increased from 600 to 63,000. In 1998, females represented 47.7 percent of the students enrolled in primary schools, 45 percent of those in preparatory schools, 50.7 percent of those in the secondary general schools, 45.3 percent of those in technical and vocational schools, and 46.6 percent of those in universities. In 2001 Syria adopted a slogan of "education for girls" as part of its participation in the celebration of the annual Women's World Day on March 8. This underscores the country's commitment to having qualified women in the workforce and to helping women become more self-sufficient.

Private schools supplement the public schools, but less than 5 percent of the Syrian students attend them. There are two international schools in Syria for grades pre K-12 that serve the American and international community: ICARDA International School of Aleppo, which had an enrollment of 275 for the 2000-2001 school year, and Damascus Community School, which had an enrollment of 329 for the 2000-2001 school year. Both schools have a college-preparatory, American-based curriculum. The teachers at these accredited schools incorporate American teaching methods and offer a variety of extracurricular and intramural sports and activities. Students may enroll at any time during the school term. There is also a separate educational system run by the United Nations for Palestinian refugee children.

The Syrian Arab Republic is an active member of a number of organizations that benefit education. Among these are the Arab Organization for Education, Culture, and Science; the Islamic Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (ISESCO); the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF); and the World Health Organization (WHO).

Preprimary & Primary Education

Optional paid preprimary kindergarten programs are available for three- to five-year-olds. These programs are provided by private, tuition-charging institutions and by some government institutions. Approximately 7 percent of three- to five-year-olds attend an early childhood development program. The tuition charges at the government institutions are very low, and the students enrolled there are primarily the employees' children. In 1998-1999, almost 45 percent of those enrolled in a private early childhood development program attended public primary schools.

Primary education is free and compulsory for all Syrians ages 6 to 12. Students in the primary program are expected to complete one grade level each year; thus the program covers grades one to six. In 1999, there were 11,213 primary schools in Syria. The official Syrian curriculum is taught at each grade level to all students using syllabi and lesson guides provided by the Department of Primary Education and Kindergartens, a branch of the Ministry of Education. Teachers are trained in state-approved programs. Subjects include history, national (pan-Arab) education, geography, literature, social education, and Islamic education. Those completing the primary education program receive an End-of-Stage certificate.

Since 1961 Syria's educational system has been guided by five-year development plans. The fourth five-year plan (1976-1980) established a goal of enrolling all boys of primary school age by 1980 and of enrolling all girls of primary school age by 1990. By the early 1980s, Syria achieved the goal of enrolling all males in primary school, but the goal for female enrollments was not attained.

Secondary Education

Even though many students, especially in remote rural areas, do not take advantage of the secondary education programs, the public's demand for these programs has remained constant over the years. Many Syrians view completing secondary and postsecondary educational programs as a way to advance in society. Secondary education is an intermediate stage between the compulsory primary program for 6- to 12-year-olds and specific types of higher education and training.

In 1999, there were 3,440 secondary schools. Like the primary program, there is a rigid format: each student is expected to complete the required curriculum in one year of instruction. The first three years of secondary education provide intermediate courses; students enter the program at age 12 and complete it at age 15. Students identified as being gifted attend schools especially designed to address their needs. These schools are equipped with electronic libraries and learning laboratories. Teachers are trained to incorporate more hands-on activities and activities that promote creative thinking and problem-solving strategies. Those completing the intermediate program sit for the Al Kafa'a (Intermediate Level Diploma).

This stage is followed by another three years of general education for 15- to 18-year-old students. Students who are accepted into this program may either enter the general stream or technical track; entry is based upon the Al Kafa'a examination. Those entering the general stream receive one year of general introductory courses and then enter either the literary or scientific track. Students competing the general secondary program sit for the Al-Shahâda Al-Thânawiyya-Al'Amma (Baccalaureate Secondary School Leaving Certificate). The literary track examination has a minimum pass score of 102 out of a possible 240, and the scientific track has a minimum passing score of 104 out of 260. Based upon the examination results and the availability of openings, students may continue at the university level for six additional years or they may attend a two-year intermediate institute program.

In 1995, some 70 percent of those completing intermediate schooling entered the technical track. Students who enter the technical track are placed in either the industrial or commercial track. At the end of the three-year program, these students sit for the Al-Shahâda Al-Thânawiyya Al-Fanniyya (Technical Baccalaureate). The results of this examination determine entry into the Institute of Technical Education.

As a result of the decision in the 1970s and 1980s not to train teachers or revise the curricula to include computers and information technology, Syria had to make dramatic changes in the late 1990s when the Ministry of Education placed top priority on incorporating information technology into the secondary and preparatory programs. The state's five-year development plan for 1996-2000 focused on adding compulsory information technology courses in secondary schools, technical intermediate institutions, and vocational and technical education centers. The plan for 2001-2005 targets the teaching and use of information technology in all secondary level classes and in technical and vocational schools as well as expanding computer training in other levels. By 2000, all secondary schools had computers, and by 2002, computers should be available in the preparatory schools.

Higher Education

Public Universities: The Ministry of Higher Education supervises Syria's universities: Damascus University, Tishreen University, the University of Aleppo, and Al-Baath University. The ministry has worked cooperatively with the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and UNESCO to develop the Syrian Higher Education and Research Network (SHERN), a national network for higher education with connection to the Internet. The project began in January 1999, and the core development is scheduled for completion in mid-2001. A presidential decree in 2000 led to the establishment of a Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering at the four universities with 150 openings at each site.

Al-Baath University was founded in 1979 in Homs and housed the country's first departments of petroleum engineering and veterinary medicine. In 2000, the university had 16,274 students and 505 teachers. Tishreen University was founded in 1971 as the University of Lattakia. It offers an undergraduate degree in architecture.

The University of Aleppo, founded in 1960, offers courses with French, English, and Arabic as the language of instruction. In 2000, the university had 53,465 students and 3,377 teachers. There are a number of institutes attached to the University of Aleppo: the Agriculture Research Center, the Institute for the History of Arabic Science, the Intermediate Institute for Agriculture, the Intermediate Institute for Commerce, the Intermediate Institute for Engineering, the Intermediate Institute for Medicine, the Intermediate Institute for Dentistry, the Intermediate Institute for Secretariat, and the School of Nursing.

Damascus University, founded in 1903, is Syria's oldest and largest university. In 2000, there were 81,173 students and 2,809 teachers. Undergraduate students must complete a compulsory computer course, but the university has a limited number of computers for student use. In 1999 only 5 of the university's 21 computer laboratories had open access for students. The university's divisions include 13 faculties or areas of specialization, 7 intermediate institutes, and one higher institute, the Higher Institute of Administrative Development. Damascus University has close cooperative ties with a number of Arab and international organizations; faculty and staff work cooperatively on research and exchange programs. The university awards the following degrees: bachelor's, Diploma of Qualification and Specialization, postgraduate diploma, master's, and doctor of philosophy. The university's library is the center for Syria's Directorate of the Universities' Libraries.

The Higher Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology (HIAST) in Damascus trains engineers to head and guide scientific research and to propose projects that will address Syria's current and future needs. Many of these projects focus on improving and expanding the country's computer system, updating software, and providing an interface in Arabic for software programs. HIAST has been designated as a Center of Excellence and one of the 13 members of the Network of International Science and Technology Centers for Sustainable Development. Founded in 1955, the institute serves approximately 700 researchers, faculty, and students and awards the following degrees: bachelor of science, master of science, and doctor of philosophy.

Specialized Institutes: Several other institutes in Syria are not affiliated with any university. Aleppo Institute of Music, founded in 1955, has departments of Eastern and Western music. The Institute of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, located in Damascus, was founded in 1974 with help from Germany. Germany also assisted with the founding of the Institute of Technical Training in 1978; this institute offers only two-year courses. On September 19, 1999, Presidential Decree Number 4 established the Higher Institute for Management. This institute works collaboratively with the European Union. The Arab Language Academy of Damascus was founded in 1919. It is devoted exclusively to the study of Arabic language, literature, history, and culture.

Non-university level technical and vocational institutes, known as Intermediate Institutes, offer two-year training programs in a variety of areas for those having the Al-Shahâda Al-Thânawiyya Al-Fanniyya. These institutes award an Associate Degree, the Wathîqat Takharruj or Musaddiqat Takharruj certificate. One month of practical training must be completed in the summer as a part of the curriculum. The non-university level technical and vocational institutes are the overseen by the Supreme Council of Intermediate Institutes.

Courses, Semesters, & Diplomas: All higher education institutions are state controlled and financed. The Ministry of Higher Education and the Council of Higher Education coordinate higher education programs. The academic year is typically September to June. Arabic is the language of instruction. Based upon the results of their secondary examinations, Syrian students may enter nonuniversity level technical/vocation postsecondary programs or university studies or teacher education programs.

The Ministry of Education maintains agreements with many sisterly Arab and foreign countries that encourage cultural and educational exchanges. Foreign students may study at one of Syria's higher education institutions if they have obtained visas from the Syrian embassies abroad, have a residence permit, and meet the institution's admissions requirements. Foreign students may enroll in language proficiency courses at the Training School for Foreigners so they can master the Arabic language.

University studies are available in three sequential levels: Licence or Licentiate (bachelor's degree), postgraduate diploma and master's degree, and the doctorate. The time required to earn the Licence or Licentiate varies from four to six years. Arts, humanities, Islamic law, economics, social sciences, and fine arts programs each require four years. Five years are needed to complete engineering, architecture, agriculture, pharmacy, dentistry, and veterinary science programs. Medical students receive the Docteur en Médecine after six years of study. Those studying an additional year beyond the Licence or Licentiate receive the postgraduate diploma, and a master's degree is conferred after a minimum of two years of study beyond the Licence or Licentiate. The doctorate is awarded to those who, after receiving the master's degree, complete three additional years of study, conduct personal research, and defend a thesis successfully.

The primary grading system used by higher education institutions is based on a percent system: those scoring in the 90-100 percent range earn Martabet al Sharaf (Honors); 80-89 percent, Momtaz (Excellent); 70-79 percent, Jayed Jeddar (Very Good); 60-69 percent, Jayed (Good); 50-59 percent, Makboul (Pass); 0-49 percent, Raseb (Fail).

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

The Ministry of Higher Education, led by the Minister and four deputy ministers, is responsible for all aspects of curricular development and administration of Syrian schools, colleges, and universities. Syria's schools are used to teach political ideology and to train those needed for the nation's current and projected future economic and political needs. They remain microcosms of the authority and order found in society; teachers' instructions and assertions are not to be questioned.

Because of government regulations, the general public's access to many forms of communication has been limited. Fax machines were illegal until 1995. In 1999, when the Internet first became available, access was limited because of the lack of phone lines and servers available, and because most Syrians had no training in information technology's uses. In fact, in 2000 there were only about 2,000 Internet subscribers in Syria. In 1999 Syria began a government-controlled pilot program that made Internet access available for the first time to government institutions and universities. At the first Syrian-Lebanese computer forum in April 2000, Bashar al-Assad, then president of Syria's Computer Society, recognized the importance of information technology and stated that Syria was planning an immediate expansion of Internet access so it would be available to every household. This expansion will impact research in a myriad of ways as knowledge is shared. Transferring technology from some countries, including the United States, was still banned, however, in 2001.

In September 1991, the government's National Information Center opened. The center has a two-fold purpose: collecting and preserving documents and selecting, collecting, analyzing, processing and storing information electronically. Syria's first optical archiving network began operation in 1993. The network enables researchers and decision makers to access records and documents quickly and easily. The National Information Center established an Internet site in 1997, but there was no online access to its records and files.

In February 1994, the center supported the creation of the National Coordination and Cooperative Committee for Information. One goal of the National Coordination and Cooperative Committee for Information is to work with existing organizations to create and maintain a national database with a uniform documentation system. Only those who receive prior approval, however, may use the information. Since August 1994, the National Information Center has periodically published a magazine to report its activities and those of other organizations.

Nonformal Education

Libraries are educational centers supervised by the Ministry of Culture. There are over 300 libraries in Syria. The major public libraries are the National Assad Library in Damascus and the university libraries in Damascus and Aleppo. The first academic library was the Medical College Library in Damascus. In addition to providing library services, Syrian libraries organize and present a range of cultural activities such as lectures, workshops, training course, art exhibitions, and showing of educational movies. Since 1974 a section of the Ministry of Education has supervised school library organization and provided for the training of librarians.

American Middle East Educational & Training Services, Inc. (AMIDEAST), a private nonprofit organization based in Washington, DC, was founded in 1951 to promote cooperation and understanding between Americans and people of the Middle East and North Africa through education, information, and development assistance programs. The site in Syria opened in 1955, closed in 1967, and reopened in 1978. AMIDEAST Syria administers the Fulbright Program for students from the Middle East and North Africa, distributes basic advising materials and information on education in the United States, administers standardized tests required by universities in the United States, and coordinates study tours and programs in Syria for groups of American undergraduate students. Since 1996, AMIDEAST has offered both English and Arabic language courses for adults and for children. The American Language Center (ALC) was established in 1986 by the United States Information Service to teach the English language to Syrians and to expose students to American life and culture. The center had 45 native-English instructors in 2000 and up to 2,000 students each term.

Distance education is limited in Syria. Until the late 1990s, the Ministry of Education focused only on traditional forms of instruction. Educational television and programming are the responsibility of the Ministry of Education's Directorate of Teaching Technologies Center, which develops and produces educational resources. The televised programs have primarily been used to provide general information or series of programs designed to introduce and teach computer applications.

The Syrian Computer Society was founded in 1989 as a non-profit organization to promote and to contribute to the diffusion of information technology in Syria. The organization provides different levels of training programs that are open to the public; offers training programs for profession; and organizes workshops, seminars, and conferences. The Syrian Computer Society has worked closely with the Ministry of Education to form the Syrian National Policy for Information Technology in Education. This policy provides a timeline for training teachers, providing computers and other equipment to schools, and adding computer science and information technology courses in all levels of education. Syria's Internet infrastructure should be completed by mid-2001. At that time Internet providers will be licensed, and by 2001 approximately 50,000 people should be able to access the Internet. The plan calls for each school to have a Web site and to be connected to an approved Internet provider. In addition, free computer courses are available to all citizens at a number of accessible training centers. Future policies will address the development of online courses and other forms of nontraditional education.

Teaching Profession

Syria recognizes the importance of teacher training and preparation. Teachers in the Syrian Arab Republic are transmitters of the country's culture and political ideology. They must not only teach the approved curricula but also instill and support patriotism, discipline, and the value of placing society and country before the individual.

There are 14 teacher-training schools in Syria. Students are typically 14 years old when they enter teachertraining programs after two years of intermediate education. They receive training for teaching at either the primary level or the secondary level. Upon completion of the program, primary school teachers receive the Shahâdat Ahliyyat Al-Ta'lîm Al-lbtibâ'l (Primary Teaching Certificate).

More specialized training is provided for teachers at the intermediate level. Those who hold a baccalaureate degree must complete a two-year training program. Those wishing to teach at the secondary level must complete a one-year program of study from the Faculty of Education at the universities; they then receive a diploma and a special diploma in education. Preparatory school teachers may be trained in two-year programs at an intermediate institution before being allowed to teach in a program with a shortage of qualified instructors. Vocational secondary teachers must receive the Technical Baccalaureate and then complete a two-year program at an intermediate institution. To teach in at the higher education level, a teacher must have earned a master's degree or doctorate.

Because of the Ministry of Education's commitment to teaching computer science as an integral part of the curricula and using computers as instructional tools, teachers must be trained to teach computer science and promote computer-assisted instruction. There are five centers, each in a different province, that provide one year of intensive teacher training in these areas to selected teachers. More teachers are also being trained to incorporate student-centered hands-on activities and experiments in the classroom. This is especially evident in workshops and teacher-preparation courses for science teachers.

Changes in the area of teacher qualifications will take place sometime after 2001. A university degree with a diploma in education will be required of all teachers. Teachers will be selected based on interviews and written tests. Those selected will be required to attend a mandatory training program designed to address the new role teachers are playing in Syrian education. They are expected not only to create a classroom climate conducive to learning but also to council and to advise students who are studying self-paced programs. Teachers are expected to know and to be able to teach the ever-changing curriculum.

Summary

Schools in the Syrian Arab Republic reflect the philosophy of the state and mirror the nation's commitment to providing appropriate educational programs at each level. While transmission of the national culture is the cornerstone of the educational system, the state also recognizes the need to integrate traditional curricula with computer science and technology training. In 2000, some 45 percent of the population was under the age of 15, and 15 percent of the population was under the age of 5. Thus, many Syrians will be educated in schools that are undergoing continual and dramatic changes in curricula and instructional techniques. The implementation of computers and information-technology training at all levels of formal education will have a significant impact on future generations. In addition, the ability of university students and faculty to access information via the Internet will improve teaching and research. Syria's commitment to increase the availability of computers and Internet access in homes and workplaces will allow more Syrians to apply the skills learned at schools.

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—Jo Anne R. Bryant

Syria , officially Syrian Arab Republic, republic (2005 est. pop. 18,449,000), 71,467 sq mi (185,100 sq km), W Asia. It borders on Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea in the west, on Turkey in the northwest and north, on Iraq in the east and south, and on Jordan and Israel in the southwest. Damascus is the country's capital and its largest city.

Land

Syria falls into two main geographical regions, a western region and a much larger eastern region. The western region, which includes about two thirds of the country's population, can be subdivided into four parallel north-south zones. In the far west is a narrow, discontinuous lowland strip along the Mediterranean. It is bordered, and partly cut, by the Jabal al-Nusayriyah, a mountain range (average elevation: 4,000 ft/1,220 m; highest point: 5,123 ft/1,561 m) that is crossed by deep valleys. In the east the Jabal al-Nusayriyah drops sharply to the Great Rift Valley , which continues southward into Africa and which in Syria contains the Orontes River. East of the rift are mountain ranges, including the Anti-Lebanon Mts. (which include Mount Hermon, 9,232 ft/2,814 m, Syria's loftiest point) and scattered ranges in NW Syria. Within these ranges are several fertile basins, including ones occupied by Damascus and Aleppo.

The eastern region is made up of a plateau (average elevation: 2,000 ft/610 m), which is in large part bisected by a series of ranges that fan out northeastward from the Anti-Lebanon Mts. In the south are the Jabal al-Duruz Mts., from which the plain of Hawran extends westward to the Sea of Galilee. Other mountains are located in the north. Much of the southern section of the plateau forms part of the Syrian Desert; otherwise, the plateau is largely covered with steppe. There are irrigated, cultivated areas along the Euphrates River in the east, whose basin makes up part of the Fertile Crescent , as does the Mediterranean coast of Syria. In addition to the capital, other major cities include Aleppo , Homs , Hama , Latakia , Dayr az Zawr , and Al Hasakah.

People

Syria has a young and rapidly growing population. Most of the people are of Arab descent and speak Arabic, the country's official language; French and English are understood by many, and Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, and Circassian are spoken in some areas. The chief minority is the Kurds; others include the Armenians, Turkomans (Turks), Circassians, and Assyrians (Nestorian Christians). About 75% of the country's inhabitants are Sunni Muslims. There are also significant numbers of Alawite Muslims, who live in the Jabal al-Nusayriyah; Druze , who live in the south, principally in the Jabal al-Duruz; and smaller Muslim sects; all of these groups comprise about 16% of Syria's population. The largest Christian groups are the Greek Orthodox, the Armenian Orthodox, and the Syrian Orthodox, together comprising about 10% of the population. Before 1992, Syria had a Jewish community of more than 4,000; all but a few hundred left the country after emigration restrictions were lifted in that year.

Economy

Syria was an overwhelmingly agricultural country until the early 1960s, when planned large-scale industrialization began. The state plays a major role in the country's economy, but government control has been eased since 2000. Some 25% of the people earn their living by farming; since 1970 land cultivation has increased more than 50%, largely because of government incentives and wider use of irrigation. The best farmland is located along the coast and in the Jabal al-Nusayriyah, around Aleppo, in the region between Hama and Homs, in the Damascus area, and in the land between the Euphrates and Khabur rivers, which is known as Al Jazira [Arab.,=the island]. The principal crops include wheat, barley, cotton, lentils, chickpeas, olives, and sugar beets. Large numbers of poultry, cattle, and sheep are raised, and dairy products are important. Tourism has expanded in recent years.

Damascus, Aleppo, and Homs are the chief industrial centers. The main industries include petroleum refining; food, beverage, and tobacco processing; and the manufacture of textiles, chemicals, and precision-engineered products. Handicrafts such as articles of silk, leather, and glass are widely produced. The principal minerals extracted are petroleum, found mainly at Qarah Shuk (Karachuk) in the extreme northeast; natural gas, found mainly in the Al Jazira region; phosphates; limestone; and salt. Petroleum pipelines from Iraq and Jordan cross Syria, and there is also a pipeline from Qarah Shuk to the Mediterranean coast.

Since 1974 oil has been Syria's most important source of revenue; declining production in the early 21st cent. was offset by higher oil prices. In 2006, petroleum and agriculture together accounted for one half of the country's GDP. Latakia and Tartus are the main seaports. The chief exports are crude oil, petroleum products, fruits and vegetables, cotton fiber, clothing, meat and live animals, and wheat. The principal imports are machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, livestock, metals, chemicals, plastics, yarn, and paper. The leading trade partners are Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Italy, Germany, and Egypt.

Government

Syria is governed under the constitution of 1973. The president, who is head of state, is the most powerful political and military figure in the country. He is approved by popular referendum for a seven-year term, with no term limits. The government is headed by the prime minister, who is appointed by the president. The unicameral legislature consists of the 250-seat People's Council, whose members are popularly elected for four-year terms; under the constitution two thirds of the seats are reserved for members of the governing parties. Administratively, Syria is divided into 14 provinces or governates.

History

Early History

Until the 20th cent. the term Syria generally denoted those lands of the Levant, or eastern littoral of the Mediterranean, that correspond to modern Syria and Lebanon, most of Israel and Jordan, W Iraq, and N Saudi Arabia. Three geographical factors have played major parts in determining the history of Syria—its location on the trade and military routes, its varied topography, and the encroaching desert. Syria has always been an object of conquest, and it has been held by foreign powers during much of its history. One of the earliest settlements was probably at Ugarit ; human habitation at Tell Hamoukar in NE Syria dates to at least 4000 BC The Amorites , coming c.2100 BC from the Arabian peninsula, were the first important Semitic people to settle in the region, and they established many small states.

From the 15th to the 13th cent. BC the area probably was part of the empire of the Hittites , although it came under Egyptian rule for long periods during that time. The first great indigenous culture was that of Phoenicia (located mostly in present-day Lebanon), which flourished after 1250 BC in a group of trading cities along the coast. In the 10th cent. BC two Hebrew kingdoms were organized in Palestine (see also Jews ). Syria suffered (11th–6th cent. BC) long invasions and intermittent control by the empire of Assyria . Babylonian conquerors also found success in Syria, and Egypt constantly sought to reestablish its position there. The Syrians were subjected to massacres, plundering, and forced deportations.

Under the Persian Empire, with its efficient administrative system, Syria's standard of living improved (6th–4th cent. BC). Alexander the Great conquered Syria between 333 and 331 BC, and his short-lived empire was followed by that of the Seleucidae (see Seleucus I ), who are usually called kings of Syria. Their control of Syria was constantly threatened by Egypt, which was ruled by the Ptolemies. The Egyptians usually held the south until Antiochus III conquered (early 2d cent. BC) the region, which was generally called Coele Syria, a name which had been vaguely applied to all of W Syria. The Seleucids founded cities and military colonies and introduced Hellenistic civilization to Syria. Syria long showed the revivifying effects of this new culture. Many of the cities became cultural Hellenistic centers, but the change did not reach the lower levels of the population.

When invasions began again, first by the Armenians under Tigranes and then by the Parthians—both in the 1st cent. BC—the Hellenistic sheen was soon dulled. The Romans under Pompey conquered the region by 63 BC, but they continued to fight the Parthians there, and the Syrians benefited little from the Roman presence. Many changes in administration occurred, and Rome drew from Syria numerous soldiers and slaves. The old pagan gods of Syria were also taken up by the Romans. More significant for the future of Syria, Christianity was started in Palestine and soon exerted some influence over all of Syria; St. Paul was converted from Judaism to Christianity on the road to Damascus. In central Syria, Palmyra grew (3d cent. AD) to considerable power as an autonomous state, but it was conquered by the Romans when it threatened their ascendancy.

After the division of Rome into the Eastern and Western empires in the 4th cent., Syria came under Byzantine rule. In the 5th and 6th cent. Monophysitism , a Christian heresy with political overtones, gained many adherents in Syria. Byzantine control there was seriously weakened by the 7th cent. Between 633 and 640, Muslim Arabs conquered Syria, and during the following centuries most Syrians converted to Islam. Damascus was the usual capital of the Umayyad caliph (661–750) and enjoyed a period of great splendor. The Umayyads were forcibly displaced by the Abbasids, whose residence was in Iraq, thus ending Syria's dominant position in the Islamic world. At the same time the ties between Muslim Syria and the predominantly Christian southwest (later Lebanon) began to loosen.

Crusaders and Conquerers

Groups of Christians remained in the Muslim areas, and they generally rendered aid to the Christians who came to Syria on Crusades (11th–14th cent.). By the late 11th cent. the Seljuk Turks had captured most of Syria, and the Christians fought against them as well as against Saladin , who triumphed (late 12th cent.) over both the Christians and his fellow Muslims. After Saladin's death (1193), Syria fell into disunity, and in the mid-13th cent. it was overrun by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan , who destroyed (1260) much of Aleppo and Damascus, massacring about 50,000 inhabitants of Aleppo. The Mongols were defeated later in 1260 by Baybars, the Mamluk ruler of Egypt.

The Mamluks held control of Syria for most of the time until 1516, when the Ottoman Empire annexed the area. The Mamluk period was largely a time of economic stagnation and political unrest. In 1401 the Central Asian conqueror Timur sacked Aleppo and Damascus. For most of the four centuries of Ottoman control, Syria's economy continued to be weak, and its politics remained fragmented. From the later 16th cent., government in Syria was not directly controlled by the Ottomans but was in the hands of several Syrian families who often fought each other. From the late 18th cent. the European powers took an increasing interest in Syrian affairs, the British as friends of the Druze, the Russians as protectors of the Orthodox Christians, and the French as allies of the Roman Catholics (especially the Maronites).

In 1798–99, Napoleon I of France invaded Egypt and also briefly held parts of the Syrian coast. In 1832–33, Ibrahim Pasha , the son of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, annexed Syria to Egypt. Egypt held Syria until 1840, when the European powers (particularly Great Britain) forced its return to the Ottomans; during this time Syria's economy was revived and numerous schools were established. During the rest of the 19th cent. the Syrian economy was modernized somewhat and educational opportunities were increased. However, conditions were far from good, and growing resentment of Ottoman rule developed among the Syrians. After bloody fighting between Christians and Druze, Lebanon (largely inhabited by Christians) was given considerable autonomy in 1860.

The Foundations of Modern Syria

During World War I the British encouraged Syrian nationalists to fight against the Ottoman Empire. The ambitions of the nationalists were thwarted in the peace settlement, which gave (1920) France a League of Nations mandate over the Levant States (roughly present-day Syria and Lebanon). From this time the term Syria referred approximately to its present territorial extent. France divided Syria into three administrative districts on the pretext that political decentralization would safeguard the rights of minorities. The Arab nationalists angrily asserted that decentralization was also a means of maintaining French control by a divide-and-rule policy.

The French made some concessions after serious disturbances in 1925, which included a rebellion by the Druze and the French bombardment of Damascus. Lebanon was made a completely separate state in 1926, and after long negotiations a treaty was signed (1936) giving Syria a large measure of autonomy. Anti-French feeling continued as a result of the cession of the sanjak of Alexandretta (see Hatay ) to Turkey, completed in 1939. In the same year the French suspended the Syrian constitution, and in World War II they garrisoned Syria with a large number of troops, most of whom, after the fall of France in June, 1940, declared loyalty to the Vichy government. Relations with Great Britain deteriorated, and when it was discovered that Syrian airfields had been used by German planes en route to Iraq, British and Free French forces invaded and occupied Syria in June, 1941.

An Independent Nation

In accordance with previous promises, the French proclaimed the creation of an independent Syrian republic in Sept., 1941, and an independent Lebanese republic in Nov., 1941. In 1943, Shukri al-Kuwatli was elected president of Syria, and on Jan. 1, 1944, the country achieved complete independence. However, the continued presence of French troops in Syria caused increasing friction and bloodshed and strained Anglo-French relations. It was not until Apr., 1946, that all foreign troops were withdrawn from the country. In 1945, Syria had become a charter member of the United Nations.

A member of the Arab League, Syria joined other Arab states in the unsuccessful war (1948–49) against Israel (see Arab-Israeli Wars ). The defeat at the hands of Israel, coupled with serious internal divisions resulting from disagreements over whether to unite with Iraq (and thus form a "Greater Syria" ), undermined confidence in parliamentary government and led to three coups in 1949. Lt. Col. Adib al-Shishakli led the third coup (Dec., 1949), and he governed the country until 1954. A new constitution providing for parliamentary government was promulgated in 1950, but it was suspended in late 1951. From then until 1954, al-Shishakli ruled as a virtual dictator. In 1953 he issued a new constitution establishing a presidential form of government and was elected president.

Opposition to al-Shishakli's one-man rule led to his downfall in 1954 and the reinstitution of the 1950 constitution. After elections in late 1954 a coalition government uniting the People's, National, and Ba'ath parties and headed by Sabri al-Asali of the National party was established; Shukri al-Kuwatli was again elected president. In the following years the Ba'ath party, which combined Arab nationalism with a socialist program, emerged as the most influential political party in Syria. At the same time, in order to offset growing Western influence in the Middle East (exemplified by the creation in 1955 of the Baghdad Pact alliance, later known as the Central Treaty Organization), both Syria and Egypt signed economic and military accords with the USSR.

To counterbalance Soviet influence, Syria joined with Egypt to form (Feb., 1958) the United Arab Republic (UAR). By late 1959, Egypt had become dominant in the UAR, which led to growing Syrian opposition to continued union with Egypt. In Sept., 1961, a group of Syrian army officers seized control of Syria, withdrew the country from the UAR, and established the Syrian Arab Republic. Elections for a constituent assembly were held in late 1961; the assembly chose Maruf al-Dawalibi as prime minister and Nazim al-Qudsi as president of the country; both were conservatives and members of the People's party. In early 1962 a military coup ended this arrangement, and in late 1962 the 1950 constitution was reinstated.

In 1963 another coup brought a joint Ba'ath-military government to power; this regime was headed, at different times, by Salah al-Din al-Bitar, a moderate leader of the Ba'ath party, and by Gen. Amin al-Hafiz. The government nationalized much of the economy and redistributed land to the peasants. At the same time a split between moderate and radical elements in the Ba'ath party was growing. In early 1966 the radicals staged a successful coup and installed Yusseff Zayen as prime minister and Nureddin al-Attassi as president. The new government strengthened Syria's ties with Egypt and the USSR.

Between 1962 and 1966, Syria agitated Israeli interests by attempting to divert headwaters of the Jordan River, by firing on Israeli fishermen on the Sea of Galilee, and by using the Golan Heights to snipe at Israeli settlements. These conflicts contributed to the Arab-Israeli War of June, 1967. During the war Israel captured the Golan Heights (stretching about 12 mi/19 km into Syria northeast of the Sea of Galilee), and it held on to this territory after a cease-fire went into effect. After the war Syria maintained its anti-Israel stance. In 1968–69 the Ba'ath party was again torn by factional strife, and it divided into the "progressives" (led by al-Attassi), who favored state control of the economy and close cooperation with the USSR, and the "nationalists" (headed by Gen. Hafez al- Assad ), who emphasized the need to defeat Israel, to improve relations with other Arab states, and to lessen Syria's economic and military dependence on the USSR.

The Assad Regime

Al-Assad successfully ousted al-Attassi in Nov., 1970. In early 1971, al-Assad was overwhelmingly elected to a seven-year term as president; he was reelected three times. Later in 1971, Syria, Libya, and Egypt agreed to unite loosely in the Federation of Arab Republics. Syria continued to be on good terms with the USSR, which equipped the Syrian army with modern weapons. In early 1973 a new constitution was approved, and the Ba'ath party won 70% of the seats in elections for the people's council. In July–Aug., 1973, about 42 army officers (all Sunni Muslims) were executed after allegedly plotting to assassinate al-Assad, who, they claimed, showed undue favoritism to his fellow Alawite Muslims in the army. (Al-Assad did indeed favor the Alawites in the army and government.)

In Oct., 1973, the fourth Arab-Israeli War erupted; after initial Syrian advances in the Golan Heights, Israel gained the offensive and pushed into Syria a few miles beyond the Golan Heights region. Syria (like Israel) accepted the UN Security Council cease-fire resolution of Oct. 25, 1973, but fighting continued into 1974. In May, 1974, largely through the mediation of U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger , Syria and Israel signed an agreement in Geneva that ended the fighting. Under the terms of the accord, Israel pulled back to the 1967 cease-fire line and also returned the city of Qunaytirah (Kuneitra) to Syria; a buffer zone, patrolled by UN troops, was established in the Golan Heights.

Since the 1970s the rise of Sunni Islamic fundamentalism has challenged Ba'athist ideology. Between 1976 and 1982, urban centers erupted in political unrest. The Muslim Brotherhood , a radical religious and political organization founded in 1928 in Egypt, was largely responsible for extremist attacks. In Feb., 1982, the brotherhood unsuccessfully attempted an uprising in Hama but was quashed by government troops; thousands were killed. Islamic fundamentalists, however, continue to remain active.

In 1976, Syria sent forces to Lebanon as part of a peacekeeping force to help end that country's civil war. The Syrian military remained in Lebanon, and from 1980 to 1981, Syrian troops sided with Lebanese Muslims against the Christian militias. With Israel's invasion of Lebanon in June, 1982, Syrian troops clashed with Israeli forces and were pushed back. Syria was also antagonized by Israel in 1982, when Menachem Begin announced the annexation of the Golan Heights. By the late 1990s, more than 40 Jewish settlements and villages had been developed in the Golan Heights. Although Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 1985, Syrian forces stayed; they remained the dominant military and political force there into 2005.

The Syrian government has been implicated in sponsoring international terrorism, especially in support of Iranian, Palestinian, and Libyan causes. In the 1980s, Syria moved closer to the USSR and espoused hard-line Arab positions. By 1990, however, as the Soviet system faltered, Syria attempted to improve relations with Western countries. That year Syria was the first Arab country to condemn Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, and it contributed 20,000 soldiers to the coalition forces in the Persian Gulf War (1991).

Syria, along with Lebanon and a joint Palestinian-Jordanian delegation, became involved in peace talks with Israel in late 1991. As talks progressed between Israel and the PLO and Jordan, Syria's insistence that Israel withdraw from all of the Golan Heights proved a stumbling block in its own negotiations. Talks broke off in 1996, but the Syrian government appeared interested in renewing negotiations following the installation of a Labor government in Israel in 1999. Talks were resumed in Dec., 1999. After what appeared to be initial progress, discussions stalled in Jan., 2000, when a secret draft treaty with Syrian concessions was published in Israel, leading to a public hardening of Syria's position with respect to the Golan.

In June, 2000, Assad died suddenly. His son, Bashar al-Assad, a 34-year-old doctor who had been groomed to succeed his father since 1994, rapidly became commander in chief of the army, head of the Ba'ath party, and then president. The son was regarded as an advocate of a free-market economy and political change, but economic liberalization proceeded slowly and he maintained a monopoly on political power. Syria strongly opposed the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq and was accused by U.S. government officials of supplying aid to Iraq and helping Iraqi officials to escape from U.S. forces. The United States later also accused Syria of permitting militants to infilitrate into Iraq. A new cabinet with a mandate to push reforms forward was appointed in Sept., 2003, but subsequently there was little noticeable political or economic reform.

In Oct., 2003, Israel struck at what it called a terrorist training base in Syria in retaliation for suicide-bombing attacks in Israel; it was the first Israeli strike against Syrian territory in 20 years. Simmering grievances among the nation's Kurds erupted into rare antigovernment protests in NE Syria in Mar., 2004.

In Aug. and Sept., 2004, Syria blatantly forced Lebanon to extend President Lahoud's term, an act that was denounced by the UN Security Council. The Feb., 2005, assassination of former Lebanese prime minister Rafik Hariri, who had opposed Syrian interference in Lebanon, led to anti-Syrian demonstrations in Lebanon and increased international pressure on Syria. Syria subsequently agreed to withdraw from Lebanon, and by the end of Apr., 2005, the withdrawal was completed. Syria nonetheless retained considerable influence in Lebanon.

A UN investigation into Hariri's killing implicated senior Syrian and Lebanese officials, but Syria refused to allow UN investigators to interview high-ranking Syrian officials, leading the Security Council to call unanimously for Syria to cooperate. Syria, however, vigorously rejected the vote and attempted to discredit the investigation, publicizing the recanting of one witness. However, a former Syrian vice president, Abdul Halim Khaddam, stated (Dec., 2005) that Syria had threatened Hariri and asserted that the assassination could not have happened without the support of high-ranking Syrian officials. (Khaddam, residing in Paris, also called for Assad to be removed from office.) Resistance to moving forward with the investigation from Syria's allies in Lebanon (most notably then-President Emile Lahoud and Hezbollah) blocked the Lebanese government from establishing an investigative tribunal and stalled any additional progress into 2008. By 2010, however, as the tribunal's investigation progressed, it appeared more likely to indicted members of Hezbollah than Syrian officials; in Apr., 2009, the four Lebanese officers who had been held since 2005 in connection with the case were released for lack of evidence.

Assad was reelected in May, 2007, by referendum (he was the only candidate). In Sept., 2007, the Israeli air force attacked a site in N Syria that some reports suggested was a nuclear facility under construction. International Atomic Energy Agency, which called on Syria to cooperate, ultimately concluded in its reports (2008, 2009, 2011) that evidence indicated that the facility was a nuclear reactor. Syria asserted the installation was a missile facilty. Also in 2009 the IAEA said it had found traces of processed uranium at another site, and it subsequently accused Syria of failing to cooperate.

An Arab League summit held in Syria in Mar., 2008, was attended by only half the Arab heads of state, as many sent lower-ranking officials as a protest against Syria's backing of Hezbollah and its allies in Lebanon. In Oct., 2008, U.S. forces launched a raid into Syria from Iraq in which U.S. sources claimed a key figure in the Iraq insurgency was killed; Syria denounced the attack, saying only civilians were killed, and mounted demonstrations against the attack.

Beginning in Mar., 2011, Syria faced ongoing antigovernment demonstrations in a number of cities similar to those in other parts of the Arab world. The protests were especially persistent early on in the southern city of Deraa; Homs, Hama, and many other locations subsequently became centers of protest. Only Damascus and Aleppo were largely free of protests. The government issued some concessions in response, including granting citizenship to thousands of Kurds in NE Syria, ending the 48-year state of emergency, and (later) allowing some opposition parties, but it also accused its opponents of armed insurrection and violently suppressed protests. There also were anti-Alawite attacks by government opponents. Antigovernment demonstrations nonetheless continued, and the unrest became more of a civil war as some troops defected and fought against government forces.

In September leaders of opposition groups announced the formation of the Syrian National Council. The Arab League suspended Syria's membership and imposed some economic sanctions in November. By December, when Arab League monitors entered Syria to oversee an agreement intended to end the violence, the estimated death toll since March had reached 5,000; additionally, many people had been arrested or fled to Turkey or Lebanon. The monitors had no apparent effect on the situation.

Bibliography

See S. H. Longrigg, Syria and Lebanon under French Mandate (1958, repr. 1972); A. H. Hourani, Syria and Lebanon (1977); A. I. Dawisha, Syria and the Lebanese Crisis (1980); L. B. Paton, The Early History of Syria and Palestine (1981); R. W. Olson, The Ba'ath and Syria, 1947–1982 (1982); M. Maoz and A. Yaniv, ed., Syria Under Assad (1986); P. Seale, The Struggle for Syria (1987).

Syria

Climate and Vegetation

The coast has a Mediterranean climate, with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. To the e, the land becomes drier. Only 4% of Syria is forested. Farmland covers c.30% of Syria, grassland makes up 44%.

History and Politics

Syria's location on the trade routes between Europe, Africa, and Asia made it a desired possession of many rulers. The area, including what is now Lebanon and some of modern-day Jordan, Israel, Saudi Arabia and Iraq, was ruled by the Hittites and by Egypt during the 15th–13th centuries bc. Under the rule of Phoenicia (13th–10th centuries bc), trading cities flourished on the Mediterranean coast. From the 10th century bc, Syria suffered invasions from Assyria and Egypt. The Achaemenid Empire provided stability. From the 3rd century bc, the Seleucids controlled Syria, often challenged by Egypt. Palmyra flourished as a city-state. In ad 63, the Romans conquered the region. Christianity was introduced via Palestine.

When the Roman Empire split in the 4th century, Syria came under Byzantine rule. In 637, Arabs invaded and most of the population converted to Islam. The Umayyads and Abbasid dynasties followed. In the 11th century, Syria was a target of the Crusades but, at the end of the 12th century, Saladin triumphed. Mongol and Mamluk rule followed Saladin's death. In 1516, the area became part of the Ottoman Empire. European interest intensified in the 19th century. During World War I, Syrian nationalists revolted and helped Britain defeat the Turks. After the war, Syria, now roughly its present size, became a French mandated territory.

In 1944, Syria gained independence. It supported the Arab cause in the Middle East, and has been involved in the Arab-Israeli Wars. In 1967, it lost the Golan Heights to Israel, and in 1973 tried unsuccessfully to reclaim them. A UN-patrolled buffer zone was established. The Golan remains a source of tension. In 1958, Syria joined the United Arab Republic with Egypt and North Yemen. Egypt's growing power led to Syrian withdrawal from the UAR, and the formation of a Syrian Arab Republic in 1961. The Ba'ath Party has ruled since 1963.

In 1970, Hafez al-Assad seized power in a coup, and he was elected in 1971. A new constitution (1973) declared Syria to be a democratic, socialist state. Assad's stable but repressive regime attracted international criticism. In the Gulf War (1991), Syria supported the coalition against Iraq. In 1994, Syria and Israel held talks about the Golan Heights. The talks stalled after Binyamin Netanyahu won the 1996 Israeli elections. The election of Ehud Barak in Israel (1999) saw the withdrawal of Israeli troops in s Lebanon, and Syria came under pressure to control Hezbollah forces. In 2000, Assad died and was succeeded by his son, Bashar al-Assad. In 2001, Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut.

Economy

Syria is a lower-middle-income developing country (2000 GDP per capita, US$3100). Its main resources are oil, hydroelectricity, and its fertile agricultural land. In 1990, crude oil accounted for 45% of exports, but Syria also exports farm products, textiles, and phosphates. Agriculture employs 23% of the workforce. The chief crops are cotton and wheat. Syria is rapidly diversifying its industrial base.

Political map

Physical map

Websites

http://www.syrianembassy.ca; http://www.syriagate.com

Syria. Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, this French mandate in the Levant sided with the Vichy regime after the fall of France in June 1940. In December 1940 General Dentz became the country's high commissioner and in May 1941, on instructions from the Vichy government, which had just negotiated the Paris protocols, he allowed German aircraft to land in Syria while on their way to support Rashid Ali's revolt against the British in Iraq. An invasion by Australian, British, and Free French forces followed on 8 June 1941 (see Syrian campaign). An armistice was signed five weeks later and the Free French commander, General Catroux, then became Syria's ‘Delegate-General and Plenipotentiary’. An independent Syrian republic was proclaimed by the French in September 1941 and elections in 1943 returned a large nationalist majority. Independence was finally granted on 1 January 1944, but the country remained under Anglo-French occupation. Rioting broke out on V-E Day and later there was fighting between the French and the Syrians which ended in Damascus being bombarded by the French. British forces then intervened, but it was not until April 1946 that British and French forces withdrew. See also anti-imperialism and nationalism.

Syria

The people of Syria are called Syrians. The Druze, about 8 percent of the population, are both a religious and an ethnic group.

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